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Buku Chutes PDF
Buku Chutes PDF
SECTION 5
Leading-Edge Concepts
• Chapter 21.............................................................................. 340
Clean, Safe, and Productive Conveyors by Design
339
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 21.1
A new hierarchy for
design decisions is
useful in devoloping
conveyors that are
productive, safe,
service-friendly, fugitive
material-free, and cost-
effective.
21
Chapter 21
Clean, Safe,
and Productive
Conveyors by
Design
The Design Process.................................................................................... 341
Safe Design............................................................................................... 342
Clean Design............................................................................................. 343
Productive Design....................................................................................... 346
A New Hierarchy........................................................................................ 347
340
Clean, Safe, and Productive Conveyors by Design | Chapter 21
341
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
is quite different from the typical conveyor the entire conveyor (Figure 21.2). These
system provided today. barrier guards should be installed around
all pinch point locations and anywhere
In order to initiate a change to new, personnel could come into contact with
more modern designs—designs where moving parts. Barrier guards should be
cleanliness, safety, and serviceability are designed for easy installation and removal
also included in the initial design consider- to allow for authorized service personnel
ations—a new, more comprehensive view to perform required functions safely and
of how bulk materials are handled must be efficiently and to ensure the guards are
investigated. returned to place when the work is com-
pleted. (See Chapter 2: Safety.)
SAFE DESIGN Maintenance During Operation
Personnel are the single most important With many conveyors operating around
resource of any mine or industrial opera- the clock, scheduled downtime is at a
tion; therefore, engineers and designers premium. When handling bulk materials,
should incorporate functionality into de- problems occur and equipment fails prema-
signs that will improve safety. While designs turely, resulting in lost productivity, emer-
have changed little, the work-place environ- gency cleanup, and repair requirements.
ment has changed significantly. Restrictions
regarding lifting, requirements for lockout / Many safety standards around the world
tagout / blockout / testout, regulations on recognize that certain maintenance proce-
confined-space entry, and a host of other dures must be performed while equipment
safety procedures have been established. At is in operation. These standards allow for
the same time, there is increasing pressure exceptions to the rules requiring equipment
for continuous and ever-increasing produc- to be shut down for service. Exceptions are
tion. written so only personnel authorized and
trained for awareness of the potential haz-
Applying design principles to help ensure ards can adjust equipment that is in opera-
worker safety should include the use of bar- tion. Indeed, the trend in safety standards
rier guards and the implementation of new (as specified in the International Organiza-
designs that will improve the ease of clean- tion for Standardization (ISO) document
ing around and changing out equipment. ISO/EN 14121) is away from task-specific
21 Employee training for enhanced awareness restrictions toward risk-ranked restrictions
up to and including qualification require- based on a formal risk analysis. When a
ments should be instigated as well. case can be made that the risk of personal
injury of servicing equipment while the
Barrier Guards equipment is in operation is actually equal
In order to better protect personnel from to or less than the risk of personnel injury
coming in contact with moving conveyor while servicing equipment that is stopped
components, the trend is to install barrier and locked and tagged out, newer safety
guards (also called area guarding) around standards will recognize that the lowest-risk
procedure is the preferred approach.
Figure 21.2
Some conveyor belt system components
Barrier guards (also
called area guarding) require frequent service to maintain opti-
are installed to keep mal efficiency (for example, belt cleaners).
plant personnel from In the control of fugitive materials and the
dangerous contact ability to run a conveyor continuously, belt
with equipment.
cleaners are critical. Due to safety con-
cerns, most operations prohibit the servic-
ing of belt cleaners while the conveyor is
342
Clean, Safe, and Productive Conveyors by Design | Chapter 21
in operation. The inability to service a belt manner that provides as few flat surfaces as
cleaner can lead to carryback and spillage possible upon which fugitive material can
problems that create safety hazards. Belt accumulate (Figure 21.5).
cleaners and other conveyor components
can be designed to be safely serviced while Dust-Resistant Structures and
the belt is running. Specialized tools can Components
be designed and service techniques can be Cleaning around conveyors is a neces-
taught to develop authorized maintenance sity. By eliminating places where fugitive
employees or service contractors who can materials accumulate, cleaning require-
safely service certain components while the ments are reduced and simplified. Horizon-
belt is running (Figure 21.3). tal structural members should be angled at
45 degrees whenever possible in order to
shed material, thus making it unlikely that
CLEAN DESIGN cleanup crew members will have to reach
Clean designs are critical to operating a under the belt with tools to remove buildup.
safe and productive material-handling sys-
Structural members that cannot be
tem. However, in today’s normal industrial
oriented to reduce dust buildup should be
facility or mine, it is not possible to oper-
fitted with dust plates or caps to reduce
ate a conveyor system that is 100 percent
material buildup in hard-to-clean areas
free of fugitive material (Figure 21.4).
(Figure 21.6).
Poor initial designs, lack of maintenance
follow-up, variability of the properties of
Figure 21.3
bulk materials, conveyor overloading, and
constant wear on system components are Specialized tools and
safe designs make
strong contributors to unexpected releases belt-cleaner service
of fugitive materials. easier.
343
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
344
Clean, Safe, and Productive Conveyors by Design | Chapter 21
board provides structural support; raising it Conveyor belts often run to one side or the
above the normal flow pattern of the bulk other due to conditions such as off-center
material and implementing a small design loading, conveyor structure alignment is-
change to the skirt-seal clamps enables the sues, conveyor component alignment prob-
wear liner to be installed on the outside of lems, weather conditions, or a variety of
the skirtboards. The wear liner can also be other factors. Loose pieces of wire or rope,
made adjustable for accurate installation. used to tie off training idlers, in the vicinity
of the moving belt are safety hazards. This
Pulley Sizes issue can be exacerbated by changing con-
For decades, tail, bend, and discharge ditions or operator preferences that require
pulley sizes have been selected from tables an indexing idler tied off to hold the belt in
published by belting manufacturers with one direction in the morning to be switched
minimum pulley diameters based on to tie off the belt in the opposite direction
minimizing costs and providing safe stress in the afternoon.
levels for the belt. Determining the correct
In the absence of properly aligning the
size of pulleys should include consideration
conveyor structure, replacing and/or align-
of ease of access for service. A larger-
ing conveyor components that are causing
diameter pulley—one with a minimum
belt-alignment issues, ensuring the load
pulley diameter of 600 millimeters (24
is properly centered, or installing one or
in.)—would allow adequate space between
several belt-training devices to properly
the carrying and return runs for installa-
align and track the belt, these training
tion of a tail pulley-protection plow and,
idlers can be fitted with a mechanism that
if necessary, a return belt plow (Figure
allows them to be “indexed,” or locked into
21.10). The additional space that would be
position, without resorting to unsafe wire or
supplied between the carrying and return
rope tie-downs (Figure 21.11).
runs of the belt allows for easier inspection
of plows and provides adequate space for Conduit and Piping
the plows to eject fugitive materials from
the belt. A larger-head pulley at the belt Conveyors provide convenient paths for
discharge provides needed space for install- running utilities and electrical components.
ing belt cleaners in the optimal working For decades, utilities and electrical piping
position. The added cost of adding larger have been installed along the conveyor’s
pulleys is offset by the cost savings derived
by effectively controlling fugitive materials
Figure 21.9 21
Wear liner installed
and by requiring shorter down times and on the outside of
less maintenance. the skirtboards is a
simple modification
Indexing Idler potentially saving
thousands of
Belt mistracking is a major cause of spill- maintenance hours.
age; therefore, much attention is given to
belt-training devices in order to keep the
belt centered in the structure. In an effort
Figure 21.10
to keep the overall cost of a new installa-
tion down, training idlers are often supplied The tail-pulley
diameter should be
in lieu of belt-training devices on many
selected to have
new installations. Training idlers often end plenty of clearance
up tied off to one side or the other in an for installation and
attempt to either compensate for a situation service of a plow.
beyond the capability of the device or pro-
tect the device from excessive wear due to
the belt continuously running to one side.
345
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
346
Clean, Safe, and Productive Conveyors by Design | Chapter 21
347
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 22.1
Used to connect
one conveyor with
another, or to connect
a conveyor’s loading
or discharge point to
a vessel, engineered
flow transfers provide
distinct benefits in the
management of material
flow and in the control of
dust and spillage.
22
Chapter 22
Engineered
Flow Chutes
Chutes and their Problems........................................................................... 349
Engineered Flow......................................................................................... 350
Designing for Engineered Flow....................................................................... 353
Installation of Engineered Flow Systems.. ......................................................... 358
System Maintenance................................................................................... 359
Typical Specifications................................................................................... 360
Safety Concerns......................................................................................... 360
Advanced Topics......................................................................................... 360
The Payback of Engineered Chutes................................................................. 361
348
Engineered Flow Chutes | Chapter 22
349
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
material displaces air as the body of mate- known friction values. The gradual course
rial is diffused. The air passes through modifications will minimize dust generation
the material stream, thus dispersing and and center load the belt. This allows the
entraining the small particles of dust. The energy lost through friction to be calculable
traditional chute essentially can create a and accountable.
“chimney effect” by adding the dust to the
displaced and moving air. What is an Engineered Flow Chute?
Developed from sophisticated material
In addition, the receiving areas were
tests and computer flow simulations, engi-
typically small and unsupported, and they
neered flow chutes are designed to satisfy
released dust. When the stream of material
a plant’s operating requirements, so the
“crash lands” on the receiving conveyor,
material stays in continuous motion though
the profile of the material is compressed,
the transfer chute, with the material mov-
and the induced air is driven off. This air
ing as a tight, coherent stream.
takes with it the smaller particles of mate-
rial as airborne dust. A loosely-confined This will minimize the amount of
stream will carry larger amounts of in- induced air carried along with the stream
duced air, so more dust is driven off. If of material. As a result, there is less air
the material has been allowed to move released and less airborne dust created
through the chute in a turbulent stream— (Figure 22.2). In addition, the stream is
with what might be called “billiard flow,” directed or channeled, so the material is
where the lumps bounce off each other and placed gently onto the receiving belt, mini-
the chutewalls—the material lumps will mizing impact and belt abrasion.
degrade, creating more dust that can be
carried out of the enclosure. The material moves smoothly—like wa-
ter through a faucet. The material slides in
unison in a “fluid-like flow,” rather than al-
ENGINEERED FLOW lowing the lumps to bounce off each other
in the traditional “billiard-flow” fashion.
What is Engineered Flow?
Chutes with “engineered flow” are based Benefits of Engineered Flow
on the application of the principles of There are a number of benefits to accrue
fluid mechanics and an understanding of from the installation of an engineered flow
22 particulate movement. Engineered material chute in a facility. These include:
flow is based on controlling the material’s
movement as it exits a discharging conveyor A. Passive dust control
or a silo, bin, or hopper. The direction and They reduce dust escape while minimiz-
speed of flow can be steered through subtle ing, or eliminating, the need for active
changes by guiding it down surfaces with collection methods.
350
Engineered Flow Chutes | Chapter 22
351
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Settling Zone
Figure 22.6
By directing the The settling zone, typically installed after
concentrated the spoon on the receiving conveyor, cor-
stream of material responds to the conventional skirted and
onto the center of covered portion of the receiving conveyor
the receiving belt
with the proper
(Figure 22.7). This area is carefully engi-
22 speed and angle, neered to provide for optimum settling of
the spoon reduces dust-laden air and settlement of any air-
impact on the belt, borne dust, by holding the air long enough
belt abrasion, dust to slow its velocity. The settling zone typi-
creation, off-center
loading, wear on cally uses a higher, covered skirtboard to
wear liners, and other allow any airborne dust to settle out of the
problems. air, returning most of the dust to the main
material bed without being released to the
Figure 22.7 outside (Figure 22.8). The air currents are
The settling zone, slowed by the larger area of the settling
typically installed zone and the use of dust curtains within
after the spoon on the the area.
receiving conveyor,
corresponds to the Some system designers omit a settling
conventional skirted zone from their designs, using only conven-
and covered portion
of the receiving tional covered skirtboard designs. However,
conveyor. it is almost impossible to design a chute that
will handle every possible material condi-
tion. Therefore, it is safer to include the
352
Engineered Flow Chutes | Chapter 22
A. Feed system
a. Type of feed system (e.g., crusher,
vibratory feeder, stockpile, reclaim)
353
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 22.10
The designer of
engineered flow
chutes needs
detailed information
about the conveyor
system and the
material it carries.
Figure 22.11
The interface angle
of a transfer point is
a key element in the
design of engineered
chutes.
22
INTERFACE
ANGLE
FEED
CONVEYOR
RECEIVING
CONVEYOR
354
Engineered Flow Chutes | Chapter 22
f. Number of gates and purpose (e.g., d. Interface friction values for construc-
splitting the flow or changing direc- tion materials in contact with the
tion of the flow) bulk material
g. Interference due to surrounding
structure Design of Engineered Flow
Transfers
C. Receiving system
Engineered flow transfer chutes are de-
a. Type of receiving system veloped in a three-step engineering process.
b. Number of receiving systems Phase one is testing of the conveyed mate-
c. Belt speed rial properties and the interface friction val-
ues in relation to the belt and construction
d. Belt thickness
materials, to establish the material charac-
e. Incline/decline angle of conveyor teristics and its performance in materials-
(Figure 22.10) handling systems. After the various con-
f. Belt width veyor and material parameters are defined,
g. Type of conveyor structure (channel, the material discharge trajectory can be
truss, cable) determined using conventional methods
such as the Conveyor Equipment Manufac-
h. Trough angle turers Association (CEMA) method.
22 i. Transfer capacity
The second phase of the process includes
j. Belt/load support system
verification of current field dimensions and
k. Distance of conveyor to curve or development of preliminary engineering. A
interference for settling zone set of two-dimension conceptual drawings
D. Material conveyed and a three-dimension pictorial representa-
a. Material type tion of the chutework using 3D software
are created, and the flow characteristics are
b. Temperature ranges (high and low)
verified using Discrete Element Modeling
c. Moisture content (DEM) method.
d. Environmental conditions that af-
The third and final phase is the creation
fect material condition (including
of the final design, followed by the detailed
distance from source/supplier and
engineering and then, in turn, by the fabri-
location where sample was collected)
e. Material size
cation and installation of the system. 22
f. Bulk density Phase 1: Material Analysis
g. Interface friction The first step in the design of an engi-
h. Cohesion/adhesion properties neered chute is testing of the actual con-
veyed material that will be passing through
i. Particle size and percentage distribu- it. Information obtained includes mate-
tion rial composition and physical properties,
j. Average lump size and maximum moisture content, lump size range, and
lump size fines size. Testing usually includes analysis
k. Surcharge angle of the bulk-material strength at several
l. Angle of repose moisture contents—from “as-received” to
“saturation” level—to allow for changing
E. Construction materials material conditions. There are typically at
a. Chute construction materials least three different types of tests, includ-
b. Chute liner materials ing direct shear, interface friction, and bulk
density, at each of these moisture content
c. Tolerances for fabrication and instal-
levels. Direct linear or rotational shear
lation
355
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
testers are often used to measure the mate- elements. The forces, which act on each
rial flow and interface properties. The fine particle, are computed from the initial data
components of the material are usually and the relevant physical laws. Some of
used in testing, because the fines define the the forces that affect the particle motion
worst-case flow properties. include:
356
Engineered Flow Chutes | Chapter 22
design coming out will not be accurate. where the trajectory begins, and the
That is why testing of the actual material shape of the load. (A detailed discussion
to be conveyed, in the various conditions in of discharge trajectory can be found
which it will be handled—including “worst- in Chapter 12 of CEMA’s Belt Con-
case”—is critical. veyors for Bulk Materials, Sixth
Edition.)
Phase 3: Final Design
B. Wear
The use of computer-based modeling
techniques allows the quick and efficient Impact, corrosion, and abrasion are
turnaround of a chute design to meet the primary contributors to chute wear,
requirements of a specific belt-to-belt trans- which takes place where the material
fer. The 3D model is used to produce the stream hits the chute surface. Sliding
fabrication and installation drawings. abrasion is the passing of the mate-
rial stream along the surface of the
The completed engineered chute project chutewall. The amount of abrasion that
includes hood(s), drop chute, spoon(s), wear takes place is dependent on the differ-
liner, belt-support cradles, belt-tracking ence in hardness between the material
system, belt-cleaning systems, dribble stream and the wear liner and on the
chute, access doors, skirtboard seal, tailgate amount, velocity, and force of the load
sealing box, and settling zone. on the wear liner surface. Because the
design of engineered flow chutes links
Other Items the material behavior with the interface
Other items to be considered during at the chutewalls, analysis of impact and
chute design are the requirements for heat- sliding abrasion is important in control-
ers, insulation, access to the interior of the ling the shape and speed of the material
chute, lighting, access platforms, plugged- stream.
chute switches, appropriate guards, and
C. Tolerances
adequate space for replacement of belt
cleaners, flow aids, or other components. Even small differences in the instal-
lation of the components can affect
Other Design Considerations the smooth flow of material and air
In its simplest sense, a transfer chute through the transfer point. Manufactur-
ers’ recommendations for installation
should have internal surfaces that are suf-
ficiently steep and smooth, with rounded of components and materials must be 22
corners, to prevent flow problems—such as strictly followed.
material buildups and choking—even when D. Two-phase flow analysis
transporting material with worst-case flow
Two-phase flow analysis takes into
properties. Ideally, this geometry would be
consideration the movement of both the
governed by the effects of gravity only. The
material stream through a transfer chute
reality is that there are a number of other
and the induced air that travels with it
considerations that should be included and
into the settling zone of the receiving
calculated when planning for the installa-
conveyor. If the material stream remains
tion of engineered flow transfers. These
in contact with the chute surface—
factors include:
rather than bouncing off from it—there
A. Material trajectory is less aeration and reduced impact force
Calculation of the trajectory of the in the loading zone. During the chute’s
material stream as it leaves the discharge design phase, the analysis of the move-
conveyor involves consideration of the ment of both material particles and air
center of mass of the material, veloci- through the transfer chute enables the
ties, the point on the discharge pulley chute designer to minimize induced air,
which, in turn, reduces dust generation.
357
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
358
Engineered Flow Chutes | Chapter 22
x-, y-, and z-axis coordinates. The geom- In order to simplify the replacement of
etry of the points can then be exported liners, the chute should be designed with
to 3D modeling software packages as a an easy-opening flange system that allows
starting point for the development of chute one wall—in most cases, the back wall and
geometry. This will ensure the engineering liner-bearing wall—of the chute to slide
of systems that will fit within the existing away from its position (Figure 22.16). This
clearances. will allow more efficient access for inspec-
tion and replacement of liners inside the
In a retrofit application, before and after chute structures (Figure 22.17).
release of fugitive materials testing and
analysis can also be performed, allowing
Figure 22.14
the opportunity for performance to be
compared and for improvements to con- Pulsed-laser
technology is used
firm the justification for the project.
to scan target areas
and return a 3D
Flow Aids and Engineered Chutes “point cloud,” which
Even a well-engineered chute should looks like a detailed
rendering of a scene.
make provision for the future installa-
tion of flow-aid devices by incorporating
mounting brackets in the original design.
Changes in material flow properties, or
less-than-optimum design constraints, may
lead a designer to require flow-promotion
devices, such as vibration or air cannons,
in a given design. It is difficult, especially
Figure 22.15
in retrofit applications, to have the luxury
Including brackets
of an optimum design. Compromises are
for the installation of
often inevitable, because the locations of flow aids during the
the feed and receiving conveyors are set, initial construction of
and moving them would be economically the chute will save
unfeasible. Potential flow problems, caused money and time over
retrofitting a bracket.
by variations in material characteristics in
the future, can then be accommodated with
the installation of vibrators or air cannons. 22
Including the brackets during the initial
installation of the chute will save money
and time over retrofitting a bracket (Figure
22.15). Figure 22.16
To simplify the
Flow aids enhance material flow in those replacement of liners,
situations where compromises are made to the chute should be
designed with an
what would have been an optimum design.
easy-opening flange
(See Chapter 9: Flow Aids.) system that allows
one wall—in most
cases, the back wall
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE and liner-bearing
wall—of the chute to
An operation should keep accurate slide away from its
records of chute and liner design and position.
positioning to simplify the fabrication and
installation of replacement liners as they
become needed.
359
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
C. Volume
The volumetric design of the head
chute and skirted area will be calculated
to reduce air speed and turbulence.
Fugitive and respirable dust levels will
TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS
be greatly reduced through the settling
features of the design.
A. Material specifications
The material-transfer system will D. Access
incorporate belt-to-belt transfer chutes The chute will be fitted with an easy-
custom engineered to match material opening flange closure system to enable
specifications and flow requirements. simplified inspection and replacement
Through testing of material properties, of liners inside the chute structures.
the chute system will be designed to
provide the required flow rate without E. Settling zone
plugging and to eliminate the creation The exit of the receiving conveyor
of additional dust from the degradation will be fitted with an extended covered
of material and the entrainment of air. skirtboard system to form a settling
zone. The settling zone will incorporate
B. “Hood” and “spoon” multiple dust curtains to form a serpen-
Included in the chute system will be a tine plenum that reduces the air velocity
“hood” discharge chute and a “spoon” and provides time for airborne particles
22 receiving chute. The “hood” will take to return to the main material cargo by
gravity.
360
Engineered Flow Chutes | Chapter 22
relationship between velocity and cross- use a cost justification procedure to evalu-
sectional area. A designer must keep this ate its payback for the operation. Applica-
continuity relationship in mind when the tions in which there is a significant drop
velocity of the material needs to match the height from the discharge conveyor to the
speed and direction of the receiving belt receiving conveyor will usually warrant the
(Equation 22.1). Material velocity is influ- investment. Facilities that are attempting to
enced by many things, such as fall height, meet regulatory requirements or satisfy en-
change in direction of flow, surface friction, vironmental and safety concerns may find
internal friction, and instantaneous density the investment in an engineered flow chute
to name a few. These factors will alter the has a short-term payback. The additional
stream velocity in a predictable way, but investment required for an engineered flow
it is important to note that this change in chute over the cost of a traditional transfer
velocity will influence the cross-sectional chute is promptly repaid through increase
area of the stream. Conversely, the area in productivity, accident reduction, and
can be altered to influence the velocity. meeting environmental regulations rather
The cross-sectional area of the stream is than cleaning up fugitive materials, coping
vitally important when designing to prevent with plugged chutes, or tracking an im-
problems with chute blockage. properly loaded belt.
Looking Ahead…
THE PAYBACK OF ENGINEERED This chapter, Engineered Flow Chutes,
CHUTES the second chapter in the section Leading-
In Closing… Edge Concepts, provided information
about another method of reducing fugitive
An engineered transfer chute can be
materials. The next chapters continue this
applied in virtually any transfer chute ap-
section, focusing on Air-Supported Convey-
plication, so facility management often will
ors and Belt-Washing Systems.
361
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
References
22.1 Stuart, Dick D. and Royal, T. A.
(Sept. 1992). “Design Principles for
Chutes to Handle Bulk Solids,” Bulk
Solids Handling, Vol. 12, No. 3., pp.
447–450. Available as PDF: www.je-
nike.com/pages/education/papers/
design-principles-chutes.pdf
22
362
Engineered Flow Chutes | Chapter 22
22
363
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 23.1
Rather than the
troughing rolls used
by conventional belt
conveyor systems, air-
supported conveyors
support the belt with a
thin film of air.
23
Chapter 23
AIR-SUPPORTED
CONVEYORS
Basics of Air-Supported Conveyors................................................................. 365
System Components.. .................................................................................. 366
Advantages of Air-Supported Systems............................................................. 370
Applications and Installation.. ........................................................................ 372
System Maintenance................................................................................... 374
Safety Concerns......................................................................................... 374
Typical Specifications................................................................................... 374
The Right Conveyor for the Right Circumstances............................................... 375
364
Air-Supported Conveyors | Chapter 23
In this Chapter… return idlers may be used for the return run
This chapter focuses on the basic con- of the belt. With no troughing idlers, bud-
cepts of air-supported conveyors and gets typically designated for replacement of
applications for which they would be ap- rolling components and maintenance labor
propriate. We also present both the benefits needed to accomplish that replacement are
and drawbacks of their use, along with reduced.
information about the size of fan needed The plenum runs below the pan. As the
for various conveyor lengths and widths. top of the plenum, the pan provides the
One example of “leading-edge” conveyor form for the trough of the belt. The most
technologies is air-supported conveyor common and economical trough angles are
systems (Figure 23.1). Rather than the 30 and 35 degrees. The plenum can be a
troughing rolls used by conventional belt box or a V shape that sits on conventional
conveyor systems, air-supported conveyors conveyor structural stringers (Figure 23.5).
support the belt with a thin film of air. This These plenums can be modular to simplify
method of conveying bulk materials limits installation (Figure 23.6).
the areas of mechanical friction, which
Figure 23.2
results in a dramatic reduction in mainte-
nance and operating costs. A fully-enclosed, A fully-enclosed,
weather-resistant, air-
weather-resistant, air-supported conveyor
supported conveyor
requires less structural support than a tra- will minimize material
ditional conveyor, and it minimizes mate- segregation, spillage,
rial segregation, spillage, and dust (Figure and dust.
23.2). While not suitable for all applica-
tions, air-supported belt conveyors offer a
number of advantages, including a smooth
ride for the bulk materials and contain-
ment of dust. Air-supported conveyors, like
conventional conveyors, must be designed
by an experienced conveyor engineer.
Figure 23.3
An air-supported
BASICS OF AIR-SUPPORTED
CONVEYORS
conveyor utilizes a
stream of air to raise
23
An air-supported conveyor uses low pres- and support the belt
and cargo.
sure air to raise and support the belt and
cargo. The air is supplied by a low-pressure
centrifugal fan and released through a
trough-shaped pan below the conveyor belt
(Figure 23.3). A series of holes drilled in
the center of the pan along the length of
the conveyor—between the air-carrying
chamber (plenum) and belt—enables the Figure 23.4
air, supplied by the blower through the Holes drilled in the
holes in the pan, to lift and support the center of the pan
loaded belt (Figure 23.4). The edges of along the length
of the conveyor
a troughed belt act as a pressure regula- between the plenum
tor, automatically balancing the pressure and belt enable the
required to lift the load. The air film air supplied by the
eliminates the need for most idlers on the blower to lift and
carrying side of the conveyor; conventional support the loaded
belt.
365
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Plenum
The plenum, through which the air from
the fan flows, can be formed of plastic or
galvanized (or stainless) steel troughs, sized
to match the belting required for the con-
veyor application.
Air Supply
The air to support the belt is provided by
one or more centrifugal fans (Figure 23.7).
Figure 23.8 The typical conveyor of less than 180 me-
A plant may specify ters (600 ft) requires a single fan, although
the installation of a a plant may specify the installation of a
redundant, or back- redundant, or back-up, unit to assure con-
up, fan to assure veyor operation in the event of a fan failure
conveyor operation
in the event of a fan (Figure 23.8).
failure.
It is important the air supply to support
the belt is sufficient to handle the entire
range of loading conditions for that par-
ticular conveyor. The number of blowers
required depends on both the length of
the conveyor and the width of the belt. For
366
Air-Supported Conveyors | Chapter 23
long conveyors, more than one air supply fans, they should be located equidistant
may be required to prevent loss of volume from each other and from the head and tail
and static pressure. The volume of air is of the conveyor.
minimal, because the thickness of the air
film required to raise the belt is only 1 to 2 The fan is controlled by a pressure
millimeters (0.04 to 0.08 in.). switch, typically located at the conveyor’s
head section, close to the electric supply,
The size of the centrifugal blower to save conduit and labor costs. The fan is
required depends on the width of the belt interlocked with the conveyor, so the fan
and the length of the conveyor, with sizes must be running before the drive can start.
ranging from 2,5 to 12 kilowatt (3 to 15 hp) The conveyor’s normal start up procedure
common (Table 23.1). Direct-drive fans as is to start the fan first and allow it to come
specified improve efficiency and reduce the up to pressure before engaging the drive
maintenance problems that can arise with motor. If the fan fails to start or come up to
mechanical couplings. In hazardous-duty pressure, the pressure switch will sense low
situations, such as handling grain or coal, air pressure, and the conveyor will not run.
no-spark blades and hazardous-duty mo-
tors must be specified. The intake air for the fan should be from
Typical Sizes for Centrifugal Fans Used with Air-Supported Belt Table 23.1
Conveyors
23
Belt Width Conveyor Length
Up to 45 m 45-90 m 90-140 m 140-185 m
mm (in.)
(150 ft) (150-300 ft) (300-450 ft) (450-600 ft)
500-650 (24) Fan Size A Fan Size B Fan Size C Fan Size D
650-800 (30) Fan Size A Fan Size B Fan Size C Fan Size D
800-1000 (36) Fan Size A Fan Size B Fan Size C Fan Size D
1000-1200 (42) Fan Size A Fan Size B Fan Size C Fan Size D
1200-1400 (48) Fan Size A Fan Size B Fan Size C Fan Size D
1400-1600 (54) Fan Size A Fan Size B Fan Size C Fan Size D
1600-1800 (60) Fan Size B Fan Size C Fan Size D Fan Size D
1800-2000 (72) Fan Size B Fan Size C Fan Size D Fan Size D
Fan Size Power Output
Metric measurements and fan size ratings are con-
Fan Size A 2,5 kW (3 hp) versions of Imperial specifications.
Fan Size B 6 kW (7.5 hp)
Fan size represents the size of the centrifugal fan
Fan Size C 7,5 kW (10 hp) only (which supplies air to raise belt and reduce
Fan Size D 12 kW (15 hp) friction). It does NOT include conveyor drive power.
367
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
a fresh air source and filtered to reduce Roller return systems may be preferred
buildup of dust in the fan and pan. In some in applications where optimal belt-cleaner
cases, the air must be heated to avoid con- performance cannot be maintained, be-
densation, which can cause the belt to stick cause fugitive material can interfere with
to the pan or allow fines to choke the holes the operations of the air-supported return.
in the pan. Return rollers can be hung from brack-
ets below the conveyor or enclosed in the
Conventional or Air-Supported structure below the air-supported plenum.
Return A typical return run has idlers installed
The return run of an air-supported con- every 3 meters (10 ft).
veyor may also be air supported (Figure
Enclosing an air-supported conveyor’s
23.10), or it may have traditional return
return run is recommended only when
idlers (Figure 23.11).
contamination is a critical problem. An en-
Without the idlers on the return side, closed return run can use as much energy
a completely air-supported conveyor has as the carrying side, and the cost of the
reduced maintenance costs. In fact, this enclosure often outweighs any benefit. In
system may allow the elimination of walk- addition, there is the problem of accumu-
ways along the conveyor, due to its minimal lation of dust and fines in the return-run
maintenance requirements. Because an chamber. It is usually more economical to
air-supported return run is totally enclosed install and maintain a good belt-cleaning
and the belt is visible only at the head and system. On an air-supported return run,
tail of the conveyor, it can provide a cleaner the belt tends to want to lift in the center,
system. and the edges touch the pan if the belt is
not of the proper stiffness. It is sometimes
difficult to balance the airflow and pressure
Figure 23.10
required for the return run and the carry-
An air-supported
ing run with one fan. Air support of the
belt conveyor may
incorporate an air- conveyor return also increases the cost of
supported return fabrication. The cost of an effective belt-
side. cleaning system and related maintenance
is usually much less than the added cost of
enclosing the return run.
23
Support Structure for Air-
Supported Conveyors
Compared to conventional stringer or
truss conveyors, air-supported conveyors
can span longer distances with less struc-
ture because of the structural strength of
Figure 23.11 the air-supported system plenum/pans
The return run of (Figure 23.12). This provides the benefit
an air-supported
of reducing the capital investment in the
conveyor may have
traditional return conveyor system.
idlers.
In a traditional conveyor, for example,
a support pier is required approximately
every 15 meters (50 ft). Because of the
strength of its plenums, an air-supported
conveyor may require fewer support piers,
thus reducing the investment in concrete
pillars and structural steel. In one example,
368
Air-Supported Conveyors | Chapter 23
369
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
fer-point components (e.g., impact cradles belt and vertical steel in skirtboards or wear
and impact idlers) to cushion impact in the liners. These pinch points can catch mate-
loading zone, and then switch to the air- rial that can then abrade the belt surface.
supported system outside the loading zone. In many cases, the sealing system is blamed
Sections of conventional conveyor can be for belt damage, when it is material entrap-
easily inserted in air-supported-conveyor ment that has actually caused this abrasion.
systems to allow the use of accessories such
as scales. It is still important to have the As air-supported conveyors use a pan
load properly centered in the air-supported rather than rollers to create the belt line,
portion of these hybrid systems. they present a smooth surface and level belt
line that when combined with center load-
ing may allow the elimination of skirtboard
ADVANTAGES OF AIR-SUPPORTED
and sealing systems. Stable belt support
SYSTEMS
and the elimination of skirtboards prevent
The Benefit of a Smooth Ride entrapment points that allow material to
Traditional belt-support systems in load become wedged or jammed.
zones consist of standard or impact idlers On conveyors with a steep incline, the
(rollers) that are placed as close together as movement of the belt over the idlers may
possible. Even in the best of installations, disturb the material sufficiently that it
however, the troughing idlers provide a less- causes lumps of material to roll back down
than-perfect belt line. The material follows the conveyor as the belt progresses up the
a path similar to a roller coaster (Figure incline. With its stable path, the air-sup-
23.14). The belt moves up and down as it ported conveyor eliminates the disturbance
crosses over the idlers. This up and down of the cargo as it goes over the rollers in a
motion agitates the material, allowing some conventional conveyor. This smooth path
particles to become airborne, causing the will allow the air-supported conveyors
material to segregate by size, or pushing to operate at a steeper angle than roller
some material to the outsides of the belt conveyors. This benefit is of interest to
where it can be spilled from the belt. operations handling bulk materials that
If the rolls are spaced just 225 milli- tend to roll back on the conveyor. A typical
meters (9 in.) apart, the belt can still sag gain in slope is three degrees. This increase
between rollers, allowing dust and spillage in angle acts to reduce the overall length
23 to escape from the belt. In addition, this of the conveyor, reducing the installed cost
when compared to a roller conveyor.
sag creates entrapment points between the
Figure 23.14
The idlers of a
conventional
conveyor provide a
less-than-perfect belt
line, so the material
follows a “roller
coaster” path. An air-
supported conveyor
uses a troughed pan
to provide a smooth,
stable ride for the belt
and cargo.
370
Air-Supported Conveyors | Chapter 23
A. Effective Dust Control: When the air- G. Retrofit Availability: New designs allow
supported system is utilized from the loading air-supported conveyors to be installed on
area to the head chute, total dust control can existing (conventional conveyor) stringer and
be achieved. support systems. Air-supported and conven-
B. Improved Belt Tracking: Air-supported tional roller sections can be mixed in a single
conveyors have self-centering action. conveyor, to allow for loading zones, tracking
idlers, belt scales, or other requirements.
C. Stable Belt Path: Troughing idlers spaced
along the conveyor create hills and valleys in H. Improved Product Condition: An air-
the belt line where the cargo is agitated and supported belt is gentle to the cargo. There is
begins to segregate; the fines end up on the no bumpy “roller coaster” ride over the idlers,
bottom and larger pieces on top. The air- so there is no material segregation, no product
supported conveyor offers a smooth ride for degradation, and no breakage. Because the
the cargo, with less spillage, segregation, and conveyor is fully enclosed, there is no contami-
degradation of material. nation of conveyed material.
F. No Skirtboard Seal: No skirting is required K. Improved Safety: The system has fewer
in the loading area, because the chutewall/ moving parts that pose risk to workers.
wear liner forms a barrier to contain the mate-
rial being loaded.
Drawbacks 23
A. Required Engineered Belt-Cleaning E. Limitations in Impact Loading: Impact
Systems: Air-supported conveyors require must be minimized in the loading zone, or
aggressive belt-cleaning systems to ensure plenum damage will occur.
carryback is controlled. Carryback may also F. Higher Initial Investment: The initial
blind the air supply holes when allowed into cost is higher than for a conventional conveyor
the plenum area. system.
B. Tracking Affected by Material Ac- G. Reduced Access for Observation: The
cumulation: Belt tracking can be affected conveyor is totally enclosed, so it is difficult to
by fugitive material building up on system inspect cargo or interior of system.
components.
H. Unsuitability for Heavy-Duty Applica-
C. Necessary Center Loading: The air- tions: The system may not be suitable for
supported conveyor must be center-loaded, or heavy-duty applications.
belt mistracking will occur. No belt tracking
devices can be installed within the air-support- I. Reduced Margin for Error in Design or
ed system. Installation: Success of installation may de-
pend on belt path and joints between plenum/
D. Required Stable Flow: Surges of material pans.
must be avoided, because the system is totally
enclosed and blockage and system shut down
could occur.
371
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
conveying system that may prevent gen- side of the conveyor. A properly designed
erated dust from being expelled into the air-supported system is totally enclosed on
environment (Figure 23.15). Air-supported its carrying side; consequently, there are no
conveyors generally need a smaller dust- outside influences to “fluff ” the material or
collection system, such as an insertable blow it off the belt.
collector, than comparable conventional
conveyors and transfer points (Figure As the length of the enclosure created
23.16). by the air-supported conveyor system is
increased, the airborne dust gains more
“Hood style” conveyor covers installed time to “settle out” and return to the bed
over the trough side of conventional con- of material on the belt. As a result, air-sup-
veyor belts will not prevent the wind from ported conveyors are well suited for carry-
blowing material off the belt, but in many ing materials that present fire or explosion
cases, the air velocity will be increased hazards, including pulverized coal or grain.
due to wind rushing up from the return
To improve dust control, some opera-
Figure 23.15 tions select air-supported conveyors that are
A well-designed and
fully enclosed on both the top and bottom
properly-installed strands of the belt and also on the take-
air-supported belt up tower (Figure 23.17). Total enclosure
conveyor is totally of the conveyor’s load-carrying side will
enclosed on its improve the performance of dust-collector
carrying side to limit
the escape of dust. systems, because it will reduce to a mini-
mum the open area and prevent outside air
from entering the collector’s intake.
372
Air-Supported Conveyors | Chapter 23
373
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
upgrade portions of existing belt conveyor It is essential that the belt-cleaning sys-
systems. It is possible to convert an existing tem on an air-supported conveyor function
conveyor to the air-supported system with- at an optimum level to eliminate fugitive
out taking the whole conveyor off-line by material. Effective belt cleaning is even
installing one section at a time. The fan is more important on a system with an air-
sized for the completed installation and the supported return to prevent material resi-
airflow adjusted with a damper to match due from building up on the return plenum
the number of sections installed. or choking the air holes in the pan.
For greenfield projects (new construc- If the air holes become plugged, they
tion), the air-supported conveyor plenums can be cleaned by blowing them out with
may be integrated into the conveyor sup- compressed air, or, in a worst case, by
port structure. re-drilling. In extreme cases, new plenum
holes can be drilled with the belt in place
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE by drilling through the belt and plenum
and then covering the holes in the belt with
By eliminating (or nearly eliminating) the an elastomer patch.
idlers on an air-supported conveyor, the
expense of both the replacement rolling Regular maintenance of the intake air
components and the manhours of labor filter is required to maintain fan output.
required to maintain the system is signifi-
cantly reduced.
TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Another opportunity for reduced ex-
penses for maintenance and replacement A. Design
components is the elimination of a skirt- The bulk-materials handling system will
board-sealing system. With their stable belt incorporate an air-supported conveyor
path, air-supported conveyors will allow the system. This air-supported belt conveyor
placement of wear liners very close to the will be designed by an experienced
belt. This might eliminate the need for a conveyor engineer and constructed to
skirtboard-sealing system, or at least reduce CEMA standards.
the length of the system required.
23
Safety Conc erns
374
Air-Supported Conveyors | Chapter 23
E. Retrofit applications
The structural integrity of the plenum THE RIGHT CONVEYOR FOR THE
shall allow its use in retrofit applications RIGHT CIRCUMSTANCES
without requiring modification/re-en- In Closing…
gineering/reinforcement of the existing
While not suitable for all circumstances,
conveyor structure.
air-supported belt conveyors offer sig-
F. Enclosed carrying side nificant improvements over conventional
Constructed of galvanized mild (or conveyors, including improved control of
stainless) steel, this air-supported con- dust and spillage. The key to a successful
veyor assembly will be totally enclosed air-supported conveyor system is a com-
on the belt’s carrying side to prevent the mitment to provide suitable belt loading
release of fugitive material. The struc- conditions. By addressing concerns such 23
ture will be modular in construction to as high-impact or off-center loading with
simplify installation. the installation of load-centering spoons,
a plant may reap the benefits of clean, ef-
G. Loading zone ficient, low-maintenance air-supported con-
The loading zone of the air-supported veying. Air-supported belt conveyors can
belt conveyor will incorporate an engi- be particularly beneficial when installed in
neered chute system to load the mate- combination with engineered flow loading
rial onto the conveyor with centralized chutes.
placement and minimal impact levels.
Looking Ahead…
Proper placement of the material will
allow material loading without requiring This chapter about Air-Supported
rubber skirting. Conveyors, the third chapter in the section
Leading-Edge Concepts, explained how
H. Belt cleaning they can improve control of dust and spill-
The air-supported conveyor will in- age. The following chapter continues this
corporate a suitable multiple-element section, focusing on Belt-Washing Systems.
375
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 24.1
Perhaps the most
effective way to clean
a conveyor belt is
with a combination of
conventional cleaners
and a wash-box system.
24
Chapter 24
Belt-Washing
Systems
Belt Washing for Final Cleaning..................................................................... 377
Wash-Box Systems.. .................................................................................... 381
Typical Specifications................................................................................... 390
Advanced Topics......................................................................................... 391
On the Design of Belt-Washing Systems.......................................................... 394
Safety Concerns......................................................................................... 395
376
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
Figure 24.2
Belt Washing for Final The typical belt-
Cleaning washing system
contains water-spray
Water in the Belt-Cleaning Process bars or nozzles, belt-
cleaning devices,
Water assists the belt-cleaning process and possibly a
in a number of ways. (See Chapter 14: Belt belt-drying system.
Cleaning.) The addition of water to the belt- It also includes
cleaning process has its own drawbacks, but arrangements for
handling discharge
ones that can be overcome with other belt-
of the effluent and for
washing system components and features. separation, recycling,
With the proper design, a belt-washing and/or disposal of the
system can dramatically reduce the amount water and removed
of material that is carried back through the material, along
with an enclosure,
conveyor system. sealing components,
controls, and access.
377
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Many plants or operations will be reluc- general. However, washing systems are
tant to add water into the material-han- technically more sophisticated and are far
dling system at any point, mainly because more effective than traditional mechanical
of a somewhat limited understanding of methods of belt cleaning. Water improves
the effect water has on the flow of bulk the effectiveness of a cleaning system in a
materials. While it is true that an increase number of ways:
in the moisture content of the bulk material
can have a dramatic effect on the behavior A. Water “softens” the bulk material, mak-
of the material that is detrimental to other ing it easier to remove.
processes and handling equipment, the B. Water keeps the belt-cleaner blades free
amount of water added to the system for from buildup, maximizing their cleaning
carryback removal is very small in propor- efficiency.
tion to the total conveyed cargo. Carryback C. Water reduces friction between the belt
causes far more problems than the addi- and cleaning blades, decreasing the
tion of these small amounts of water to the forces that generate blade and belt wear,
system. which improves the life expectancy of
the blades and so extends the mainte-
Most instances in which conveyor belt(s)
nance interval.
are washed by some version of the technol-
ogy discussed in this chapter are applica-
Softening the Bulk Material
tions where high levels of belt-cleaning
performance are required. These would During belt conveying, the motion of the
include ship loading and unloading sys- belt across the idlers will cause the fines
tems, where the escape of carryback might and moisture present in the cargo to sift
pollute the environment and lead to issues downward and become compacted on the
with regulatory agencies, neighbors, and belt surface. The mission of the water in
environmental activists. Another applica- the belt-washing system is to soften the bulk
tion in which the same concerns lead to material and reduce its internal strength
use of belt-washing systems are overland (cohesion) and its ability to stick to the belt
conveyors, where the cross-country nature (adhesion). This allows the cleaning ele-
of the conveyor’s path might allow mate- ments to remove material more effectively
rial to escape into the outside environment. from the belt.
Belt-washing systems are also seen on con-
The addition of water will typically in-
24 veyor systems used to carry several different
crease the cohesion and adhesion of a bulk
cargos; the belt is washed to eliminate the
material up to a maximum level, at which
potential for cross contamination.
point these properties decrease in a dra-
matic manner (Figure 24.3). This critical
The Principles of Belt Washing
point is the saturation moisture of the bulk
The principles of belt-washing sys- material. The strength of “buildup” prop-
tems are not significantly different from erties of the bulk material depend on its
the principles of belt-cleaning systems in cohesion and adhesion properties. Conse-
quently, the strength of a bulk material will
Figure 24.3 decrease dramatically once the material is
The addition of beyond its saturation point. At this point,
water increases the material becomes more of a slurry. If
the cohesion and the material can be “wetted” enough, it is
adhesion of a bulk
material up to a
far less likely to build up or stick to any sur-
maximum level, faces, including the belt and the belt-clean-
at which point ing blades. Wetting the material makes the
these properties belt-cleaning process far more efficient than
then decrease in a using mechanical scraping alone.
dramatic manner.
378
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
379
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
spray to various conventional cleaning because they require specialty nozzles and
systems raised cleaning efficiency from the clean water for operation. Behind the water
85 percent range to the 95 percent range blast, a squeegee-type blade is used to
(Reference 24.1). remove the water.
Methods for Washing the Belt Belt speed (that is, the time the belt is
exposed to the spray) and the adhesiveness
Several methods have been used to wash
of the carryback are factors that generally
conveyor belts. As described by Dick Sta-
limit the application of this approach to
hura in a 1987 paper Conveyor Belt Washing:
conveyors that operate at less than 5 meters
Is this the Ultimate Solution?, the methods are
per second (1000 ft/min) (Reference 24.3).
flood, bath, and wash box (Reference 24.2).
Water consumption can be quite high with
this method.
Flood Method
The flood method utilizes jets of water Bath Method
that literally blast the particles off the belt
The bath method consists of pulling the
(Figure 24.8). Pressures of 400 to 700
belt through an enclosure filled with water
kilopascals (60–100 lbf /in.2) are used, and
(Figure 24.9). This enclosure could be
compressed air can be added to increase
located along the belt return or even at the
the effect. High-pressure sprays can be
gravity take-up, where the weight of the
difficult to use in a belt-washing system,
“bath tub” of water can become part of
the conveyor’s counterweight tensioning
Figure 24.8 system. There are no spray jets or nozzles,
The flood method only a method of maintaining the water
utilizes jets of water
level. The water is exchanged as necessary
that literally blast the
particles off the belt. to keep sediment from building up in the
bath. The length of the “bath tub” has to
be considerable to achieve any significant
“dwell” (belt in the water) time and resul-
tant cleaning effect.
380
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
Figure 24.11
The design of a
wash-box system
will depend on
application specifics,
the desired level of
cleaning, and the
presence of any site
constraints.
WASH-BOX SYSTEMS
The modular approach allows for a
number of features to be incorporated with
The typical “wash-box” configuration is minimal increase in the cost of the system.
one or two spray bars for applying water The modular approach includes options
followed by two or three secondary belt that provide for improved accessibility,
cleaners of a more-or-less conventional simplified installation, easier maintenance,
design (Figure 24.12). The wash-box and the ability to easily swap components
system is engineered so that the adjustment as application requirements change over
of the cleaner’s angle of attack and clean-
ing pressure can be performed from outside
the enclosure, with the operator looking in Figure 24.12
through an access door (Figure 24.13). The typical “wash-
box” configuration is
These cleaning elements might be con- one or two spray bars
for applying water,
ventional secondary belt cleaners or brush
followed by two or
cleaners. Brush cleaners may be more ef- three secondary belt
fective in cases where the belt is significant- cleaners of a more-
ly grooved or damaged, making cleaning by or-less conventional
flat-edged blades difficult, if not impossible design.
(Figure 24.14). Depending on the applica-
tion, brush cleaners can also require a sig-
Figure 24.13
nificant volume of water to keep the brush
The wash-box
clean and free from the material buildup
system should allow
that would render it useless. the inspection and
381
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 24.15
A modular wash
box uses a number
of “standard”
components and
configurable modules
to provide flexibility
with economy in
engineering and
construction.
382
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
Belt Washing for Final Cleaning placed along a pipe (Figure 24.21). Selec-
Belt-cleaning systems installed so the belt tion of a specific nozzle typically depends
passes through them before it reaches the on a number of factors, including the type
belt-washing system have an effect on the and amount of carryback material, the
amount and pressure of water required speed of the belt, the cleanliness of the
and on the effectiveness of the wash box. It water supply, the spray pattern needed
is strongly recommended that at least one to achieve uniform spray across the belt’s
primary cleaner and one or two secondary width, the impact pressure of water needed
cleaners be used on any conveyor where a to saturate the material, and the water
washing station is being considered. These pressure and flow rate required to keep the
cleaners—installed upstream (closer to the blades clean. As with many other aspects of
material discharge) of the point where the
Figure 24.18
wash box will be installed—will greatly
reduce the amount of carryback to be The drain for the
effluent must be as
removed in a washing station, with result-
vertical as possible
ing savings on water usage and opera- with minimal bends
tional costs (Figure 24.19). Without these to prevent it from
cleaners, there will be more material to be becoming plugged
removed from the belt by the wash box and with solids.
more solids in the effluent. Belt-washing
stations are intended as the ultimate in
cleaning the belt; they are designed to deal
with only the final removal of any residual
amount of material that passes the up-
stream cleaning equipment. Figure 24.19
Conventional belt
Applying the Water cleaners installed
in advance of the
The challenge for any belt-washing wash box will greatly
application is to get the water to the cor- reduce the amount
rect place(s) in the cleaning system in an of carryback to reach
the washing station.
effective and efficient manner. There are a
number of ways to apply water to the belt
and material. They range from a simple 24
hose pointed at the belt, to a pipe with
drilled holes (Figure 24.20), to a more
elaborate system of nozzles and spray bars.
Engineered nozzles accomplish the applica-
tion of water in a far more effective man-
ner than a hose or pipe with holes. While
the latter are effective methods of water Figure 24.20
delivery, the water usage requirements of There are a number
a hose or pipe are far higher than for a of ways to apply
system utilizing engineered nozzles. The water to the belt
question then becomes: What is the most and material: e.g., a
simple hose pointed
effective combination of water pressure, at the belt or a water
spray pattern, contact angle, and the other pipe with drilled
variables? holes.
383
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
conveyor system design, the washing system Typically, wide spray angles are used to
must be designed to function when carry- maximize the coverage area while minimiz-
back conditions are at their worst. ing water consumption (Figure 24.22).
The nozzle selected, with its spray pattern
The two most critical factors in the and spray angle, will control the spacing
choice of spray nozzles are the amount and mounting distance of the spray bars
of carryback present and the speed of the used in the washing system. In some cases,
belt. The higher speed belts require more specialty nozzles are required. Nozzles
water to thoroughly cover the belt and soft- that are resistant to corrosion, abrasion, or
en the carryback during the shorter time chemicals encountered in the process can
the belt is exposed to the spray. High levels be specified.
of carryback will require more water: The
thicker carryback layer will require more A typical wash box, operating with sprays
water to “soften” the material, because at moderate pressure—138 kilopascals (20
there is more material to be softened. High lbf /in.2)—will require approximately 63
levels of carryback also require water to be liters per meter (5.1 gal/ft) of belt width
delivered to the system at higher pressures per minute of operation (Table 24.1). As
so the water will penetrate the material noted above, appropriate water pressure
mass to reach the belt surface. The pressure and volume should be selected after consid-
does not need to be high enough to remove eration of both belt speed and carryback
the material, but it must be sufficient to al- (material adhesion) levels.
low the water to reach the belt surface.
The need for and use of additional
Nozzles are available offering a wide water-spray nozzles to maintain mate-
variety of spray pattern, flow rates, and rial movement by flushing the wash box
pressures. Factors such as distance from the and drain system will typically double the
belt to the spray bar, spray pattern, rate, required water volume.
and pressure must be considered in deter-
mining the configuration of the spray bars. The engineering of a belt-washing
system can be a complicated process with
Figure 24.21 a number of options compounded by
The most effective
wide-ranging variables in conveyors and
and efficient way of materials. A comprehensive understanding
of system, material, and process require-
24 spraying the cleaning
water in these ments is required. Trained and experienced
systems is a series of
personnel need to be involved to assure the
engineered nozzles
placed along a pipe. system will meet customer expectations and
applications requirements.
Water Quality
The quality of the water is perhaps the
most critical part of designing a high-
performing system and if neglected, can
render the system non-functional or prone
Figure 24.22 to maintenance intervals and clean-out
Wide spray angles requirements that are not acceptable.
are typically used
to maximize the Belt-washing systems are best when de-
coverage area while signed for the water-flow rate and pressure
minimizing water
required, as determined by material testing
consumption.
and application specifics. Some plants have
severe limitations on water usage and flow
384
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
Width
mm 34 kPa 69 kPa 103 kPa 138 kPa 207 kPa 276 kPa 414 kPa
(in.) (5 lbf /in.2) (10 lbf /in.2) (15 lbf /in.2) (20 lbf /in.2) (30 lbf /in.2) (40 lbf /in.2) (60 lbf /in.2)
400-
16 23 27 32 39 45 57
500 6
(4.3) (6.0) (7.2) (8.4) (10.2) (12.0) (15.0)
(18)
500-
22 30 36 42 51 61 76
650 8
(5.7) (8.0) (9.6) (11.2) (13.6) (16.0) (20.0)
(24)
650-
24 34 41 48 58 68 85
800 9
(6.4) (9.0) (10.8) (12.6) (15.3) (18.0) (22.5)
(30)
800-
1000 11
30
(7.8)
42
(11.0)
50
(13.2)
58
(15.4)
71
(18.7)
83
(22.0)
104
(27.5)
24
(36)
1000-
35 49 59 69 84 98 123
1200 13
(9.3) (13.0) (15.6) (18.2) (22.1) (26.0) (32.5)
(42)
1200-
40 57 68 79 97 114 142
1400 15
(10.6) (15.0) (18.0) (21.0) (25.5) (30.0) (37.5)
(48)
1400-
43 61 73 85 103 121 151
1600 16
(11.4) (16.0) (19.2) (22.4) (27.2) (32.0) (40.0)
(54)
1600-
48 68 82 95 116 136 170
1800 18
(12.8) (18.0) (21.6) (25.2) (30.6) (36.0) (45.0)
(60)
1800-
59 83 100 117 142 166 208
2000 22
(15.6) (22.0) (26.4) (30.8) (37.4) (44.0) (55.0)
(72)
2000-
70 98 118 138 167 197 246
2200 26
(18.4) (26.0) (31.2) (36.4) (44.2) (52.0) (65.0)
(84)
385
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 24.25
The use of squeegee
roller systems, with
either single or dual
rolls, is an effective
way of removing
excess water from
the moving conveyor
belt.
386
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
Figure 24.26
The results of this
study clearly showed
the smaller the
roller, the better the
squeegee action,
regardless of belt
speed.
Figure 24.27
Squeegee rollers are
generally effective
in reducing the film
of water on the belt
to approximately
50 microns, with an
24
effective lower limit of
20 microns.
Figure 24.28
Hydrodynamic
instability occurs
when moving air
forms the water film
into a wave, from
which droplets then
leave the surface.
Disjoining occurs
when the water film
is exposed to high-
velocity air so the
water is “peeled”
from the belt surface.
387
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
388
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
Mechanical-filtration or chemical-ad-
ditives systems are occasionally necessary Figure 24.32
for bulk materials that do not wet easily or Engineered water-
that have a specific gravity close to or less separation and
than water. There is a variety of mechani- -reclamation systems
can provide up to
24
cal means available including filter presses, 1250 liters per minute
dewatering screens, hydrocyclones, and (300 gal/min) of
clarifiers. However, most bulk materials continuous recycling.
that are handled in large quantities are
heavier than water and so can be separated
using a simple and effective inclined screw
separator system.
389
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
G. Drain system
The volume and flow rate of flushing
water and design of the drain system
shall be sufficient to prevent settling of
bulk solids in the drain system.
390
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
ADVANCED TOPICS
These questions can be answered with
reasonable accuracy if there is detailed
The Process for Developing a information available about the properties
Wash-Box System of the bulk material, the belt and bulk ma-
When developing a belt-washing station, terial interface conditions, the amount of
it is desirable to provide a complete system carryback present, and the general choice
analysis that takes into account a number of equipment in the wash box.
of factors including the physical layout of Sample Problem
the conveyor and water-recycling system,
the amount of energy required for drying The approach to develop a preliminary
and water recycling, and the ability of the design of a Wash-Box System is as follows:
solids to be separated from the water. A. Determine the amount of carryback
When considering the installation of a entering the wash box per day (Cbday-in).
wash box, there are a number of questions B. Determine the desired amount of car-
that must be considered. These include: ryback leaving the wash box per day
(Cbday-out).
A. How much water will the wash box use?
C. Determine the amount of effluent to be
B. How clean will the belt be as it enters handled per minute.
the wash box?
D. Consider options and other questions.
C. How clean must the belt be as it leaves
the wash box? These four stages can be answered by fol-
D. How dry will the belt be? lowing the four steps below.
E. What will be done with the effluent (the Step 1. Calculate the carryback on
mix of solids and water)? the belt entering the wash box per day
(Cbday-in) (Equation 24.1)
Carryback Entering
Cb day–in 24,3 t 27.8 st
the Wash Box per Day
Step 1 Answer: There are 24,3 tons (27.8 st) of carryback entering the wash box per day.
391
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Step 2. Calculate the desired carryback For the purpose of keeping this example
on the belt as it leaves the wash box per short, some assumptions regarding mois-
day (Cbday-out) (Equation 24.2) ture content of the carryback (50 percent)
and of the effluent (15 percent) must be
Step 3. Determine the amount of efflu- made to answer these questions. These
ent to be handled per minute (Equa- assumptions are based on experiences in
tion 24.3) wash-box design.
Step 4. Consider options and additional
Is 10 Grams per Square Meter Too
questions
Much Carryback Material to Leave
A more detailed study and theoretical on the Belt Leaving the Wash Box?
analysis combined with field testing at the As noted in the discussion of carryback
actual site would produce additional factors levels, 10 grams per square meter (0.033
and variables that could be used to further oz/ft²) is considered a clean belt. (See
investigate options. Additional questions Chapter 31: Performance Measurements.) Test-
that can now be considered include: ing has shown that on average, only about
50 percent of the carryback left on the belt
A. Is 10 grams per square meter (0.033 oz/ at this level of cleanliness will fall from the
ft²) too much carryback material left on belt on the return run.
the belt as it leaves the wash box? (Car-
ryback is measured as the dry weight of Belt cleaning is a process with results in a
the material.) bell-shaped curve. A 10-grams-per-square-
B. How wet is the belt as it leaves the wash meter carryback level could range from 20
box? grams per square meter (0.066 oz/ft²) to
sometimes 0 grams per square meter. To
C. How can the overall water usage be
achieve a belt cleaner than 10 grams per
reduced?
Equation 24.2
Cbday–out = BW · CW · S · T · Cbout · k
Calculating Desired
Carryback Exiting the Given: A 1,2-meter (48-in.) belt with a cleaned width of 67 percent traveling 3,5 meters per
Wash Box per Day second (700 ft/min) has a desired carryback of 10 grams per square meter (0.033 oz/ft2) in a 24-
hour operation. Find: The carryback exiting the wash box per day.
Variables Metric Units Imperial Units
24 Desired Carryback
Cbday–out Exiting the Wash Box tons short tons
per Day
BW Belt Width 1,2 m 4 ft
CW Cleaned Width of Belt 0,67 (67%) 0.67 (67%)
S Belt Speed 3,5 m/s 700 ft/min
T Time in a Day 86400 s 1440 min
Amount of Desired
Cb out Carryback Exiting the 10 g/m 2 0.033 oz/ft 2
Wash Box
k Conversion Factor 1 x 10 -6 3.12 x 10 -5
Metric: Cbday–out = 1,2 · 0,67 · 3,5 · 86400 · 10 · 1 · 10-6 = 2,4
Desired Carryback
Cbday–out Exiting the Wash Box 2,4 t 2.8 st
per Day
Step 2 Answer: The desired carryback exiting the wash box is 2,4 tons (2.8 st) per day.
392
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
square meter (0.033 oz/ft²) of carryback, In the example, assuming 10 grams per
so much cleaning pressure would need to square meter (0.033 oz/ft²) (dry weight) of
be applied that it would endanger the belt’s carryback is left on the belt at 50 percent
top cover. Therefore, 10 grams per square moisture content means there will be an
meter is an acceptable and practical lower equal amount, or 10 grams per square
limit for carryback material remaining on meter, of water left on the belt. (Note: A film
the belt. of carryback or water 1,0 micron thick, with a
specific gravity of 1.0, is equal to 1,0 grams per
How Wet is the Belt as it Leaves square meter.)
the Wash Box?
The amount of water left on the belt can How Can Overall Water Usage Be
be estimated based on the type of water- Reduced?
removal system used. The most effective Overall water usage can be reduced by
method is a high-velocity air-knife system. recycling all the water from the effluent and
adding only the required makeup water
Testing has confirmed that for moving to the wash-box system. Theoretically, the
conveyor belts, the theoretical value of 6,0 amount of makeup water needed would
grams per square meter (0.020 oz/ft²) of equal the amount of water left on the belt
water left on the belt is about as low as is as it leaves the wash box and in the effluent.
practical to obtain. However, there will be other system losses
393
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
in a wash box such as leaks and splashing to flush the wash box and/or in spray bars
as well as evaporation. The amount of wa- with large orifices. Most of the makeup
ter that leaves the wash box, contained in water can be added as a low-volume clean
the carryback and recycled solids, is usually water spray on the last belt cleaner or
at least half of the required makeup water. squeegee inside the wash box. This ex-
Because the addition of makeup water is ample, although simplified, is typical of a
usually controlled by some type of level conveyor belt-washing system for this belt
indicator in the settling tank, the demand is width and speed using a mechanical means
not constant. Therefore, the makeup water of recycling the water and solids.
system should be oversized to keep the tank
at the proper level without having to run
continuously. ON THE DESIGN OF BELT-WASHING
Systems
The makeup water required can be cal-
culated (Equation 24.4). In Closing…
Combining effective belt cleaners, spray-
The wash box requires 200 liters per washing technology, effluent treatment, and
minute (50 gal/min) of water. By us- belt-drying systems produces a state-of-the-
ing only the required makeup water and art belt-washing station. Such a station can
recycling the effluent water, the operation meet the need for keeping the belt reason-
will consume only 8,6 liters per minute (2.5 ably clean and dry, provide for the recovery
gal/min). This produces a water savings and recycling of the solids at a reasonable
of 191,4 liters per minute (47.5 gal/min) cost, and use a minimum amount of clean
of water. The recycled water can be used
[(( )( )]
Equation 24.4 Cbday–out Cbday–in – Cbday–out
Calculating Required
MW = + · SF · k
1 – MCb
) ( 1 – ME
)
Makeup Water per
Minute
MCb ME
Given: A wash box where 24,3 tons (27.8 st) of carryback enter and 2,4 tons (2.8 st) of
carryback exit, with a carryback moisture content of 50 percent and an effluent moisture content
of 15 percent. Find: The amount of makeup water needed per minute.
24 Variables Metric Units Imperial Units
MW Makeup Water per Minute liters per minute gallons per minute
Cb day–in Carryback Entering Wash Box per Day 24,3 t 27.8 st
Desired Carryback Exiting Wash Box
Cb day–out 2,4 t 2.8 st
per Day
k Conversion Factor 0,69 0.17
M CB Moisture Content of Carryback 0,5 (50%) 0.5 (50%)
ME Moisture Content of Effluent 0,15 (15%) 0.15 (15%)
Safety Factor to Account for Other
SF 2 2
Losses
[( ( ) (( )]
2,4 24,3 – 2,4
Metric: MW = 1 – 0,5
0,5 ) + 1 – 0,15
0,15 ) · 2 · 0,69 = 8,6
[( ( )) (( ) )]
2.8 27.8 – 2.8
Imperial: MW = 1 – 0.5 + 1 – 0.15 · 2 · 0.17 = 2.5
0.5 0.15
MW Makeup Water per Minute 8,6 l/min 2.5 gal/min
394
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
395
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
24.5 University of Illinois. (2005). Design of 24.7 Roberts, A.W.; Ooms, M.; and Ben-
Conveyer Belt Drying Station. Unpub- nett, D. Conveyor Belt Cleaning – A Bulk
lished Study done for Martin Engi- Solid/Belt Surface Interaction Problem.
neering. University of Newcastle, Australia:
Department of Mechanical Engi-
24.6 Swinderman, R. Todd, Martin En- neering.
gineering. (2004). “Standard for the
specification of belt cleaning systems 24.8 Spraying Systems Company (http://
based on performance.” Bulk Mate- www.spray.com) contains a variety of
rial Handling by Conveyor Belt 5, pp. useful material on the basics and op-
3–8. Edited by Reicks, A. and Myers, tions available in spray nozzles.
M., Littleton, Colorado: Society for
Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration
(SME).
24
396
Belt-Washing Systems | Chapter 24
24
397
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 25.1
Bulk-material
science involves the
determination of the
properties of bulk
material(s) and the
application of those
properties to the
design of bulk-material
handling systems and
components.
25
Chapter 25
Material
Science
Basic Properties of Bulk Materials................................................................. 399
Advanced Bulk-Material Properties................................................................. 402
Typical Applications of Bulk-Material Properties.. ............................................... 406
Typical Specifications................................................................................... 407
Safety Concerns......................................................................................... 408
Advanced Topics......................................................................................... 409
Material Science for Improved Design............................................................. 410
398
Material Science | Chapter 25
399
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Angle of Repose
Figure 25.3
The loose angle of repose for bulk mate-
Consolidated rials is that angle between a horizontal line
bulk density
and the sloping line from the top of a freely
(ρ2)—sometimes
called vibrated bulk formed pile of bulk material to the base of
density—is normally the pile (Figure 25.4). The angle of repose
the heaviest density for a given material may vary, however,
that can be found in depending upon how the pile is created and
the conveying of bulk
materials, achieved
the density, particle shape, moisture con-
tent, and size consistency of the material.
25 by applying a
compressive force (F) Because the angle of repose is relatively
or vibratory energy to easy to measure, it is often used as a conve-
the body of material. nient design parameter. However, this can
lead to serious errors due to large variations
in the angle for a given category of bulk
material. For example, the angle of repose
range for various types of coal as listed in
CEMA STANDARD 550-2003 runs from
27 to 45 degrees. The application of the
angle of repose should be limited to the
shape of freely-formed stockpiles.
Surcharge Angle
Figure 25.4 The surcharge angle is the angle of the
Angle of Repose load cross section measured by the inclina-
tion in degrees to the horizontal (Figure
25.5). The symbol ϴs is frequently used to
represent the surcharge angle. The angle
of surcharge of a bulk material on a mov-
400
Material Science | Chapter 25
ing conveyor depends upon the kind of times the largest lump dimension in order
conveyor involved. With a troughed belt to prevent plugging.
conveyor, the top surface of the load cross
section of the bulk material is assumed to A screening analysis provides the most
be part of a circular arc, the ends of the complete representation of the size of
arc meeting the inclined sides of the belt at the bulk material (Figure 25.8). ASTM
the free-edge distance. (See Chapter 11: Skirt- D6393-99(2006) (Reference 25.3) provides
boards for a discussion about edge distance.) On
Figure 25.5
conveyors with vertical pan sides, the top of
Surcharge Angle (ϴs)
the load cross section may be assumed as a
for a Troughed Belt
portion of a circular arc, the ends of which
meet the vertical sides (Figure 25.6). The
surcharge angle is measured by the inclina-
tion of the line tangent to the circular arc.
On a flat belt or apron conveyor, the top
surface of the bulk material is presumed to
be triangular in cross section (Figure 25.7).
401
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
one test method for screen analysis of bulk particle diameter; the smaller the diameter
materials. Particle size distribution is a the more induced air. Knowing the aver-
tabulation of the percent of the material age particle diameter presents a simplified
represented in each size range as a part way to calculate induced air, based on the
of the total sample, as demonstrated by percentage of particles at each sieve size.
passing through a given screen size and
being retained on the next smaller screen.
A particle-size distribution curve is usually ADVANCED BULK-MATERIAL
a semi-log plot using the particle size as PROPERTIES
the abscissa on a logarithmic scale and the
Moisture Content
cumulative percentage by weight passing a
given screen size as the ordinate (Figure Moisture content is the total amount of
25.9). The shape of the curve and the water present in a bulk material. A bulk
slope of any straight portion indicate the material can have surface (or free) moisture
relative uniformity of size distribution of content and inherent moisture content.
the sample. This information is useful for Surface moisture is the mass of water that
determining the particle size needed for is between particles, on the surface, and in
calculating airflow. (See Chapter 7: Air Control open pores. The surface moisture content
for calculating induced air that includes particle can have a major effect on the material’s
diameter (D) in the denominator.) The amount values for adhesion, cohesion, and wall
of induced air is inversely proportional to friction angle. Inherent moisture content is
Figure 25.8
Screening analysis
provides the
most complete
representation of
the size of the bulk
material.
Figure 25.9
A particle-sized
25 distribution curve is
usually a semi-log
plot.
402
Material Science | Chapter 25
the mass of water contained within closed forces. Normal stress refers to the stress
pores but does not include moisture that caused by forces that are perpendicular to a
is chemically bound within the particles. cross-sectional area of the material. Shear
Moisture content is defined on a wet basis stress arises from forces that are parallel
in the bulk-materials handling industry; the to the plane of the cross section (Figure
moisture content is expressed as a per- 25.10). Stress is expressed as a force divided
centage of the total wet weight. The most by an area.
common method of determining surface
moisture is to dry a sample in an oven until The original work by Jenike centered on
equilibrium is reached and then measure the properties of bulk materials as derived
the weight loss. from the shear stress capacity of the mate-
rial. Jenike’s work focused on determining
Wetting and Settling Rate the outlet dimensions of a storage bin for
reliable gravity flow and the stresses on the
The wetting ability of a solution is a
hopper wall for safe bin design. Many of
measure of its ability to “wet” (spread
the same methods from his original work
across) and penetrate a bulk material. This
are successfully applied to the transport of
is important, because it affects and re-
bulk materials on conveyor belts.
flects the performance of dust-suppression
systems and chemicals with the particular Flow properties of a bulk material can
material. be derived from measuring the force to
shear the bulk material, using a shear cell
Sedimentation measurement methods are
(Figure 25.11). There are several shear cell
based on the application of Stokes’ Law,
manufacturers and test methods used to
which describes the terminal velocity for
determine bulk material properties such as
an isolated sphere settling in a viscous fluid
ASTM D6128-06 (Reference 25.5) or ASTM
under the influence of a gravitational field
D6773-02 (Reference 25.6). Normally, only
(i.e., free falling). For materials with low
the fines from the bulk material are tested,
Reynolds numbers (i.e., laminar flow condi-
because they typically yield the greatest
tions) the terminal velocity depends on the
adhesion and cohesion values. Shear cell
density contrast between the particle and
tests are time-consuming, due to the large
medium, the viscosity, and the particle size.
number of tests required to determine
Sedimentation or settling rate is similarly the properties at different moisture levels
important to help assess the performance and consolidating pressures. Repeatability
of the test results requires careful sample
25
of belt-washing and dust-suppression
systems with specific materials. A simple preparation and testing procedures by a
and common test for the settling rate of skilled technician.
bulk materials in water is commonly called
When conducting these tests, the values
a “Jar Test.” In its simplest form, a sample
that are known are the principal or con-
of the bulk material is put into a beaker of
solidating force (V) and the sample area.
water, and the time for the material to settle
to the bottom is recorded. Detailed proce- Figure 25.10
dures are described in ASTM D2035-08 Shear stress arises
(Reference 25.4). from forces that are
parallel to the plane
Internal Stresses of the cross section.
Internal stress in a material cannot be
measured directly. It must be deduced
from the force acting across a unit area of
a bulk material, as it resists the separation,
compacting, or sliding induced by external
403
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
Figure 25.11
Using a shear cell,
flow properties of
a bulk material can
be derived from
measuring the force
to shear the bulk
material.
Figure 25.12
What is measured is the shear force (S)
required to shear the bulk material. The
Mohr’s Circle
Concept
shear force and shear area are used to
determine the shear and normal stresses
at different consolidating pressures and
moisture contents using a Mohr stress
circle. The Mohr stress circle represents the
stresses in cutting planes that are inclined
through all possible angles. The position
of the Mohr stress circle is defined by the
two principal stresses (Figure 25.12). It is
important to note that a bulk material can
transmit shear stresses even if it is at rest.
Also, in bulk materials, compressive stresses
are defined as positive stresses.
404
Material Science | Chapter 25
Figure 25.15
Effective Internal
Friction Angle
yield points or loci. This yield locus in- between the bulk material and the chute-
creases in length as the consolidating stress wall and the coefficient of friction between
increases at a fixed particle size and mois- the bulk material and the belt. The coef-
ture content. Increasing the consolidating ficient of friction is equal to the tangent of
stress increases the bulk density, giving the the interface friction angle (determined the
graph a three-dimensional failure surface. same way as the effective angle of internal
friction) (Figure 25.18). Bulk materials,
Interface Friction particularly the fines, have the ability to
Interface friction (ϴ) for chutes handling
bulk materials can be determined with a Figure 25.16
shear cell and a sample of the actual in-
Shear Cell Test
terface material—that is, the material that
will be in contact with the bulk material
for Bulk Material
Interface Friction 25
(Figure 25.16). Values (ϴ)
405
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
cling upside down on horizontal surfaces tion are the three principle conditions that
and thus exhibit strength even under nega- affect the level of cohesive stress in a bulk
tive consolidating forces greater than that material. Cohesive stress increases as mois-
of gravity. The shear force at negative ture is added to the bulk material until a
consolidating forces is of particular interest maximum value is reached (Figure 25.19).
in chute design in determining adhesion As more moisture is added, the ability of
and cohesion values. An adaptation of the the bulk material to withstand shear—its
shear cell to apply negative consolidating cohesion—begins to decrease. Cohesive
forces can be used, or the wall yield locus stress can be determined from shear cell
can be extrapolated to estimate these values tests. It is given by the relationship that
(Equation 25.1). cohesive stress is equal to the consolidating
stress times the tangent of the internal fric-
Cohesion tion angle plus constant [τ = σc tan Φ + k].
Cohesion (τ) is the resistance of the bulk
material to shear at zero compressive nor- Adhesion
mal stress. Cohesion can be thought of as Adhesion (σ) is the resistance of the bulk
the ability of the particles to stick to each material to movement at zero shear stress.
other. Moisture content (surface tension), Adhesion can be thought of as the sticki-
electrostatic attraction, and agglomera- ness of the material to surfaces, such as
chutes and belts. Surface condition, mois-
Figure 25.18 ture, and impurities such as clay are the
Coefficient of friction three principle conditions that affect the
is the slope or level of adhesive stress in a bulk material.
tangent of the wall
friction angle. Adhesive stress can be determined from
shear cell tests and is very useful in deter-
mining the likelihood that a material will
stick or cling to surfaces.
406
Material Science | Chapter 25
there is just too little space for the loose Belt Cleaning
material to move at the full flow rate. The Adhesion and cohesion are important
loose bulk density can be as little as half of properties used to predict the nature of
the vibrated bulk density. the challenges in belt cleaning. Knowing
If the designer looks in a general engi- how the strength of material is affected by
neering handbook for a material’s density, changes in moisture content gives guid-
the value listed will most likely be particle ance in the use of water to weaken the bulk
density, which can be compared to vibrated material so carryback can be efficiently
density. If this value is used, it will lead to cleaned from the belt. Knowing the criti-
an undersized design by a factor of 2 to 4 cal moisture content allows a designer to
times. The designer needs to be aware of calculate the volume of water needed.
changes in densities and design accordingly. Absent this knowledge, the point of view
that “adding water to the process is a bad
Chute Design thing” will remain, even though there may
be significant advantages to using it.
Chute design is more than a matter of
having the correct cross-sectional area Designing a functional belt-washing
based on the loose bulk density. The reli- system requires knowledge of how the bulk
able flow of bulk materials through a chute material behaves in water. The transport
depends, among other factors, upon the and treatment of the effluent is directly
friction between the bulk material and the related to the rate at which the material
chutewalls and wear liners. The design of settles in water. The size of the separation
curved chutes for reliable flow depends tank or settling pond is directly related to
upon knowing the properties of the bulk the material’s sedimentation rate. Heavy
material in relation to the flow surfaces. materials such as iron ore need a lot of
When a typical value of chute angles is flowing water to keep wash boxes and pip-
used, the result is often material buildups, ing from plugging. Other materials that will
leading to chute blockage. For example, lig- not settle, such as some coals, may not be
nite has a significantly higher coefficient of suitable for a belt-washing station.
friction on stainless steel than bituminous
coal, but the coefficients of friction are Dust Suppression
similar when Ultra-High Molecular Weight Selection of a dust-suppression method
(UHMW) polyethylene is the liner. Serious
flow problems can result from not testing
requires knowledge of how the material
will react with water and with the vari-
25
the actual bulk material and liners being ous chemicals used to improve the wetting
considered for use in the design. and agglomeration of the particles. Some
One significant property of bulk materi- bulk materials do not react—or react too
als that is not normally considered in chute slowly—to be good candidates for water
design is the effect of time and consolidat- alone as the suppression agent. Testing
ing pressure on the strength of the mate- must be done to determine if chemical ad-
rial. Bulk materials generally gain strength ditives need to be used to provide effective
in storage. However, in chute design, the dust suppression.
consolidating pressures are usually low,
and the time spent in the chute should be
TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS
minimal. The effect of changes in moisture
content is significant, however, especially in When testing bulk materials for design of
regard to the accumulations of material in material-handling systems, the bulk mate-
chutes. One result of this phenomenon is rial shall be tested for the range of condi-
that carryback usually gains strength as it tions that are anticipated to occur during
dries on belts or dribble chutes. normal and extreme operating conditions
407
Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
408
Material Science | Chapter 25
ADVANCED TOPICS
The angles of surcharge are typically 10 to
15 degrees less than the angles of repose.
Belt Capacity with Different Coal (Note: CEMA offers only Imperial measurements;
Properties Example the metric measurements are conversions by Martin
The sixth edition of CEMA’s BELT CON- Engineering.)
VEYORS for BULK MATERIALS gives de-
In this example, the design capacities are
tailed equations for calculating the capacity
compared across the range of properties of
of a conveyor based on the trough angle
nine different coals (Equation 25.2). This
and the surcharge angle. The same formu-
demonstrates how sensitive a conveyor or
las can be used with the angle of repose to
transfer-point design is to the properties of
determine the capacity of the bulk material
the bulk material. Example 1 analyzes the
in a loose state such as when the material is
densest coal; Example 2 analyzes the coal
first transferred from one belt to another.
with the least density.
CEMA STANDARD 550-2003 lists nine
For these examples, a comparison of the
different classifications for coal. The loose
cross-sectional areas found using the values
bulk densities listed for these different clas-
near the extremes of nine different coals
sifications run from 720 to 960 kilograms
demonstrates how sensitive a design will be
per cubic meter (45 to 60 lbm/ft3); the an-
to the properties of the bulk material.
gles of repose vary from 27 to 40 degrees.
Q = A · ρ lb · S · k Equation 25.2
Calculating Belt
Given #1: A conveyor belt transporting coal with a density of 960 kilograms per cubic meter (60 Capacity with
lbm /ft3) is traveling 2,5 meters per second (500 ft/min). The coal has a surcharge angle of 30°. Different Coal
Find: The capacity of the conveyor belt. Properties
Variables Metric Units Imperial Units
Q Belt Capacity tons per hour short tons per hour
Cross-Sectional Area of
A 0,195 m 2 2.1 ft 2
Load (per CEMA)
ρlb Loose Bulk Density 960 kg/m 3 60 lb m/ft 3
S Conveyor Speed 2,5 m/s 500 ft/min
k Conversion Factor 3,6 0.03 25
Metric: Q = 0,195 · 960 · 2,5 · 3,6 = 1685
Imperial: Q = 2.1 · 60 · 500 · 0.03 = 1890
Q Belt Capacity 1685 t/h 1890 st/h
Given #2: A conveyor belt transporting coal with a density of 720 kilograms per cubic meter (45
lbm/ft3) is traveling 2,5 meters per second (500 ft/min). The coal has a surcharge angle of 20°.
Find: The capacity of the conveyor belt.
Q Belt Capacity tons per hour short tons per hour
Cross-Sectional Area of
A 0,168 m 2 1.804 ft 2
Load (per CEMA)
ρlb Loose Bulk Density 720 kg/m 3 45 lb m/ft 3
S Conveyor Speed 2,5 m/s 500 ft/min
k Conversion Factor 3,6 0.03
Metric: Q = 0,168 · 720 · 2,5 · 3,6 = 1089
Imperial: Q = 1.804 · 45 · 500 · 0.03 = 1218
Q Belt Capacity 1089 t/h 1218 st/h
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Section 5 | Leading-Edge Concepts
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Material Science | Chapter 25
25
411