Studies in Educational Evaluation. VoL 8, pp. 247-252, 1983 0191-491X/83/030247-06503.

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Printedin GreatBritain. All rights reserved. Copyright© 1983PergamonPressLtd.

ASSESSING MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN Y O U N G

CHILDREN

David L. Gallahue
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA

The study of human growth and development has b e e n o f k e e n i n t e r e s t t o

scholars and educators for many years. A l t h o u g h a f a i r a m o u n t o f r e s e a r c h has
b e e n c o n d u c t e d on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l a s p e c t s o f m o v e m e n t b e h a v i o r , s u c h r e s e a r c h
is o f c o n s i d e r a b l y less s c o p e a n d m a g n i t u d e t h a n has b e e n c o n d u c t e d on t h e
cognitive and affective processes of development.

T h e s t u d y o f m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t as a s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d is a r e l a t i v e l y n e w a d d i t i o n
t o t h e p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n p r o f e s s i o n , a l t h o u g h m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t is r e c o g n i z e d b y
m a n y t o be its v e r y h e a r t . T h e d e c a d e o f t h e 1980s has g i v e n r i s e t o t h e f u l l
r e c o g n i t i o n o f m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t as a l e g i t i m a t e a r e a o f s t u d y t h a t c u t s a c r o s s
the fields of exercise physiology, biomechanics, motor behavior, and motor con-
t r o l , as w e l l as a c r o s s t h e f i e l d s o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y a n d s o c i o l o g y .

IlgelJmds of Sl~udy

There are two basic strategies for studying motor development: longitudinal
study and cross-sectional study. Because motor development research involves
t h e s t u d y o f c h a n g e s t h a t o c c u r in m o t o r b e h a v i o r o v e r t i m e , l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s
are most suitable. L o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y a l l o w s o n e t o o b s e r v e c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e in
selected variables and, although time-consuming, it permits the study of motor
development as a f u n c t i o n of maturity rather than age. The Medford Boys
G r o w t h S t u d y c o n d u c t e d b y H. H a r r i s o n C l a r k e ( 1 9 7 1 ) f r o m 1956 t o 1968 is o n e o f
the most complete longitudinal studies of growth available. The motor pattern
d e v e l o p m e n t s t u d y b e g u n in 1966 b y V e r n S e e f e l d t ( 1 9 7 2 ) c o l l e c t e d t h o u s a n d s o f
f e e t o f f i l m on c h i l d r e n performing selected fundamental movement skills over
s e v e r a l y e a r s a n d is a f i n e e x a m p l e o f a l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l
movement.

T h e l o n g i t u d i n a l m e t h o d o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , is v e r y t i m e c o n s u m i n g . The
d r o p o u t r a t e d u e t o c h i l d r e n m o v i n g , i l l n e s s , o r d i s a b i l i t y is o f t e n g r e a t . There-
fore, large numbers of children n e e d t o be t e s t e d in h o p e s o f s t i l l h a v i n g a
representative sample at the end of the five- to ten-year study period. Problems
in m e t h o d o l o g y a n d d e s i g n a r e a l s o l i k e l y t o c r e e p i n . Both the reliability and
objectivity of changing testers over the course of the study along with the
potential learning effect over time from repeated performances on the measured
i t e m s ( B e u m e n e t a l . , 1980) m a y c a u s e p r o b l e m s . Because of these difficulties
many researchers have opted for the cross-sectional approach to studying motor
development.

247
248 D. L. Gallahue

The cross-sectional m e t h o d p e r m i t s t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o c o l l e c t d a t a on d i f f e r e n t
g r o u p s o f p e o p l e a t v a r y i n g age l e v e l s a t t h e same t i m e . Although this method
y i e l d s o n l y a v e r a g e c h a n g e s in g r o u p s o v e r t i m e a n d n o t i n d i v i d u a l c h a n g e s , t h e
b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t r a n d o m s e l e c t i o n o f s u b j e c t s p r o v i d e s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
s a m p l e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n f o r each a g e g r o u p t e s t e d . C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l s t u d i e s can
d e s c r i b e o n l y t y p i c a l b e h a v i o r at t h e s p e c i f i c ages s t u d i e d . The vast majority of
r e s e a r c h on m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t uses a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a p p r o a c h ; i t is a s i m p l e r
and more direct technique. It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t in g e n e r a l , d a t a c o l l e c t e d
from longitudinal s t u d i e s seem t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e r e s u l t s of c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
studies even though the learning effects of repeated performances are still
present (Wickstrom, 1977).

In r e c e n t y e a r s d e v e l o p m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t r e s e a r c h e r s
have begun to look more closely at the combined application of cross-sectional and
longitudinal research designs. This sequential method of studying development,
or mixed-longitudinal m e t h o d , c o v e r s all o f t h e p o s s i b l e d a t a p o i n t s n e c e s s a r y f o r
both describing and explaining developmental change (Schaie & Baltes, 1975).

O v e r t h e y e a r s , t h e r e has b e e n a s h i f t in t h e s t u d y o f c h i l d r e n ' s m o t o r d e v e l -
opment from process to product and now back to process again. The early
researchers emphasized the importance of studying the process of movement
(qualitative measures of form and function). H.M. Halverson (Halverson et al.,
1931; Halverson, 1937), Shirley (1931), a n d Wild ( 1 9 3 8 ) all f o c u s e d on t h e
sequential acquisition of movement patterns. Their suggestions for studying the
p r o c e s s o f m o t o r s k i l l d e v e l o p m e n t w e n t l a r g e l y u n h e e d e d u n t i l t h e 1960s, w h e n
i n t e r e s t in each s t u d y was a g a i n r e v i v e d ; i t has b e e n a f o c u s o f m o t o r s k i l l
development research in c h i l d r e n ever since. T h e use o f c i n e m a t o g r a p h y ,
electrogoniometry, a n d e l e c t r o m y o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c o m p u t e r
a n a l y s i s has e n h a n c e d o u r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e p r o c e s s o f m o v e m e n t .

Product-oriented research, or research yielding quantitative i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e

capabilities of children, has b e e n c o n d u c t e d f o r m a n y y e a r s . T h i s t y p e of
r e s e a r c h is t y p i c a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e o u t c o m e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r f o r m a n c e .
T h e d i s t a n c e a ball t r a v e l s o r h o w f a s t one can r u n a r e e x a m p l e s o f p e r f o r m a n c e
scores. The strength, endurance, or flexibility o f c h i l d r e n as m e a s u r e d b y a
p a r t i c u l a r b a t t e r y o f t e s t s can also be s t a t e d as p e r f o r m a n c e s c o r e s .

The relationship between process and product, or from ratings and performance
s c o r e s , is an i n t e r e s t i n g and l a r g e l y u n r e s e a r c h e d a r e a . W i c h s t r o m ( 1 9 7 7 ) has
i n d i c a t e d t h a t " t h e r e is a p o s i t i v e b u t n o t d i r e c t c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n f o r m
and performance. Mature form enhances performance, b u t g o o d p e r f o r m a n c e is
not totally dependent upon mature form" (p.5). The factors that influence
performance, s u c h as s t r e n g t h , speed of movement, agility, coordination, and
r e a c t i o n t i m e h a v e an i m p a c t on p e r f o r m a n c e a b i l i t i e s b u t m a y n o t i n f l u e n c e f o r m
to any significant degree.

Problms

Data c o l l e c t i o n , w h e t h e r i t be p r o d u c t o r p r o c e s s o r i e n t e d , can be d i f f i c u l t a n d
patience-trying when investigating young children. O n e o f t h e c h i e f c a u s e s of
t h e lag in m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t r e s e a r c h on y o u n g c h i l d r e n is p r e c i s e l y t h i s m a t t e r
of dealing with problems associated with data collection. P r e s c h o o l e r s t e n d to be
difficult subjects unless procedures are adopted that take into account their
normally independent natures. The two primary problems associated with good
data collection are inhibited or exaggerated performance and inconsistency in
performance. S p e c i a l p r e c a u t i o n s m u s t be t a k e n to e l i m i n a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l b i a s
of the data caused by these factors. In an a t t e m p t t o p u t t h e c h i l d at ease,
 Assessing Motor Development 249
time-consuming orientation periods and modified data collection procedures that
s i m u l a t e a m o r e n a t u r a l i s t i c s e t t i n g m u s t be e m p l o y e d . This effort still will not
e n s u r e c o n s i s t e n c y in p e r f o r m a n c e . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n a s k e d t o " T h r o w t h e ball
o v e r h a n d as f a r as y o u c a n , " t h e c h i l d m a y t h r o w f i r s t w i t h t h e r i g h t h a n d a n d
t h e n j u s t as c a s u a l l y b e g i n t h r o w i n g with the left. Some t h r o w s m a y be o v e r -
hand, others sidearm or underhand, even after precise instructions as t o t h e
particular type of throw desired. Some t h r o w s m a y go s e v e r a l y a r d s , o t h e r s o n l y
a few feet. Some t h r o w s m a y c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e a m a t u r e p a t t e r n o f a c t i o n w h i l e
others may look like a shot-put attempt or grenade-tossing exercise. As a r e s u l t ,
the experimenter is r e q u i r e d t o e x e r c i s e c o n s i d e r a b l e p a t i e n c e a n d t o w o r k w i t h
t h e c h i l d u n t i l he o r she has d e m o n s t r a t e d w h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r j u d g e d t o be a
maximun or r e p r e s e n t a t i v e effort using the most characteristic pattern of move-
ment. L e a r n i n g a n d f a t i g u e f a c t o r s m a y c o n t a m i n a t e t h e d a t a , as m a y e r r o r s in
experimenter judgment.

A n o t h e r p r o b l e m t h a t p l a g u e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l r e s e a r c h e r is i n t e r r a t e r c o n s i s -
tency. I t is c r u c i a l , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n a l a s s e s s m e n t be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
a n a l y z e d a n d t h a t o b s e r v e r s be c a r e f u l l y t r a i n e d in h o w to o b s e r v e a n d in w h a t
to look for. Still another serious problem facing the researcher involves the
reliability and validity of the measuring instrument itself. A variety of motor
development assessment devices are available. Some h a v e b e e n m e t i c u l o u s l y
d e s i g n e d , w h i l e o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a c o m b i n a t i o n o f m e a s u r e s f o r w h i c h t h e r e is o n l y
a v a g u e n o t i o n as t o t h e i r r e l i a b i l t y a n d m u c h less k n o w n a b o u t t h e i r v a l i d i t y .

T h e r e is no l a c k o f t e s t s t h a t p u r p o r t t o m e a s u r e t h e m o t o r a b i l i t i e s o f c h i l d r e n .
Wade ( 1 9 8 1 ) has c o n s e r v a t i v e l y e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e at l e a s t 250 a s s e s s m e n t
instruments, 91 o f w h i c h h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d . T h e p r o b l e m lies n o t in t h e
q u a n t i t y o f i n s t r u m e n t s a v a i l a b l e b u t in t h e i r q u a l i t y . The vast majority of tests
h a v e l i t t l e o r no r a t i o n a l e f o r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a r e b a s e d on q u a n t i t a t i v e m e a s u r e s
( i . e . h o w f a r , h o w f a s t , h o w m a n y ) r a t h e r t h a n on q u a l i t a t i v e m e a s u r e s ( h o w t h e
child moves). F u r t h e r m o r e , the majority of these assessment instruments fail to
compare individuals to their own previous performance but instead establish
p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i a b a s e d on t h e s c o r e s o f t h e i r c h r o n o l o g i c a l p e e r s . Tests of
this nature, although potentially reliable, objective, and relatively e a s y to
administer, reveal little about the motor "development" of the child. T h e y m a y be
v a l u a b l e , h o w e v e r , in t h a t t h e y d e s c r i b e t h e s t a t u s o f t h e c h i l d a t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r
t i m e in t e r m s o f t h e c r i t e r i o n m e a s u r e s a n d in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h his o r h e r p e e r s .
H o w e v e r , if we a r e i n t e r e s t e d in a s s e s s i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e o v e r t i m e t h e r e
is l i t t l e t o be g a i n e d f r o m a d m i n i s t e r i n g a b a t t e r y o f t e s t s t h a t m e r e l y d e s c r i b e
the quantity o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r f o r m a n c e a t a g i v e n p o i n t in t i m e . Tests of
t h i s n a t u r e h a v e l i t t l e t o d o w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m a y be m o r e p r o p e r l y l a b e l e d
as "performance" tests.

Assessment Instruments

T h e r e is an a b u n d a n c e of descriptive performance tests designed to screen child-

ren and to assess their current level of ability as m e a s u r e d by a variety of
behavioral events. Screening tests are designed to provide a relatively quick and
simple m e a n s of differentiating normal children from those w h o m a y not be devel-
oping normally. Behavioral assessment instruments, on the other hand, tend to
be more varied in intent and design. T h e y m a y attempt to distinguish between
normal and abnormal behavior, predict later abilities, or m e a s u r e individual
differences. T w o widely used screening devices are the D e n v e r Developmental
Screening Test ( F r a n k e n b u r g & Dodds, 1967) used from infancy through early
childhood, and the P u r d u e Perceptual Motor S u r v e y (Roach & Kephart, 1966) used
from early childhood through childhood. T h e Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor
Proficiency (Bruininks, 1978) is representative of product-oriented behavioral
assessment tests that are used to assess children's motor performance.
250 D. L. Gallahue
Few f o r m a l i z e d t e s t s e x i s t t h a t e x a m i n e t h e p r o c e s s o f m o v e m e n t a l t h o u g h t h e r e is
a g r o w i n g b o d y o f r e s e a r c h o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e q u a l i t y of c h i l d r e n ' s m o v e m e n t .
What is n e e d e d is c a r e f u l l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y o f a v a r i e t y of m o v e m e n t b e h a v i o r s in
order to generate developmental continua. Roberton (1981) notes: "Motor
d e v e l o p m e n t o u g h t t o be a s s e s s e d b y o b s e r v i n g a c h i l d ' s m o v e m e n t a n d l o c a t i n g
w h a t is seen w i t h i n a d e v e l o p m e n t a l s e q u e n c e " ( p . 3 ) .

The Fundamental Movement Pattern Assessment Instrument designed by

McClenaghan (1976), later published by McClenaghan and Gallahue (1978) and
expanded further b y G a l l a h u e ( 1 9 8 2 ) is a c a r e f u l l y developed observational
assessment instrument. It is u s e d t o c l a s s i f y individuals at t h e " i n i t i a l " ,
"elementary", and "mature" s t a g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f
movement. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s e q u e n c e f o r each f u n d a m e n t a l m o v e m e n t is b a s e d
on an exhaustive review of t h e biomechanical literature and observational
a s s e s s m e n t o f 25 f u n d a m e n t a l m o v e m e n t s .

The Developmental Sequence of Fundamental Motor Skills Inventory assessment

instrument developed by Seefeldt and Haubenstricker ( 1 9 7 6 ) is a n o t h e r w o r k a b l e
observational assessment instrument. I t c a t e g o r i z e d each o f t e n f u n d a m e n t a l
motor patterns into four or five stages. The fundamental movements of walking,
skipping, hopping, running, striking, kicking, catching, throwing, jumping, and
punting have been studied. T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t a l s e q u e n c e s a r e b a s e d on c o m -
binations of longitudinal and cross-sectional data obtained from film analysis.
C h i l d r e n a r e o b s e r v e d a n d m a t c h e d t o b o t h v i s u a l a n d v e r b a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f each
stage. I n d i v i d u a l s a r e c l a s s i f i e d a l o n g a c o n t i n u u m f o r s t a g e one ( i m m a t u r e ) to
stage five (mature).

There are a few other useful process-oriented approaches to motor development

assessment. R o b e r t o n ' s ( 1 9 7 8 ) m e t h o d r e p r e s e n t s an e x p a n s i o n o f s t a g e t h e o r y
and analyzes the components of movement wthin a given pattern. Her longitudinal
study of the development of throwing abilities lends support for the concept of
developmental stages and offers hope for validation of developmental sequences.
The Ohio State University Scale o f I n t r a - G r o s s M o t o r A s s e s s m e n t (OSU S i g m a )
d e v e l o p e d b y L o o v i s a n d E r s i n g ( 1 9 7 7 ) also r e p r e s e n t s a p r o m i s i n g e f f o r t at
observing the process of movement.

Summary/

T h e b e n e f i t s t o be g a i n e d f r o m e v a l u a t i n g m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t in y o u n g c h i l d r e n
far outweigh the problems and pitfalls. As i n f o r m a t i o n a c c u m u l a t e s a n d is r e p l i -
c a t e d , a m o r e a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e of t h e p r o c e s s of m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h i l d r e n is
being formed. R e s e a r c h e f f o r t s t h a t use a c o m b i n a t i o n o f l o n g i t u d i n a l a n d c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s , t h a t f o c u s on b o t h f o r m a n d p e r f o r m a n c e ~ and t h a t r e c o g n i z e
and need for patient, unbiased data collection are making significant contributions
to o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t .

T h e r e is an e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g number of published and unpublished tests purported

t o be m e a s u r e s o f m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t . The vast majority of these assessment
instruments are product-oriented and p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r e s e n t
s t a t u s o f t h e c h i l d in a v a r i t y o f a r e a s . They are descriptive and generally
e s t a b l i s h a s t a n d a r d o f p e r f o r m a n c e b a s e d on c e t a i n e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r each c h r o n -
ological age. Product-oriented assessment instruments can be o f v a l u e to t h e
m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t s p e c i a l i s t if t h e y a r e b o t h v a l i d a n d r e l i a b l e . Unfortunately,
t h e v a l i d i t y o f m a n y t e s t s is s u s p e c t b e c a u s e o f t h e l a c k of s o u n d r a t i o n a l e , o r
because of inadequate correlational attempts with other tests purporting to
m e a s u r e t h e same t h i n g .
 Assessing Motor Development 251
P r o d u c t - o r i e n t e d t e s t s may be c l a s s i f i e d as e i t h e r s c r e e i n g devices or b e h a v i o r a l
assessment d e v i c e s . The D e n v e r Developmental S c r e e n i n g T e s t , and P u r d u e
P e r c e p t u a l - M o t o r s u r v e y are e a s y - t o - u s e tools a v a i l a b l e f o r q u i c k b u t g r o s s classi-
f i c a t i o n of c h i l d r e n . The B r u i n i n k s - O s e r e t s k y T e s t of Motor P r o f i c i e n c y is a
w i d e l y used b e h a v i o r a l assessment i n s t r u m e n t f o r y o u n g c h i l d r e n . T h e r e are f a r
f e w e r p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d t e s t s a l t h o u g h t h e r e is a g r e a t need to know more a b o u t
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o g r e s s i o n of movement s k i l l a c q u i s i t i o n . The Fundamental
Movement P a t t e r n Assessment I n s t r u m e n t and the Developmental Sequence of
Fundamental Motor S k i l l s I n v e n t o r y r e p r e s e n t two i n i t i a l a t t e m p t s at assessing the
q u a l i t y , r a t h e r t h a n the q u a n t i t y , of movement.

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THE AUTHOR

DAVID L. GALLAHUE is A s s i s t a n t Dean f o r Research and Development in the

School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation at Indiana U n i v e r s i t y ,
Bloomington. He is a u t h o r of U n d e r s t a n d i n g Motor Development in C h i l d r e n
(Wiley).