Focusing on one nation and up to two ballets, consider how

ballet been used to express national identity. (2000)

During the course of this essay I will show how Russian national identity is portrayed
in Stravinsky’s ballet, The Firebird, first performed by Sergei Diaghilev’s ‘Ballets
Russes’ in 1910. Russia lies between Asia and Europe, both geographically and
ideologically. Consequently, the idea of Orientalism as a western discourse permeates
Russian culture. Edward Said wrote that ‘Orientalism was ultimately a political vision
of reality whose structure promoted the difference between the familiar (Europe) and
the strange (Asia.).’1 It was this aspect of ‘otherness’ that intrigued the first Parisian
audiences and contributed to the success of the Ballets Russes. Furthermore, as a
melting pot of both east and west, Russia also has a strong Slavic history, from which
a lot of their folk tales and songs originate.

Diaghilev’s privileged background allowed him an education, which mirrored this

hybrid culture of European and Russian traditions. He spoke German, French and
Russian, and was therefore in a perfect position to travel Europe, where he met
composers such as Brahms, Verdi, and Wagner, from whom he took the idea of
“Gesamtkunstwerke.”2 Following this idea of a ‘Comprehensive artwork’ Diaghilev
employed leading artists to work on The Firebird; Diaghilev and Alexander Benois,
were responsible for production, Alexander Golovin, created the set and most of the
costumes, Leon Bakst designed and produced the Firebird costume and Michel
Fokine, choreographed the piece. All of these were relatively well-known Russian
artists, apart from Stravinsky, who at this time was almost entirely unknown to
Diaghilev, when he was asked to compose the music. The source of the libretto is
contested, although it’s subject matter is heavily rooted in Slavic mythology. It is a
culmination of these factors, amongst others later explained, that account for
Diaghilev proclaiming it the ‘First Russian ballet.’3

1
Edward Said (2001) Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient London: Penguin Books P.43
2
Jennifer Homans (2010), Apollo’s Angels: A History of Ballet London: Granta Books P.296
3
Charles Joseph (2011), Stravinsky’s Ballets Yale [USA]: University Press P.29-33
The story of The Firebird, whilst often credited to Michel Fokine, was actually
“stitched together” from Alexander Afasinov’s Slavic folk tales 4 by various members
of the production team. In brief, the story concerns Prince Ivan Tsarevich who must
rescue a princess from the evil sorcerer Kaschei, along the way he captures the
Firebird but releases it, an action which would later allow him to defeat Kaschei.
Stravinsky said that ‘[Ivan] yielded to pity, a wholly Christian notion that
dominates… the ideas of the Russian people’5 He went on to say that ‘…[Russian]
heroes are simple naïve and devoid of malice, yet it is they that are always victorious
over characters that are clever, cruel and powerful.’6 Both of these points show
Stravinsky’s awareness of Russian culture and a willingness to present it, but by
altering the story in a way that would give greater appeal to this audience, he
sacrificed authenticity. It was a conscious decision to yield to Paris’ preconceptions
of Russia and it’s fascination with the “exotic”. Järvinen states that, by portraying
Russia as ‘a land of naturally dancing barbarians’, Diaghilev created an “irrevocable
racial divide’ that deepened Russian stereotypes.7

On the other hand, Fokine, who adapted his choreography from the classical style,
associated with Marius Petipa, expressed the national identity of Russia, at that time. ‘
The arms would open up like wings … in complete contradiction of all ballet arm
positions.’8 This shows a rejection of Petipa’s ideologies and their association with
Tsarist Russia. Another way, in which national identity is expressed, is in ‘The dance
of the Firebird’ Garafola wrote that ‘Karsavina’s solo rests on a “… dichotomy ... a
juxtaposition of entrapment and struggle” which may be seen as representative of the

4
Jane Pritchard Geoffrey Marsh (2010) Diaghilev and the Golden age of Ballet: 1909-1929 London:
V&A Publishing P.77

5
Charles Joseph (2011), Stravinsky’s Ballets Yale [USA]: University Press P.33
6
Eric Walter White (1997) Stravinsky: A Critical Survey 1882-1946 New York [USA]: Dover
Publications P.25-26
7
Hanna Järvinen The Russian Barnum: Russian opinions on Diaghilev’s Ballet Russes 1909-1914
Dance Research 26/1 (Summer 2008) P.25
V&A Publishing P.77
8
Charles Joseph (2011), Stravinsky’s Ballets Yale [USA]: University Press P.40
social unrest regarding the aristocracy, as Russian citizens were struggling against
their own oppressive regime.9

The eponymous protagonist of this Ballet also expresses Russian national identity, not
only through its link to the prophetic birds of Russian mythology but also as Homan
states ‘…the firebird was remote and abstract, less a person than an idea or a force …
Above all [the Firebird] was Russia as Diaghilev thought the West imagined her.’
Consequently there was also a reform with regards to costume, instead of a tutu; the
Firebird was dressed in “Oriental pants adorned with feathers.” Again this shows a
decision to yield to Paris’ fascination with the east.10 On the other hand, the
groundbreaking choreography that inspired the dancing itself, came from an
American dancer named Isadora Duncan

A further aspect of this Ballet that richly exhibits national identity is undoubtedly the
music. A letter, which Diaghilev wrote to Anatoly Lyadov, a prominent Russian
composer, said, “I want a ballet and Russian one; there has never been such a ballet
before” 11 this evidences two points; firstly, that Diaghilev’s intentions were always to
write a Russian Ballet, and secondly, that Stravinsky was not his first choice of
composer. Although he had already begun working with Diaghilev, by re-
orchestrating Chopin for the Ballet Les Sylphides, he was still relatively
inexperienced. Consequently Diaghilev had already offered the commission to
Nikolai Cherpnin, Alexander Glazunov and Lyadov, amongst others, and it was
largely out of desperation, that Stravinsky eventually received the opportunity.

Interestingly, Korsakov taught all of the aforementioned composers and naturally

influenced their compositional style. This shows that Diaghilev was actively looking
for a link to the “Mighty Handful” (Footnote members) and aspects of their well-
established ‘Russian’ sound. They created this sound in two ways; firstly, by using
features that were already present in Russian music, such as parallel 3rds, 4ths and
5ths, which were associated with Russian Orthodoxy, and secondly, by using new
techniques and ‘branding’ them as Russian, such as; the octotonic scale, first used by
Korsakov in his symphonic poem sadko (1876) and pentatonic scales, which were
frequently used to create an eastern or ‘Oriental’ sound.
Stravinsky was aware of the Russian convention that, human or benevolent characters
are often portrayed with diatonic music, and chromatic music is usually related to
supernatural or evil characters.12 Taruskin writes, that by doing so The Firebird is an
‘exact analogue of [Korsakov’s] fantastic operas.’14 This shows that he is quoting
previous traditions, so the audience sub-consciously recognises the piece as
reminiscent of Rimsky Korsakov and therefore Russian. The octatonic pitch structure
of the ‘Infernal Dance of Kaschei’s Subjects’ is proof of this and further links the
piece to Korsakov’s Sadko and Scheherazade. Stravinsky later commented that the
“Infernal Dance” became synonymous with his barbaric [Russian] style.’15 This
further supports the idea that Stravinsky’s music was being received as nationalistic
and representative of Russia, but by promoting certain stereotypes, audiences saw the
‘Ballets Russes’ as almost 2
indistinguishable from the “barbarians” of their
productions.

Stravinsky’s music also includes various Folk melodies collected by his mentor
Nikolai Rimsky Korsakov and published in his Op 24. (1875-76) A good example of
this is the ‘Princesses Khorovod’. In this case the melody is taken from a song
translated as “In the Garden” from Korsakov’s Op 24 (No 79) As shown by figures 1
& 2 respectively This also supports my previous point as we can clearly see that the
melody representing the princesses is diatonic. A further reference to Rimsky
Korsakov would be the presence 3of Kaschei, which I believe was directly inspired by
Korsakov’s one act opera, The Immortal Kaschei as this character is not present in
any other legends of the Firebird.16 Although Taruskin’s research has found that a
poem titled Winter’s Journey (1844) by Yakov Polonsky, has a very similar plot and
17
characters, it would be difficult to ascertain whether or not the Ballet Russes based

9
Lynn Garafola (1998), Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes New York [USA]: Da Capo Press P.29
10
Jennifer Homans (2010), Apollo’s Angels: A History of Ballet London: Granta Books P.302
11
Charles Joseph (2011), Stravinsky’s Ballets Yale [USA]: University Press P.31
12
Stephanie Jordan (2007), Stravinsky Dances: Re-visions Across a Century Alton: Dance Books P.29
14
Richard Taruskin (2000) Defining Russia Musically: Historical and Hermeneutic Essays Princeton
[USA] University Press P.85
15
Charles Joseph (2011), Stravinsky’s Ballets Yale [USA]: University Press P.38

16
Jane Pritchard Geoffrey Marsh (2010) Diaghilev and the Golden age of Ballet: 1909-1929 London:
V&A Publishing P.77
their Firebird on this although Benois later said in his memoires that the story was
entirely original.

Furthermore the inclusion of Kaschei, whose soul is trapped inside an egg, is another
link to Slavic mythology. One Russian creation myth begins with the deity Rod
hatching from an egg, and even after the influence of Christianity, the significance of
eggs endured. This is evident in the fact that Easter is one of the main feast days in
Russian Orthodoxy, when they often exchange small painted eggs, called Pysanka.

Stravinsky also rejected the typically Germanic conventions of; Leit motif, associated
with Wagner, and the thematic development approach of Mahler and Beethoven.
Instead, “Musical ideas were crudely juxtaposed…there was a clear intention not to
expand or modify them.”18 Although there is some thematic material to signify the
presence of Prince Ivan, it is constantly in variation. This was a common
compositional approach of the “Mighty Handful” which involves repeating the theme
with different orchestration.

Stravinsky also filled his score with musical effects that would appeal to the
Parisians’ fascination with the “exotic east.” ‘The score was full of eastern stereotypes
such as; pentatonic scales, un-easing percussiveness, tuba glissandi, and trumpet
tremolos.’19 By doing so he is presenting his audience with what they perceive to be a
“Russian” sound by drawing similarities from Korsakov’s earlier Scheherazade, the
subject matter of which, also concerned the “Orient”.

In this review of The Firebird, published in the Musical Times (August 1911) Michel
Dimitri Calvocoressi, who had extensively researched the careers of both Korsakov
and Mussorgsky, wrote; ‘Stravinsky is one of the youngest, but also the best
representatives of the Russian school… [He] remains a true disciple of Rimsky
Korsakov.’ 20
This somewhat over zealous review shows that the music was being
received as Russian, and that it was in some part due to its connection with Korsakov,
that audiences heard it that way. However; Taruskin later explains that two of
Stravinsky’s contemporaries viewed him as “de-nationalised.”2145This is particularly

17
Richard Taruskin (1996) Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions Oxford: Oxford University Press
P.556-7
relevant, as it further shows that there was a definite difference between how the
Parisians and the Russian diaspora, living in Paris, viewed the work and it was exactly
this difference that Diaghilev sought to exploit.

Lydia Lopkova, a leading dancer of the Ballet Russes, explained the production
succinctly ‘Diaghilev had the cunning…to combine the excellent with the chic, and
revolutionary art with the atmosphere of the old regime.’22 It was this combination of
factors that truly expressed Russian national identity at that time. The Firebird was a
combination of east and west, and therefore reflected a Russian society that was in the
process of modernisation.

In conclusion, The Firebird may be seen to express Russian national identity in

various ways. Almost every aspect of the Ballet may trace it’s origins to something
truly Russian, but in each case the Ballet Russes altered certain points to make it more
appealing to their audiences, and in doing so perpetuated the myths surrounding their
nation. Finally, The Firebird marked a change in how Russia produced Ballet, instead
of attempting to adopt French or western traditions, they relied more heavily on their
own Slavic past, Homans said that it “reversed the flow”,23 as a result of this Russian
music permeated the works of Ravel and Debussy and helped to spread Russian
national music.

18
Jane Pritchard, Geoffrey Marsh (2010) Diaghilev and the Golden age of Ballet: 1909-1929 London:
V&A Publishing P.174
19
Charles Joseph (2011), Stravinsky’s Ballets Yale [USA]: University Press P.41
20
Richard Taruskin (1996) Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions Oxford: Oxford University Press
P.619

21
Richard Taruskin (1996) Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions Oxford: Oxford University
Press P.639-640
22
Jennifer Homans (2010), Apollo’s Angels: A History of Ballet London: Granta Books P.290
23 Jennifer Homans (2010), Apollo’s Angels: A History of Ballet London: Granta Books P.302
 Appendix
Figure 1 _ Princesses Khorovod – Igor Stravinsy The Firebird

Figure 2 ‘In the Garden’ – Nikolai Rimsky Korsakov Op 24 no 79

 Bibliography

Au Susan (2002), Ballet and Modern Dance London: Thames & Hudson

Garafola Lynn (1998), Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes New York [USA]: Da Capo Press

Homans Jennifer (2010), Apollo’s Angels: A History of Ballet London: Granta Books

Järvinen Hanna The Russian Barnum: Russian opinions on Diaghilev’s Ballet Russes 1909-1914
Dance Research 26/1 (Summer 2008) 18-41

Jordan Stephanie (2007), Stravinsky Dances: Re-visions Across a Century Alton:

Dance Books

Joseph Charles (2011), Stravinsky’s Ballets Yale [USA]: University Press

Lee Carol (2002), Ballet in Western Culture: A History of Its Origins and Evolutions
London & New York: Routledge

Nichols Roger (2002), The Harlequin Years: Music in Paris 1917-1929 London:
Thames & Hudson

Pritchard Jane, Geoffrey Marsh (2010) Diaghilev and the Golden age of Ballet: 1909-
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Said Edward (2001) Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient London:

Penguin Books

Stravinsky Igor (1936) An Autobiography New York [USA]: Simon and Schuster

Taruskin, Richard (1996) Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions Oxford: Oxford
University Press

Taruskin Richard (2000) Defining Russia Musically: Historical and Hermeneutic

Essays Princeton [USA] University Press

White Eric Walter (1997) Stravinsky: A Critical Survey 1882-1946 New York [USA]:
Dover Publications