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Introduction
Compressed air systems generate, store and distribute energy in the form of compressed air for
use throughout a plant. In a compressed air system, a single set of compressors can supply
power to machines all over the plant, thus eliminating the need for numerous and dispersed
electric motors. This advantage must be balanced against the relative poor energy efficiency of
compressed air systems, which can be as low as 20% when leaks and part-load control losses are
taken into account.
On a national scale, air compressors rank only behind pumps in terms of industrial motor drive
electricity consumption. Thus, increasing the efficiency of compressed air systems can result in
significant energy savings.
dWf = ∫ V dP
where motor is the motor efficiency, compressor is the compressor efficiency and control is
the control efficiency.
Three types of compression are shown below. The right compression line represents isentropic
compression, in which air is compressed adiabatically with no internal reversibilities. The left
compression line represents isothermal compression, in which the air is cooled to keep the air
temperature constant during compression. Isentropic compression has no cooling and
isothermal compression has the maximum cooling possible. Actual compression processes lie
somewhere in between isentropic and isothermal compression, and are called polytropic
compression. The area to the left of the compression lines represents the fluid work dWf = ∫ V
dP. Thus, isothermal compression requires less compressor work because the cooling is
responsible for part of the decrease in volume.
Some air compressors utilize two stages of compression with intercooling between the stages to
further reduce compressor power. The power savings from two-stage compression with
intercooling are shown graphically below.
Assuming that air can be treated as an ideal gas, it can be shown that
Pvn = constant
during the compression process, where P = absolute pressure, v = specific volume, n = 1 for
isothermal compression, n= k = Cp/Cv = 1.400 for isentropic compression of air and 1.0 < n <
1.400 for polytropic compression.
Substituting (Pvn = constant) into the equation for fluid work (dWf = ∫ V dP) and solving the
differential equation yields the following results:
Example:
Calculate specific capacities (cfm/hp) for isothermal and isentropic compression of 70 F air to 100
psig.
Actual compressors generate between 4 and 5 scfm/hp at 100 psig. The difference between the
thermodynamic values of scfm/hp computed above and scfm/hp generated by actual
compressors is due to the turbulence and friction generated within the compressor. Thus, this
difference characterizes the efficiency of the compressor.
Example:
Calculate the efficiency of a compressor with an actual specific capacity of 4.2 cfm/hp if the
polytropic specific capacity is 6.0 cfm/hp.
dW = ∫ V dP / compressor
compressor = ∫ V dP / dW
compressor = 4.2 scfm / 6.0 scfm = 70%
Control efficiency is a measure of the losses incurred to vary compressed air output to match
compressed air demand. In air compressors, control efficiency varies widely depending upon the
type of part-load control employed.
Understood in this light, the energy balance equation serves as a useful guide for energy saving
opportunities. Thus, primary energy savings opportunities are:
End use
– Eliminate inappropriate uses of compressed air (reduce V)
– Install solenoid valves to shut off unnecessary air (reduce V)
– Install air saver nozzles (reduce V)
– Replace timed-solenoid with differential-pressure control (reduce V)
– Use blower instead of air compressor for low-pressure applications (reduce dP)
Distribution
– Fix leaks (reduce V)
– Replace timed-solenoid drains with demand-control drains (reduce V)
– Decrease pressure drop in distribution system (reduce dP)
Conversion
– Compress cooler outside air (increase compressor efficiency)
– Stage compressors with pressure settings or controller (increase control efficiency)
– Employ on/off, load/unload with auto shutoff, or variable-speed control for trim
compressor (increase control efficiency)
– Add compressed air storage to decrease unload power and increase auto-shutoff
(increase control efficiency)
– Replace desiccant with refrigerated dryer (reduce V)
– Use heat from compressors to heat building during winter
The equation for air compressor energy use serves as a useful guide for comprehensively
identifying energy saving opportunities.
Like most systems, compressed air systems are designed for peak conditions, but spend
the vast majority of time operating at off-peak conditions. Thus, several energy efficiency
opportunities result from improving control to reduce unnecessary compressed air use
and power consumption during off peak conditions. Careful attention to “control
efficiency” is vital to achieving energy efficiency.
To achieve energy savings, many end-use and distribution system savings opportunities
must be coupled with modifications to the conversion equipment, which in this case is the
air compressor plant. Thus, the ‘whole-system’ inside-out approach is vital to maximizing
energy-efficiency potential.
Air Compressors
The three basic types of air compressors are reciprocating, rotary screw and centrifugal
compressors.
Centrifugal compressors compress air by accelerating air from the tips of impellors rotating at
high speeds into a volute. Centrifugal compressors are typically 250-hp or larger, and frequently
employ multiple stages to achieve the desired compressed air output pressure. Centrifugal
compressors control compressed air output by modulating an inlet valve or variable inlet vanes
on the air intake, loading and unloading, or blowing off compressed air to atmosphere rather
than into the compressed air system.
Compressor Controls
Compressor controls typically match compressed air output to compressed air demand by
maintaining discharge air pressure within a specified range. There are five primary control
strategies for maintaining the pressure within the desired range.
On/Off Control
In on/off control, the compressor turns on and begins to add compressed air to the system when
the system pressure falls to the lower activation pressure. The compressor continues to run and
add compressed air to the system until the system pressure reaches the upper activation
pressure when the compressor shuts off. Typical lower and upper activation pressures would be
90 psig and 100 psig. On/off control may also employ a timer to reduce short-cycling.
Reciprocating compressors typically employ on/off control. On/off control is the most efficient
type of part-load control, since the compressor draws no power when it is not producing
compressed air.
Load/Unload Control
In load/unload control, the compressor “loads” and begins to add compressed air to the system
when the system pressure falls to the lower activation pressure. The compressor continues to
run and add compressed air to the system until the system pressure reaches the upper activation
pressure. It then “unloads” and does not add compressed air to the system until the system
pressure drops to the lower activation pressure. Typical lower and upper activation pressures
would be 90 psig and 100 psig. When unloaded, rotary screw compressors typically partially
close the air inlet valve and bleed the remaining compressed air in the sump to atmosphere.
Power draw when fully unloaded varies from about 60% of full load power to about 30% of full-
load power, depending on compressor design and on the length of time the compressor runs
unloaded. To fully unload, the load/unload cycle time must be long enough to allow the
compressed air in the sump to bleed to atmosphere when the compressor unloads. Thus,
load/unload control works best when coupled with adequate compressed air storage, which
lengthens load/unload cycles while modulating pressure variation to end uses.
Modulation Control
In modulation control, the position of the inlet air valve is modulated from full open to full closed
in response to compressor output pressure. Modulation control typically employs PID control
with a narrow control range about + 2 psig. Inlet modulation is a relatively inefficient method of
controlling compressed air output.
Variable-Speed Control
Rotary-screw air compressors can be equipped with variable frequency drives to vary the speed
of the screws and the corresponding compressed air output. As in other fluid flow applications,
the variation of speed to vary output is extremely energy efficient.
Blow-off Control
In centrifugal compressors, the quantity of air flow through the compressor can only be
controlled by modulating the inlet air valve over a relatively small range. When flow is reduced
below this range, the flow becomes unstable in a “surge” condition. To avoid surge, centrifugal
compressors may discharge compressed air to the atmosphere to control compressed air output
to the system. Blow-off control is the least efficient method of controlling compressed air output,
since input power remains constant as the supply compressed air to the system decreases.
0.75
Fraction Power (FP)
Blow Off
Modulation
0.50 Load/Unload
Variable Speed
On/Off
0.25
0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
Fraction Capacity (FC)
Assuming linearity, fraction power, FP, can be calculated from fraction capacity, FC, and fraction
power at no load, FP0, according to the following relationship:
FP = FP0 + (1 – FP0) FC
Some compressors use a combination of basic control modes described above. For example, the
figure below shows the relationship between fraction of full-load power and fraction of full-load
output capacity for a compressor using a combination of modulation and load/unload control.
The top line shows full modulation control, in which the compressor continues to draw 70% of
full load power even when producing no compressed air. The bottom line shows a combination
modulation and load/unload control, in which compressed air output is modulated by the inlet
valve down to 40% of total capacity. Below 40% of full output capacity, the compressor loads and
unloads to vary compressed air output. In this example, the compressor draws 25% of full-load
power when fully unloaded.
Many centrifugal compressors employ some combination of these basic control options. For
example, the figure below shows the fraction power to fraction capacity curves for a centrifugal
compressor with “Constant Pressure” and “Auto-dual” control modes. In “Constant Pressure”
mode, variable inlet vanes modulate inlet air to the compressors down to about 70% of full load
capacity, and compressor power draw follows linearly. If compressed air demand falls below
70%, blow off valves discharge compressed air to the atmosphere and power draw remains
constant. Alternately, the compressor could be set to run in “Auto-dual” mode. In Auto-dual
mode, the variable inlet vanes modulate inlet air to the compressors down to about 70% of full
load capacity, just as in Constant Pressure mode. However, in Auto-dual mode, the compressor
will unload when compressed air demand falls below 70% of full-load capacity and compressor
power draw will be reduced to about 15% of full load power. The plot below shows fraction of
full load power draw (kW) on the vertical axis and fraction of full load capacity (cfm) on the
horizontal axis for Constant Pressure and Auto-dual modes.
0.9
0.8
0.7
Fraction Power
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fraction Capacity
Lubrication
In reciprocating and flooded-screw compressors, lubricating oil comes in direct contact with the
compressed air. Most the oil is removed from the compressed air stream in the sump and by a
separator. However, trace amounts of oil are carried forward in the compressed air. In oil-free
screw and centrifugal compressors, no oil comes in contact with the compressed air.
Cooling
The temperature of air increases during compression and from irreversibilities within an air
compressor. Removing heat during compression reduces the work required to raise the pressure
of the air.
Heat can be removed from the air compressor to the surrounding air or to water. Air-cooled
compressors pass the hot lubricating oil from the compressor and compressed air through finned-
tube heat exchangers and force ambient air across the heat exchangers using a cooling air fan.
Cooling fan horsepower is typically about 5% of the power of the compressor motor. Water-
cooled compressors use water-to-air heat exchangers to remove heat from the lubricating oil and
compressed air. In many applications, this heat is eventually rejected to the atmosphere by a
cooling tower. Increasing cooling by decreasing the temperature of the cooling air or water
improves compressor efficiency and output capacity.
In many cases, the relatively low temperature of the cooling air or water leaving an air
compressor limits its usefulness for other process-heating applications. However, the
temperature is typically high enough to provide useful space heating during winter. Thus, an
excellent application for reclaiming heat from air compressors is to direct hot air into the plant
during winter. About 70% of the electrical power input to an air compressor is typically removed
by the cooling system.
Primary compressed air storage tanks are generally sized to hold at least 10 seconds of
compressor capacity. For example, the recommended minimum volume of the primary storage
for a 25-hp air compressor generating 4 cfm/hp would be about:
Primary storage tanks can be located upstream or downstream of the dryer. Locating the
primary storage tank downstream of the dryer reduces the variation in compressed air flow
through the dryer caused by large variations in end-use demand. In many cases, this eliminates
problems of excess water in the compressed air lines due to excess flow through the dryer during
periods of high compressed air demand.
Dryers
The two most common types of dryers for removing moisture from compressed air lines are
refrigerated dryers and desiccant dryers. Dryers are typically sized to handle the peak air
compressor air flow.
Desiccant Dryers
Desiccant dryers adsorb water into desiccants and reduce the dew point temperature of the
compressed air to about -40 F or lower, which is much dryer than the compressed air leaving
refrigerant dryers. Desiccant dryers typically have two tanks. Compressed air flows upward
through the left desiccant tank where moisture is adsorbed by the desiccant (in an exothermic
reaction which warms the desiccant and air). After the desiccant becomes saturated with water,
the flow of compressed air is directed upward through the right desiccant tank. The left
desiccant tank is then purged of water.
Desiccant dryers employ three methods to purged water from the desiccant: compressed air
purge, heated compressed air purge and heated blower purge.
In compressed air purge, about 15% of the dry compressed air leaving the dryer is expanded to
about 45 psig and directed downward through the wet tank to purge moisture from the tank.
Example
Calculate the power requirement for compressed air purge for a 200 hp compressor
generating 840 scfm of compressed air if the compressor generates 4 scfm/hp.
Assuming the efficiency of the motor is 90%, the power required for purging the
desiccant in an unheated purge-type dryer would be about:
This example shows that the drying power requirement or compressed air purge is about 30 W
/scfm. This is about five times as much electricity as a refrigerated dryer would use; thus,
desiccant dryers should be used only in applications that require very dry air.
In heated compressed air purge, about 7% of the dry air leaving the left desiccant tank is
expanded, then heated by electrical resistance heaters to about 375 F, and then directed
downward through the right tank to purge moisture from the tank. According to product
literature, heating requires about 7 W /scfm. Thus, the total power required for heated
compressed air purge drying is about 22 W /scfm.
The purge cycles are initiated by a timer or by a humidity sensor that determines the whether the
on-line tower has additional adsorptive capacity. Timers are generally set to handle peak
conditions when the air is the most humid. In many parts of the country, the summer air
contains 4 more times more humidity than winter air; thus, timed cycles typically use for more
energy for purging than is necessary during much of the year.
Condensate Drains
As compressed air cools, water vapor can condense out of the air and should be removed from
the compressed air system through drains. Condensate drains should be located:
Regulators reduce downstream air pressure. Regulators have pressure gauges and valves to
adjust the downstream pressure.
Lubricators add lubricating oil. Lubricators look like filters, but have a clear bubble or screw
assembly on top for adding oil.
F-R-L groups are common locations for leaks and should be inspected regularly. In addition, if the
all machines in a plant or area use regulators to reduce air pressure, it would save energy and
compressor wear and tear to reduce the operating pressure of the compressor instead of
reducing line pressure with regulators.
Distribution System
The air distribution system includes headers, branch lines, hoses, valves and fittings. The
distribution system should be designed so that the total pressure drop from the compressor to
the farthest air-using machine is no more than 10 psi. Large headers serve both to minimize
pressure drop and increase storage. The most efficient layout utilizes a loop design for the
header pipe and a single compressor entry location. Typical rules for sizing compressed air
distribution lines are:
Pneumatic Tools
Most pneumatic tools are designed to operate at 90 psig. Operating at a higher pressure
shortens tool life. Operating at a lower pressure may compromise the ability of the tool to
perform its task.
Low-Pressure Blowers
Low pressure blowers provide compressed air at pressures up to 20 psig using much less
electrical power than traditional air compressors, which generate 4-5 scfm/hp when compressing
air to 100 psig. For example, a positive displacement blower requires 43 bhp to provide 310 scfm
at 20 psig, and 17.7 bhp to provide 423 scfm at 5 psig. The The specific capacities (scfm/hp) at
these operating conditions are:
Compressor Sizing
The determine the required output capacity of a compressor, find the sum of the scfm
requirements of all the individual equipment, add 10% for leakage, and then size the compressor
to meet this load. As an example, consider the following case:
Most compressors deliver about 4 scfm per brake hp. Sizing for the average and peak loads
results in very different compressors:
This example demonstrates why compressors are regularly oversized. Oversizing compressors
typically results in large first costs and large operating costs since many compressors have poor
part-load efficiencies. Partial solutions to the ‘part-load’ dilemma are:
Size AC for average load, but add storage capacity in system for peaks.
Buy multiple smaller compressors so the baseload compressor is generally fully loaded
and the part-load penalty is small for the ‘trim’ compressor. This also adds redundancy
for machine failure and servicing.
Buy a variable-speed compressor or reciprocating compressor with excellent part-load
efficiency.
To estimate leakage rates from compressed air systems at 100 psig, we use the following table.
The values in this table were computed from the S.A. Moss equation (Ingersoll-Rand Condensed
Air Power Data, 1998)
where C = 0.97 for a smooth edged hole and C = 0.61 for a sharp edged orifice. The equation can
be modified to show air leakage in standard cubic feet per minute at T = 70 F = 530 R and the
density of air at 70 F is 0.7494 lb/ft3 such that:
Input Data:
Leak: single 1/16-inch diameter
Compressor that uses 0.25 hp per scfm of compressed air
Compressor runs 8,000 hours per year
Electricity costs $0.06 /kWh.
Motor efficiency = 90%
FP0 for reciprocating compressor = 0.0
FP0 for screw compressor with modulation control = 0.70
Calculations:
Unadjusted: 4 scfm x 0.25 hp/scfm x 0.75 kW/hp / 90% x 8,000 hr/yr x $0.06 /kWh = $400 /yr
Adjustment for part-load efficiency: = Unadjusted savings x (1-FP0)
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback from compressing outside air instead of indoor air.
Input Data:
Avoided cost of demand $14.62 /kW-mo Avoided cost of energy = $0.02 /kWh
50-hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr
Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time at 480 V.
Compress outside air if inside air = 90 F when outside air = 65 F and avg outside air = 50 F
Cost of 16 ft of 3" PVC pipe w/ fg insulation = $50 + (4 hr x $25 /hr labor) = $150
Calculations:
Wloaded = 53 A x 480 V x 3 x 84% PF = 37 kW
Wunloaded = 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW
Waverage = (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback from reducing operating pressure.
Input Data:
Avoided cost of demand $14.62 /kW-mo Avoided cost of energy = $0.02 /kWh
50-hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr
Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time at 480 V.
Reduce pressure from 110 psig to 100 psig
Calculations:
Loaded power: 53 A x 480 V x 3 x 84% PF = 37 kW
Unloaded power: 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW
Average power: (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW
Percent full-load power when unloaded: 26 kW / 37 kW = 70%
P1 = 14.7 psia
P2high = 110 psig + 14.7 psi = 124.7 psia
P2low = 100 psig + 14.7 psi = 114.7 psia
Fraction savings: (3.9700 – 3.8763) / (3.9700 – 2.1553) = 5.1%
Loaded power, new: 37 kW x (1-0.051) = 35.1 kW
Average power, new: (60% x 35.1 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 31.5 kW
The fraction of time a compressor runs unloaded is determined by the relationship between the
capacity of the compressor and the demand for compressed air. If the compressor is under or
properly sized, it will run loaded most of the time. If a compressor is oversized for the load, it will
quickly raise the pressure to the upper bound of the activation pressure and then run unloaded
for an extended period of time.
There are two primary strategies for minimizing the time that compressors run unloaded. The
first is simply to purchase or operate a smaller compressor. In our experience, this is frequently
cost effective whenever a compressor is loaded less than half the time.
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback for replacing 50-hp screw compressor with 25-hp
reciprocating compressor.
Input Data:
Avoided cost of demand = $14.62 /kW-mo Avoided cost of energy = $0.02 /kWh
50-hp screw compressor generates 4 scfm/hp and runs 2,250 hr/yr
Loaded 10 sec and unloaded 35 sec.
Loaded = 71 Amps PF = 0.84 kW/kVA Voltage = 480 Volts
Unloaded = 45 Amps PF = 0.78 kW/kVA Voltage = 480 Volts
Calculations:
Compressor loaded 10 sec / 45 sec = 25% of the time, thus compressor is oversized.
Loaded power: 71 Amps x 480 Volts x x 0.84 kW/kVA = 49.6 kW
Unloaded power: 45 Amps x 480 Volts x x 0.78 kW/kVA = 29.2 kW
Average power: (25% x 49.6 kW) + (75% x 29.2 kW) = 34.3 kW
Demand savings: (34.3 kW – 21.2 kW) x $14.62 / kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $2,298 /yr
Elec savings: (77,175 kWh/yr – 28,620 kWh/yr) x $0.02 /kWh = $971 /yr
Total savings: $2,298 /yr + $971 /yr = $3,269 /yr
The second strategy for reducing the time that compressors run unloaded is to stage multiple
compressors so that unneeded compressors are turned off when not needed, rather than running
unloaded. To stage multiple compressors, set the lower activation pressure of the “baseload”
compressor a few psi higher than the lower activation pressure of the “lag” compressor.
Additional “lag” compressors should activate at increasingly lower pressures. For example, the
“baseload” compressor may be set at 105 psig, the first “lag” compressor at 103 psig and the
second “lag” compressor at 101 psig. If the compressors are staged in this manner, the “lag”
compressors never load unless the “baseload” compressor cannot meet the plant’s demand for
air.
This alone, will not result in energy savings since the lag compressors will continue to run
unloaded while drawing a significant fraction of full-load power. However, most compressors
have a “sleep” or “automatic” mode in which the compressor will turn off if it runs unloaded for 5
or 10 minutes. Staging activation pressures and setting the compressors to run in “sleep” mode
can dramatically reduce energy use while delivering the same system performance. This can be
done manually or using dedicated compressor control equipment, which can also be
programmed to rotate “baseload” duty.
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback for running 30-hp reciprocating as base compressor instead
of 50-hp screw compressor.
Input Data:
Avoided cost of demand = $14.62 /kW-mo Avoided cost of energy = $0.02 /kWh
Compressors generate 4 scfm/hp and run 6,000 hr/yr
Demand savings: (33.2 kW – 25.3 kW) x $14.62 / kW-mo x 12 mo/yr = $1,386 /yr
Elec savings: (199,200 kWh/yr – 85,008 kWh/yr) x $0.02 /kWh = $2,284 /yr
Total savings if 50-hp lag never loads: $1,386 /yr + $2,284 /yr = $3,670 /yr
Total savings if 50-hp lag loads and increases demand: $2,284 /yr
The net amount of heat added to a plant from an air compressor that is currently exhausting the
cooling air depends on the way the air compressor is ventilated. For example, consider the two
scenarios below where warm air from the compressor is being exhausted from the plant.
The first scenario is shown below. Figure 1A is the current ventilation in which outside air is
brought to the compressor then exhausted to the outside during winter. Figures 1B and 1C show
O O
Qc Qc Qc
Figure 1A, 1B and 1C. 1A is the current ventilation, 1B is proposed ventilation using outside air,
and 1C is proposed ventilation with no outside air.
If the compressor cooling air is currently coming from the outside and is exhausted to the outside
as in Case 1A, then the net heat from the air compressor to the plant is zero. If the proposed
ventilation system is to continue to draw cooling air from outside and then direct the warm air
into the plant, as in 1B, then the net heat into the plant, Qnet, is
where pcp is the product of air density and specific heat (0.018 Btu/ft3-F), V is the volume flow
rate of cooling air through the compressor, Qc is the heat from the compressor, Tp is the
temperature of air in the plant ad To is the outside air temperature. The second term in this
expression, V x pcp x (Tp – To), is a penalty for bringing more cold outside air into the plant.
Depending on the outside and plant air temperatures, this penalty could exceed Qc, in which case
the ventilation system would actually be increasing space heating requirements. The preferred
system is shown in 1C. In this case, no additional outside air is brought into the plant and the
Qnet heat gain from the compressor is simply Qc.
Another scenario where warm air from the compressor is being exhausted from the plant is
shown below. In Figure 2A, cooling air is supplied from inside the plant then exhausted to the
outdoors. The recommended system is shown in Figure 2B, where plant air is recirculated
through the compressor.
P
Qc Qc
Figure 2A and 2B. 2A is the current ventilation system, and 2B is the proposed ventilation system
that recirculates plant air through the compressor.
In Figure 2A, the compressor is actually adding to the space heating load by increasing infiltration
into the plant. The net space heating energy loss is:
If the ventilation system were changed to B, then the net heating energy gain would be the sum
of the heat added by the compressor, Qc, and the elimination of the previous loss.
Example:
Calculate savings and simple payback for using heat from air compressor to displace space
heating.
Input Data:
50 hp compressor running 5,000 hr/yr at 480 V
Measure: loaded (53 A) 60% of time and unloaded (40 A) 40 % of time
Initial ventilation as in 1A and proposed as in 1C.
Assume can capture 70% of input energy for space heat for 2,500 hr/yr
Natural gas costs $7 /mmBtu and gas furnace is 80% efficient
Calculations:
Loaded power: 53 A x 480 V x 3 x 84% PF = 37 kW
Unloaded power: 40 A x 480 V x 3 x 78% PF = 26 kW
Average power: (60% x 37 kW) + (40% x 26 kW) = 33 kW
References
1) Compressed Air Systems, U.S. Dept. of Energy, DOE/CS/40520-T2, 1984.
2) Cengal, Y. and Boles, M., Thermodynamics, 1998, WGB-McGraw-Hill.
3) Condensed Air Power Data, Ingersoll-Rand, 1984.