FORMULAS FOR THE REMAINDER TERM IN TAYLOR SERIES

In Section 11.10 we considered functions f with derivatives of all orders and their Taylor
series
⬁
f 共n兲共a兲
兺
n苷0 n!
共x ⫺ a兲n

The nth partial sum of this Taylor series is the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f at a:

f ⬘共a兲 f ⬙共a兲 f 共n兲共a兲

Tn共x兲 苷 f 共a兲 ⫹ 共x ⫺ a兲 ⫹ 共x ⫺ a兲2 ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ ⫹ 共x ⫺ a兲n
1! 2! n!

We can write
f 共x兲 苷 Tn共x兲 ⫹ Rn共x兲

where Rn共x兲 is the remainder of the Taylor series. We know that f is equal to the sum of
ⱍ ⱍ
its Taylor series on the interval x ⫺ a ⬍ R if we can show that lim n l ⬁ Rn共x兲 苷 0 for
ⱍ ⱍ
x ⫺ a ⬍ R.
Here we derive formulas for the remainder term Rn共x兲. The first such formula involves
an integral.

1 Theorem If f 共n⫹1兲 is continuous on an open interval I that contains a, and x is

in I , then
1 x
Rn共x兲 苷 y 共x ⫺ t兲 n f 共n⫹1兲共t兲 dt
n! a

Proof We use mathematical induction. For n 苷 1,

R1共x兲 苷 f 共x兲 ⫺ T1共x兲 苷 f 共x兲 ⫺ f 共a兲 ⫺ f ⬘共a兲共x ⫺ a兲

and the integral in the theorem is xax 共x ⫺ t兲 f ⬙共t兲 dt. To evaluate this integral we integrate
by parts with u 苷 x ⫺ t and dv 苷 f ⬙共t兲 dt, so du 苷 ⫺dt and v 苷 f ⬘共t兲. Thus

x x
y 共x ⫺ t兲 f ⬙共t兲 dt 苷 共x ⫺ t兲 f ⬘共t兲兴 t苷x
t苷a ⫹ y f ⬘共t兲 dt
a a

苷 0 ⫺ 共x ⫺ a兲 f ⬘共a兲 ⫹ f 共x兲 ⫺ f 共a兲 (by FTC 2)

Stewart: Calculus, Sixth Edition. ISBN: 0495011606. © 2008 Brooks/Cole. All rights reserved.

苷 f 共x兲 ⫺ f 共a兲 ⫺ f ⬘共a兲共x ⫺ a兲 苷 R1共x兲

The theorem is therefore proved for n 苷 1.

Now we suppose that Theorem 1 is true for n 苷 k, that is,

1 x
Rk 共x兲 苷 y 共x ⫺ t兲k f 共k⫹1兲共t兲 dt
k! a

We want to show that it’s true for n 苷 k ⫹ 1, that is

1 x
Rk⫹1 共x兲 苷 y 共x ⫺ t兲k⫹1 f 共k⫹2兲共t兲 dt
共k ⫹ 1兲! a

Again we use integration by parts, this time with u 苷 共x ⫺ t兲 k⫹1 and dv 苷 f 共k⫹2兲共t兲. Then

1
2 ■ FORMULAS FOR THE REMAINDER TERM IN TAYLOR SERIES

du 苷 ⫺共k ⫹ 1兲共x ⫺ t兲 k dt and v 苷 f 共k⫹1兲共t兲, so

1 x
y 共x ⫺ t兲k⫹1 f 共k⫹2兲共t兲 dt
共k ⫹ 1兲! a

册
t苷x
1 k⫹1 x
苷 共x ⫺ t兲 k⫹1 f 共k⫹1兲共t兲 ⫹ y 共x ⫺ t兲 k
f 共k⫹1兲共t兲 dt
共k ⫹ 1兲! t苷a 共k ⫹ 1兲! a

1 1 x
苷0⫺ 共x ⫺ a兲 k⫹1 f 共k⫹1兲共a兲 ⫹ y 共x ⫺ t兲 k
f 共k⫹1兲共t兲 dt
共k ⫹ 1兲! k! a

f 共k⫹1兲共a兲
苷⫺ 共x ⫺ a兲 k⫹1 ⫹ Rk 共x兲
共k ⫹ 1兲!

f 共k⫹1兲共a兲
苷 f 共x兲 ⫺ Tk共x兲 ⫺ 共x ⫺ a兲 k⫹1
共k ⫹ 1兲!

苷 f 共x兲 ⫺ Tk⫹1共x兲 苷 Rk⫹1 共x兲

Therefore, (1) is true for n 苷 k ⫹ 1 when it is true for n 苷 k. Thus, by mathematical

induction, it is true for all n.

To illustrate Theorem 1 we use it to solve Example 4 in Section 11.10.

EXAMPLE 1 Find the Maclaurin series for sin x and prove that it represents sin x for all x.

SOLUTION We arrange our computation in two columns as follows:

f 共x兲 苷 sin x f 共0兲 苷 0

f ⬘共x兲 苷 cos x f ⬘共0兲 苷 1

f ⬙共x兲 苷 ⫺sin x f ⬙共0兲 苷 0

f ⵮共x兲 苷 ⫺cos x f ⵮共0兲 苷 ⫺1

f 共4兲共x兲 苷 sin x f 共4兲共0兲 苷 0

Since the derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, we can write the Maclaurin series as
follows:

f ⬘共0兲 f ⬙共0兲 2 f ⵮共0兲 3

f 共0兲 ⫹ x⫹ x ⫹ x ⫹ ⭈⭈⭈
Stewart: Calculus, Sixth Edition. ISBN: 0495011606. © 2008 Brooks/Cole. All rights reserved.
1! 2! 3!
⬁
x3 x5 x7 x 2n⫹1
苷x⫺ ⫹ ⫺ ⫹ ⭈ ⭈ ⭈ 苷 兺 共⫺1兲n
3! 5! 7! n苷0 共2n ⫹ 1兲!

With a 苷 0 in Theorem 1, we have

1 x
Rn共x兲 苷 y 共x ⫺ t兲n f 共n⫹1兲共t兲 dt
n! 0

ⱍ ⱍ
Since f 共n⫹1兲共t兲 is ⫾sin t or ⫾cos t, we know that f 共n⫹1兲共t兲 艋 1 for all t. We use the fact
(see Exercise 65 in Section 5.2) that, for a 艋 b,

ⱍy a
b

ⱍ
f 共t兲 dt 艋 y
b

a
ⱍ f 共t兲 ⱍ dt
 FORMULAS FOR THE REMAINDER TERM IN TAYLOR SERIES ■ 3

Thus, for x ⬎ 0,

n
1
ⱍ R 共x兲 ⱍ 苷 n! y ⱍ x

0
共x ⫺ t兲n f 共n⫹1兲 共t兲 dt 艋
ⱍ 1
n!
y
0
x
ⱍ ⱍ
共x ⫺ t兲n f 共n⫹1兲 共t兲 dt

1 x 1 x n⫹1 x n⫹1
艋 y 共x ⫺ t兲n dt 苷 苷
n! 0 n! n ⫹ 1 共n ⫹ 1兲!

For x ⬍ 0 we can write

1 0
Rn共x兲 苷 ⫺ y 共x ⫺ t兲n f 共n⫹1兲共t兲 dt
n! x

so

n
1
ⱍ
ⱍ R 共x兲 ⱍ 艋 n! y ⱍ x ⫺ t ⱍ ⱍ f
x
0 n 共n⫹1兲
ⱍ
共t兲 dt 艋
1
n!
y
x
0
共t ⫺ x兲n dt 苷
共⫺x兲 n⫹1
共n ⫹ 1兲!

Thus, in any case, we have

ⱍ Rn共x兲 艋ⱍ ⱍxⱍ n⫹1

共n ⫹ 1兲!

The right side of this inequality approaches 0 as n l ⬁ (see Equation 11.10.10), so

ⱍ ⱍ
Rn共x兲 l 0 by the Squeeze Theorem. It follows that Rn共x兲 l 0 as n l ⬁, so sin x is
equal to the sum of its Maclaurin series.

For some purposes the integral formula in Theorem 1 is awkward to work with, so we
are going to establish another formula for the remainder term. To that end we need to prove
the following generalization of the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals (see Section 6.5).

2 Weighted Mean Value Theorem for Integrals If f and t are continuous on 关a, b兴 and
t does not change sign in 关a, b兴, then there exists a number c in 关a, b兴 such that

b b
y f 共x兲t共x兲 dx 苷 f 共c兲 y t共x兲 dx
a a

Proof Because t doesn’t change sign, either t共x兲 艌 0 or t共x兲 艋 0 for a 艋 x 艋 b. For the
sake of definiteness, let’s assume that t共x兲 艌 0.
Stewart: Calculus, Sixth Edition. ISBN: 0495011606. © 2008 Brooks/Cole. All rights reserved.

By the Extreme Value Theorem (4.1.3), f has an absolute minimum value m and an
absolute maximum value M , so m 艋 f 共x兲 艋 M for a 艋 x 艋 b. Since t共x兲 艌 0, we have

mt共x兲 艋 f 共x兲t共x兲 艋 Mt共x兲 a艋x艋b

and so

b b b
3 m y t共x兲 dx 艋 y f 共x兲t共x兲 dx 艋 M y t共x兲 dx
a a a

If xab t共x兲 dx 苷 0, these inequalities show that xab f 共x兲t共x兲 dx 苷 0 and so Theorem 2 is
true because both sides of the equation are 0. If xab t共x兲 dx 苷 0, it must be positive and
we can divide by xab t共x兲 dx in (3):

xab f 共x兲t共x兲 dx
m艋 艋M
xab t共x兲 dx
4 ■ FORMULAS FOR THE REMAINDER TERM IN TAYLOR SERIES

Then, by the Intermediate Value Theorem (2.5.10), there exists a number c in 关a, b兴 such
that
xab f 共x兲t共x兲 dx b b
f 共c兲 苷 and so y f 共x兲t共x兲 dx 苷 f 共c兲 y t共x兲 dx
xab t共x兲 dx a a

4 Theorem If f 共n⫹1兲 is continuous on an open interval I that contains a, and x is

in I , then there exists a number c between a and x such that

f 共n⫹1兲共c兲
Rn共x兲 苷 共x ⫺ a兲 n⫹1
共n ⫹ 1兲!

Proof The function t共t兲 苷 共x ⫺ t兲 n doesn’t change sign in the interval from a to x, so the
Weighted Mean Value Theorem for Integrals gives a number c between a and x such that

x x
y 共x ⫺ t兲 n f 共n⫹1兲共t兲 dt 苷 f 共n⫹1兲共c兲 y 共x ⫺ t兲 n dt
a a

册
t苷x
共x ⫺ t兲 n⫹1 共x ⫺ a兲 n⫹1
苷 ⫺f 共n⫹1兲共c兲 苷 f 共n⫹1兲共c兲
n⫹1 t苷a n⫹1

Then, by Theorem 1,

1 x
Rn共x兲 苷 y 共x ⫺ t兲 n f 共n⫹1兲共t兲 dt
n! a

1 共n⫹1兲 共x ⫺ a兲 n⫹1 f 共n⫹1兲共c兲

苷 f 共c兲 苷 共x ⫺ a兲 n⫹1
n! n⫹1 共n ⫹ 1兲!

The formula for the remainder term in Theorem 4 is called Lagrange’s form of the
remainder term. Notice that this expression

f 共n⫹1兲共c兲
Rn共x兲 苷 共x ⫺ a兲 n⫹1
共n ⫹ 1兲!

is very similar to the terms in the Taylor series except that f 共n⫹1兲 is evaluated at c instead
of at a. All we can say about the number c is that it lies somewhere between x and a.
In the following example we show how to use Lagrange’s form of the remainder term
as an alternative to the integral form in Example 1.

Stewart: Calculus, Sixth Edition. ISBN: 0495011606. © 2008 Brooks/Cole. All rights reserved.
EXAMPLE 2 Prove that Maclaurin series for sin x represents sin x for all x.

SOLUTION Using the Lagrange form of the remainder term with a 苷 0, we have

f 共n⫹1兲共c兲 n⫹1
Rn共x兲 苷 x
共n ⫹ 1兲!

where f 共x兲 苷 sin x and c lies between 0 and x. But f 共n⫹1兲共c兲 is ⫾sin c or ⫾cos c. In any
ⱍ
case, f 共n⫹1兲共c兲 艋 1 and so ⱍ
ⱍ R 共x兲 ⱍ 苷 ⱍ共n ⫹ 1兲!ⱍ ⱍ x ⱍ 艋 共nⱍ ⫹ⱍ 1兲!
共n⫹1兲
f 共c兲 x n⫹1
n⫹1

By Equation 11.10.10 the right side of this inequality approaches 0 as n l ⬁, so

ⱍ ⱍ
Rn共x兲 l 0 by the Squeeze Theorem. It follows that Rn共x兲 l 0 as n l ⬁, so sin x is
equal to the sum of its Maclaurin series.
 FORMULAS FOR THE REMAINDER TERM IN TAYLOR SERIES ■ 5

EXAMPLE 3
(a) Approximate the function f 共x兲 苷 s
3
x by a Taylor polynomial of degree 2 at a 苷 8.
(b) How accurate is this approximation when 7 艋 x 艋 9?
SOLUTION
(a) f 共x兲 苷 s
3
x 苷 x 1兾3 f 共8兲 苷 2

f ⬘共x兲 苷 13 x⫺2兾3 f ⬘共8兲 苷 121

f ⬙共x兲 苷 ⫺29 x⫺5兾3 f ⬙共8兲 苷 ⫺144

1

⫺8兾3
f ⵮共x兲 苷 10
27 x

Thus the second-degree Taylor polynomial is

f ⬘共8兲 f ⬙共8兲
T2 共x兲 苷 f 共8兲 ⫹ 共x ⫺ 8兲 ⫹ 共x ⫺ 8兲2
1! 2!
苷 2 ⫹ 121 共x ⫺ 8兲 ⫺ 288 共x ⫺ 8兲2
1

The desired approximation is

x ⬇ T2 共x兲 苷 2 ⫹ 121 共x ⫺ 8兲 ⫺ 288 共x ⫺ 8兲2

3 1
s

(b) Using the Lagrange form of the remainder term we can write

f ⵮共c兲 ⫺8兾3 共x ⫺ 8兲
3
5共x ⫺ 8兲3
R2 共x兲 苷 共x ⫺ 8兲3 苷 10
27 c 苷
3! 3! 81c 8兾3

where c lies between 8 and x. In order to estimate the error we note that if 7 艋 x 艋 9,
ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ ⱍ
then ⫺1 艋 x ⫺ 8 艋 1, so x ⫺ 8 艋 1 and therefore x ⫺ 8 3 艋 1. Also, since x ⬎ 7,
we have
c 8兾3 ⬎ 7 8兾3 ⬎ 179

and so

ⱍ ⱍ
R2 共x兲 苷 ⱍ
5 x⫺8 ⱍ
3
⬍
5ⴢ1
⬍ 0.0004
81c8兾3 81 ⴢ 179
Thus if 7 艋 x 艋 9, the approximation in part (a) is accurate to within 0.0004.
Stewart: Calculus, Sixth Edition. ISBN: 0495011606. © 2008 Brooks/Cole. All rights reserved.