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jlk5mJnporq8sutwvyxzq8suk5mlt{kp|$t{}mukpq8sukq8sJ~zkmgk,ortus{mg€knor‚ƒ}mux„o2qR€$vyq…mJ†ƒqXmuor~zxz€k‡8†$xˆ|…ktu‰kps^sukq8s
Š ~zv&‰v‹s{x„Œtuk Š t{}muxzm^suktvy†Žmuor~z~zxznpxswv‹suxzorq…mp
jlk5m‘nporq8sutwvyxzq8suk5mamuorq8s‘x’mumu†$k5m‘€=“ xzq2s{kptwvrnsuxzorqkpq8s{tuk&€kmd|;ksux„suk5md|ƒvytusuxzkmd€kR~’vŽ‰vysuxzŒpt{k
” nptux’m^s{vy†$,•‰o2~„k5n†$~zkmPz„ƒks{n&z„—–˜
j™“ }‡8†$xzš‹vy~zkpq8s›€kP~zvnporq8sutwvyxzq8sukd|…o2†$t†$qCœƒ†$x’€k|ƒvrt^žvrxsk5m0s~’v|$tuk5mumuxzorql
ŸC 2¡¢g£¥¤£7¦…¢¨§
© o2xsP†$qªnort{|ƒm muor~z~„x’nx„su}&|ƒvrtd†ƒqEkqƒm^k‰R«$~zk€=“ v2n˜s{x„o2qƒmd‰&}5npvrq$xz‡8†$k5mdkskpq.}‡8†$xz~„xz«$t{k
€$vrqƒm†$q¬tu}p¥}pt{kpq8suxzkpΩ~­$®Jor†s{kd|…vytusuxzkP€$k Ω k5m0skpq¬}5‡2†ƒx„~zx„«ƒtuk2

x
°l¯°l¯ °l¯°l¯ °l¯°l¯ °l¯°l¯ °¯°¯ Ω

© xo2q&npor†$|;k |ƒvrtg†ƒqX|$~’vyqnp€&‰ort{‰vy~zk |…vrm{muvrq2s|ƒvrtg~zk|…o2x„q8s ±•y~zkm €k†R|ƒvrt^s{x„k5m

Ω+
muxs{†$}pk€†np²ysuΩ}€kP~’vq$ort{‰vy~zk‘kps Ω muxs{†$}p→−nk€†¬n²rsu}o2|$|…o8m^}2•$m^o2q8skqŽ}5‡8†$x„~zxz«$tuk2
−

Ω+

n
z P ³ˆ´´ˆ³ ³ˆ´´ˆ³ ³´´³ T(P,n)
y

µˆµˆ¶ˆµ¶ˆµ ¶ˆµ¶ˆµ ¶ˆµ¶ˆµ ¶ˆµ¶ˆµ ¶µ¶µ Ω−

·
 k5m0s›kq¬}‡8†$xz~„xz«$t{kPmuor†…m¸~­“ k,ksR¹
º¼» k5km~’vk,norortuq8s{s{mt{vr‡8x„†$q8xlsuk~z†$−x−mu−or−q8−s−→kkkptwnkp}5twmpn}k‘kqCsuor†$s›|…o2x„q8s›±½€†¬|$~’vyq¬€kno2†$|$†$t{kr
Ω+

− −−−−−
º¼−» → k5m0s~’v€kpqƒmux„su}Tmu†$(P,t^žv2−→nnx’‡8)†$k€kmkp;o2t^swmkkptwn}5m|ƒvyt mu†$t
T (P, → n) Ω Ω + −

¾9¿ˆÀÂÁ$ÃÅÄ=Æg¿ˆÇ9§
jlkȚrknsuk†$tŽnporq8sutwvyxzq8sukkm^sŽ‚ƒor‰orÉ2Œpq$k Š †ƒq¼k,ortus9|ƒvrt9†$q$x„su}.€kEmu†$tužvrnpkor†½†$qƒk
|$t{km{m^xzorq•8xz~m“ kp|$tuxz‰kPkpq¬± vrm{npvy~’m
1P a = 1N/m2 , 1M P a = 106 P a, 1kP a = 103 P a, 1GP a = 109 P a
ÊË~=kx’m0s{kvy†ƒm{mux,€$km†$qƒxs{}m|$~z†ƒmkpˆorsux’‡8†$kmP¹
1T /m2 ' 10kP a, 1kg/cm2 ' 100kP a, 1bar = 100kP a, 1P SI ' 6, 9M P a
™j “ kp‰|$~zorxl€$knkm†ƒq$xs{}mk5m0sšˆxzšrkp‰kq2s›€}5no2qƒm^kx„~z~z}r
© xWkpq̆$qÂ|;orxzq2s±Ío2qÂk,knsu†$kC€kp†$Â|$~zvrqƒm&€kŽnpor†$|$†ƒtukC€k9q$o2tu‰vr~„k5m kps •Jo2q
or«$suxzkpq8sa€kp†$9šrk5n˜suk†$twmnorq8s{t{vrx„q8suk5m T (P, −n→) ks T (P, −n→) ‡8†$xlmuorq8s Š |$t{x„o2tu−n→x=€x„;}−n→tukq8s{m
Ιqπk†È|;orxzq2swmP±ÐksXÑH€l“ †$qª‰Òp‰k|$~’vyqª€kÓnpor†$|$†ƒtuk€kq$o2tu‰vy~zk orq.or«s{x„kq8s
1 2

€k†Žš2kn˜s{kp†$twmno2q2s{t{vrx„q8s{km T (P, −→n )ks T (Q, →−n ) ‡8†$xmuorq8s Š |$t{x„o2tuxl€x„,}pt{→−kpnq8s{m

1 2

jlkCs{ortwm^k†$tXt{}mu†$~„s{vrq2sӀk5mvrnsuxzorqƒm€k Ω mu†$t Ω |;or†$t†$qÔ|$~’vyqՀkno2†$|$†$t{k Π €$k

q$o2tu‰(vy~zk →−n k5m0s¹ + −

−−−−−→ R R −−−−− →
→
− )
FΩ+ /Ω− = Π
T (P, n)ds
−−−−−−−→ R R −→ − −−−−→
→
−
MA,Ω+ /Ω− = AP ∧ T (P, n)ds
ÈÖ × hJØ8Ùc;f$\0h`_‘ÚÏÛaÜAÝ`ÙJc;fˆÙJÜ × c,h`_¸f × e\u_¸fˆÙÞi
Π A

ß ¦…¢,¤ËÁ$£ž¢,¤5¿8ǎ¢J¦…ËÀÂÁ$à7¿8Ç¿8¤Ó¤5Á$¢gᅿˆ¢,¤£7¿ˆàžàž¿ˆÇ¬§
jkšrk5n˜suk†$t‘nporq8sutwvyxzq8sukmukR€}5nor‰|;o2muk
kpq¬†$qƒkPnporq8sutwvyxzq8sukPq$o2tu‰vy~zk σ ks›†$q$knporq8sutwvyxzq8suk‘s{vrq$Érkq2s{x„k~„~zk →−τ
n n

T(P,n)

τn
ãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãâãâ
ãâXãâXãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãâãâ σnn

ãâXãâXãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãXâãXâ ãâãâ

ä qC|…k†s›}nptuxztuk¹ σ = −T−(P,−−−→−n→) • →−n →−τ = −T−(P,−−−→−n→) • →−n − σ →−n
º jjvvnno2o2q2q2s{s{t{t{vrvrx„x„q8q8s{s{kak‘swq$vyo2q$tuÉ2‰kpvrq8~„suk xzkpσ~z~„k k5m0s†$k5q¬m0s›q$†$o2q¬‰Rš2«$kt{n˜krs{ kp†$t5
n n n

º
»|$t{vyoyqƒæ0kpmdsu~zkpktn~’vyvrkPmdšr€=k5“ †$n˜s{qEkp†$‚ˆt›åˆ|;nporoyq8su‚ƒsutwŒvymuxzk&q8su€kPkm^n†$τvyt~’n~z†$km›~šr|$k~’vynqsuk†$” |$t ~’vyq.kq$s or→−t{‰vy~ Š ~­“ v‹k →−¹z –‘q$or†…m‘|;or†ƒšrorq…m
n
n
→
−

→
−n t =→ −z ∧→ −n

ç
 t
n
éÂèèÂé éÂèèÂé éÂèèÂé τnéèèé
éèÂéèÂéÂèéÂè éÂèéÂè éèéè σn
éÂèéèÂéÂèéÂè éÂèéÂè éèéè

» yv qƒmnpkPnvrm~zkm›nporq8sutwvyxzq8τsuk5=m`q$To2(P,
tu‰vr→−n~„k5)m•ks→−ts{vrq$Érkq2s{x„k~„~zkmmuorq8s›€k5mq$or‰X«$t{km
−−−−− → − −−−−−→
σn = T (P, →
−
n)•→
n n

êP˦8ë5¿ˆìy¤5£ž¦;¢ÂÇ5ÆÃRíg¿ˆÇPˆìy¤5¿ˆÆËÇíg¿ÓïÁ$Ç5¿§ © orx„s †$qƒk›«ƒvrmuk ” o2t^s{‚$orqƒort{‰&}k

€xztuk5n˜s{k9swvyq8s‡8†l“ Š žvyxztukŖ˜•orqÌq$or‰‰k¬~„k5mX|ƒtuoræ0kn˜s{x„o2(qƒ→−xm&,€→−ykm&, →−šrzk5)n˜s{kp†$twmXnporq8sutwvyxzq8suk5mX€kC~’v
‰vyq$xzŒpt{km^†ƒx„š‹vyq8s{k&¹
z

σxz

T(P,x)

σxy y
σxx

 −−−−− → −  −−−−− → −  −−−−− → −

 σxx = T (P, →
 −
x)•→ x  σyx = T (P, →
 −
y)•→ x  σzx = T (P, →
 −
z )•→ x
−−−−− → − −−−−− → − −−−−− → −
σxy = T (P, →
−
x)•→ y σyy = T (P, →
−
y)•→ y σzy = T (P, →
−
z )•→ y
 −−−−− → →
→
− −  −−−−− → →
→
− −  −−−−− → →
→
− −
σxz = T (P, x ) • z σyz = T (P, y ) • z σzz = T (P, z ) • z
  

ð Ù_aÚ8ÙÜ × Û›ÙÚÌc,h`_¸f × e\u_¸fˆÙJÚÕi

© o2xs σ •8~7“ vy|ƒ|$~„x’npvysuxzorq9€$}ñƒq$xzk‘vr†Ó|;orxzq2s P ‡8†$x Š †$q$k‘q$ort{‰vy~zk →−n vrm{m^onpx„k›~zkaš2knsukp†ƒt
€k5mnorq8s{t{vrx„q8suk5m −T−−(P,−−→−−n→) 
P

5
k 0
m l
s $
† ƒ
q `
k y
v $
| ƒ
| „
~ ’
x p
n vysuxzorqd~„xzq$}vrx„t{k t{kp|$t{}mukpq8su}|ƒvrt=†$q$k™‰vysut{xznpk™€$vyqƒml~zv«ƒv2m^k (→−x , →−y , →−z ) ¹
−−−−−− −
→
T (P, → n ) = σ (→ P
−
n)
σ P 
σxx σxy σxz
σP :  σyx σyy σyz 

ä q¬‰orq8sut{kR‡8†$k km^s‘m^刉}s{tux’‡8†$k ”
σzx σzy σzz (→−
x ,→
−
y ,→
−
z)
–˜•;kp~z~„kRkm^s‘€orq…n€x’vyÉro2qƒvy~zx’muvr«$~„k2jlkm
š‹vy~zkp†$twm|$t{or|$t{km€k σσ muorq8s~zkmno2q8sutwvyxzq2σs{kmW=|$t{σx„q…nxz|ƒvy~zkm•~„k5mšrk5n˜suk†$twm¸|ƒtuo2|$tuk5m¸¥ort{‰&kq8s
~zktuk|…Œtukd|$t{x„qƒnpx„|…vy~l€k5m›no2q2s{t{vrx„q8s{km
P ij ji
P

ò óÍDKUWFDôSŽDöõ÷NøŽK
© o2x„kq2s kps ” –Ë~zkmXno2q2s{t{vrx„q8s{kmP|$t{x„q…nxz|ƒvy~zkm• −→ ks −−→ ~„k5mšrk5n˜suk†$twm
|$t{or|$t{kmPv2mumuσonxz}m•lσvy~zortwm‘σ |;or≥†ƒtσsuo2†suko2tuxzkpq8s{vysuxzorq.€kžvrnpks^s{k →−n X= cosXα−X→ + sin αX−−→
I II I II I II
I II

ù
~’vŽnporq8sutwvyxzq8sukRqƒort{‰vr~„k σ ksP~zvCno2q2s{t{vrx„q8s{ks{vrq$Érkq8suxzkp~z~„k τ mukRs{tuo2†$šrkq8sPmu†$td†$q.npkptwn~zk
vy|ƒ|…k~„}npkptwn~zkd€kúor‚$t5 n n

τ
τmax

σII C σn σI σ

−α −2α

τn

û ü¥ý`þ · º¬ÿ kptwn~zkP€kúor‚ƒt

º jlknkq2s{tuk€†nkt{np~„k C km^s`m^x„su†$}mu†$t ~­“ vyˆk€k5m no2q2s{t{vrx„q8s{kmgq$ort{‰vy~zkm σ Š ­~ “ vr«ƒm{nx’mumuk


σI + σII Tr σ
σc = =

º Šä q€ xztu|…kŽk†~zvEssuntworvrq8nps{kpt{t&vrx„~„q8k¬suk9nkq$t{ornp~„t{kC‰m^vyx~zkÓorqÌksn~zorvÈqƒqƒnv
or’sq8&s{t{†ƒvrq x„q8su|;kÓorxzs{q2vysqƒÉr‡8kp†$q8kps{~’nx„ko2~„qƒ~zk9‡8†$|;k¬or†$€t&†Ì†$npq$kpkŽtwnq$~zkror•t{‰ny“ kvym^~zks

2 2

|ƒvytusux’n†$~zxzŒpt{kr
º jvno2q2s{t{vrx„q8s{kaswvyq$É2kpq8suxzkp~z~„kP‰v‹xz‰vy~zkdk5m0s
σI − σII
τmax =

º ‰Rlj k$† mP~„suvrxz|$q$~zÉrx„~z}5kmmd|ƒ|ƒvyvrt t^swvyq8 sP€$†ªnpkpq8sut{k€†.npkptwn~zk€kúor‚$tmuorq8s}pÉ8vy†vy†$Evyq$É2~„k5mdtu}kp~’m

2

−2
 Ù × c=\^c,ÙÞi

ä q¬€orq$qƒk&¹  
σ τ
σ
τ 0
vŚrk5n σ = −3M P a ks τ = 2M P a (x y) →
− ,→
−

· ›®twvrnpkpt~„knpkptwn~zkP€$kúor‚$t
ç  ÿ vy~’n†$~zkptP~zkmno2q8sutwvyxzq2s{kmd|$t{x„q…nxz|ƒvy~zkmPkpsx„qƒ€$xz‡8†$kt~„k5mPort{x„kq2swv‹s{x„o2qE€k5m€xztuk5n˜suxzorq…m
|$tuxzqƒnpx„|ƒvr~„k5m€k~zvnporq8sutwvyxzq8sukr
ù  ÿ vy~’n†$~zkpt~’v¬š‹vy~zkp†$t€k9~zvnporq8sutwvyxzq8suk€k9nx’m{vyxz~„~zkp‰kpq8s‰v‹xz‰vr~„kkps~7“ ort{xzkpq8s{vysuxzorq
€kP~zvXžvrnpksusukno2tut{kmu|;orqƒ€$vrq8sukr
 ›®t{or†$š2kptP~’vnorq8s{t{vrx„q8sukq$o2tu‰vr~„kks~’vno2q8sutwvyxzq2s{k&s{vyqƒÉrkpq8s{x„k~„~zk|…o2†$t†$q$kӝžvrnkps^s{k
ort{x„kq2s{}pkd|ƒvyt~zkPšrk5n˜suk†$t →−n = →−x + →−y √

}5m^o2~„†s{x„o2qE¹
3 1
2 2

· ›jlknkq2s{tuk€†npkptwn~zkdk5m0s Š †$q¬|;orxzq2sa€l“ vr«ƒmunpxzm{muk σ

±go2†$t†$q$kdžv2nksusuko2tuxzkpq8su}kP|ƒvyt~zkšrknsuk†$t →−y orqvC¹ σ ==0 −1, kps τ5M=P−τa T r(σ)

ä qŽ|;kp†sa€$orqƒnds{t{v2nkpt~zknkptwn~zk¹
c= 2
y y


 u τ

x
−Π/3

Θx Θ2
σ
σII σc σI

τy
y

ûü¥ý`þ ç º¬ÿ kptwn~zkP€kúor‚ƒt

ç ›jlkRtwvÅåro2q€†Enpkptwn~zkRk5m0s R = pσ + τ = 2, 5M P a kps σ = σ + R = 1M P a •
2 2

© †$tl=~zk™nσkt{−np~„k™R€k™=ú−4M
or‚$t5•P~­“ vraq$Ér~zkkpq8sut{k →−x kps −X−→ km^s Θ = arctan = arctan =
c I c
σ II c
−2τ 4

j™“ vyq$13É2~„kdkpq8sut{k →−x ks −X−→ km^sa€$vrqƒm~zv&t{}vr~„x„su}¹ α = − = −26, 56

II x σ 3
o
53,
Θx o
II x 2

x
αx

X II

X
I

û ü¥ý¸þ ù º9» x„t{knsuxzorqƒm

ù ›jv.norq8s{t{vrx„q8sukC€knx’muvrx„~z~zkp‰kpq8s‰v‹x„‰vr~„kCkm^s τ = R = 2, 5M P a •gkp~z~„k¬km^s
or«s{kpqˆ†$kd|…o2†$t†$q$k‘žvrnkps^s{kdo2tuxzkpq8s{}pka|…vyt~„kdšrk5n˜s{kp†$t →−u suk~l‡2†ƒk‘~­“ vrq$Ér~zkdkpq8sut{k →−u kps
m^o2xs mu†$t~zknkptwn~zk€kúo2‚$t›vŚrk5n m^o2xs
max

→
−
~7x“ vyq$É2~„kdkpΘq8s{tuk →−u kps →−x km^s›€$vyqƒm~’vt{}vy~zΘx„su}&+¹ Θα ==−90 = −36,Θ 87= 53, 13
x
o o

 ›j™“ vyq$É2~„kdkpq8sut{k → ks →−n km^s›€$vyq…m~zvt{}vr~„x„su}&¹ α = Π/6 •$mu†$t~„knpkptwn~zk€kúor‚$t5•orq

Θ o
2

v Θ = −2α −=x −Π/3 

© x‘o2q¼|;o2muk ¹ Θ = Π − Π/3 − Θ = 180 − 60 − 53, 13 = 66, 87 •¸o2q v¼¹
n

ks
n n
o o
2 x
σ = σ + R cos Θ = −0, 518M P a τ = R sin Θ = 2.299M P a
n c 2 n 2