Breakthrough In Energy Storage: New

Carbon Material Shows Promise Of

Storing Large Quantities Of Renewable
Electrical Energy

This image of a single suspended sheet of

graphene shows individual carbon atoms
(yellow) on a honeycomb lattice. (Credit:
U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory)
ScienceDaily (Sep. 17, 2008) — Engineers and scientists at The University of Texas at
Austin have achieved a breakthrough in the use of a one-atom thick structure called
"graphene" as a new carbon-based material for storing electrical charge in ultracapacitor
devices, perhaps paving the way for the massive installation of renewable energies such
as wind and solar power.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Energy Technology
 Wind Energy
 Electricity

Earth & Climate

 Energy and the Environment
 Renewable Energy
 Environmental Science

Reference
 Electric power
 Battery (electricity)
 Electrical phenomena
 Electrical conduction

The researchers believe their breakthrough shows promise that graphene (a form of
carbon) could eventually double the capacity of existing ultracapacitors, which are
manufactured using an entirely different form of carbon.

"Through such a device, electrical charge can be rapidly stored on the graphene sheets,
and released from them as well for the delivery of electrical current and, thus, electrical
power," says Rod Ruoff, a mechanical engineering professor and a physical chemist.
"There are reasons to think that the ability to store electrical charge can be about double
that of current commercially used materials. We are working to see if that prediction will
be borne out in the laboratory."

Two main methods exist to store electrical energy: in rechargeable batteries and in
ultracapacitors which are becoming increasingly commercialized but are not yet as
popularly known. An ultracapacitor can be used in a wide range of energy capture and
storage applications and are used either by themselves as the primary power source or in
combination with batteries or fuel cells. Some advantages of ultracapacitors over more
traditional energy storage devices (such as batteries) include: higher power capability,
longer life, a wider thermal operating range, lighter, more flexible packaging and lower
maintenance, Ruoff says.

Ruoff and his team prepared chemically modified graphene material and, using several
types of common electrolytes, have constructed and electrically tested graphene-based
ultracapacitor cells. The amount of electrical charge stored per weight (called "specific
capacitance") of the graphene material has already rivaled the values available in existing
ultracapacitors, and modeling suggests the possibility of doubling the capacity.
"Our interest derives from the exceptional properties of these atom-thick and electrically
conductive graphene sheets, because in principle all of the surface of this new carbon
material can be in contact with the electrolyte," says Ruoff, who holds the Cockrell
Family Regents Chair in Engineering #7. "Graphene's surface area of 2630 m2/gram
(almost the area of a football field in about 1/500th of a pound of material) means that a
greater number of positive or negative ions in the electrolyte can form a layer on the
graphene sheets resulting in exceptional levels of stored charge."

The U.S. Department of Energy has said that an improved method for storage of
electrical energy is one of the main challenges preventing the substantial installation of
renewable energies such as wind and solar power. Storage is vital for times when the
wind doesn't blow or the sun doesn't shine. During those times, the stored electrical
energy can be delivered through the electrical grid as needed.

Ruoff's team includes graduate student Meryl Stoller and postdoctoral fellows Sungjin
Park, Yanwu Zhu and Jinho An, all from the Mechanical Engineering Department and the
Texas Materials Institute at the university. Their findings will be published in the Oct. 8
edition of Nano Letters. The article was posted on the journal's Web site this week.

This technology, Stoller says, has the promise of significantly improving the efficiency
and performance of electric and hybrid cars, buses, trains and trams. Even everyday
devices such as office copiers and cell phones benefit from the improved power delivery
and long lifetimes of ultracapacitors.

Ruoff says significant implementation of wind farms for generation of electricity is

occurring throughout the world and the United States, with Texas and California first and
second in the generation of wind power.

According to the American Wind Energy Association, in 2007 wind power installation
grew 45 percent in this country. Ruoff says if the energy production from wind turbine
technology grew at 45 percent annually for the next 20 years, the total energy production
(from wind alone) would almost equal the entire energy production of the world from all
sources in 2007.

"While it is unlikely that such explosive installation and use of wind can continue at this
growth rate for 20 years, one can see the possibilities, and also ponder the issues of
scale," he says. "Electrical energy storage becomes a critical component when very large
quantities of renewable electrical energy are being generated."

Funding and support was provided by the Texas Nanotechnology Research Superiority
Initiative, The University of Texas at Austin and a Korea Research Foundation Grant for
fellowship support for Dr. Park.
Smarter Energy Storage For Solar And
Wind Power

The first hybrid battery suitable for electricity storage from renewable sources such as
wind power is now a step closer. (Credit: CSIRO)

ScienceDaily (Nov. 29, 2007) — Development of the first hybrid battery suitable for
storing electricity from renewable energy sources such as solar and wind is now a step
closer.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Batteries
 Energy Technology
 Petroleum

Earth & Climate

 Energy and the Environment
 Renewable Energy
 Sustainability

Reference
 Battery (electricity)
 Fuel cell
 Alternative fuel vehicle
 Biomass

CSIRO and Cleantech Ventures have invested in technology start-up Smart Storage Pty
Ltd to develop and commercialise battery-based storage solutions.
Director of the CSIRO Energy Transformed National Research Flagship Dr John Wright
said the Smart Storage battery technology aims to deliver a low cost, high performance,
high power stationary energy storage solution suitable for grid-connected and remote
applications.

“Cost effective, high performance energy storage has been the missing link for renewable
energy,” he said.

Current battery storage solutions undergo frequent deep discharging and are unable to
meet high power demands. They are also considered expensive due to high initial cost
and short battery life.

“The Smart Storage technology is based on CSIRO’s ‘Ultrabattery’ which has been
successfully trialled in hybrid vehicles,” Dr Wright said.

Extensive technology development is now underway to produce a low cost and easily
manufactured deep-cycle stationary battery that meets demanding variable operating
conditions.

“The Smart Storage technology is based on CSIRO’s ‘Ultrabattery’ which has been
successfully trialled in hybrid vehicles,”

Dr Wright said.

The Smart Storage technology is a hybrid battery which combines an asymmetric

‘supercapacitor’ electrode and a lead-acid battery in a single unit cell. Advanced materials
used for the electrodes and current management absorb and release charge rapidly and at
efficiencies well above conventional battery types.

It is expected that the discharge and charge power of the Smart Storage battery will be 50
per cent higher and its cycle-life at least three times longer than that of the conventional
lead-acid counterpart.

“Most importantly, our technology development path is directed towards manufacturing

in existing lead-acid battery plants,” said Andrew Pickering, a Principal at Cleantech
Ventures.

“Too often new technologies simply aren’t affordable and that significantly retards
market uptake.

“Investments in energy storage technologies have excellent potential for strong returns
given the growing market demand and the lack of viable solutions. We now have
investments in two energy storage technology companies, V-Fuel which targets grid-scale
renewable energy storage applications and now Smart Storage for smaller renewable
energy systems.”
UltraBattery Sets New Standard For
Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Researcher, Rosalie Louey, prepares

components for the UltraBattery in
CSIRO laboratories (Credit: Image
courtesy of CSIRO Australia)
ScienceDaily (Jan. 22, 2008) — The odometer of a low emission hybrid electric test
vehicle recently reached 100,000 miles as the car circled a track in the UK using the
power of an advanced CSIRO battery system. The UltraBattery combines a
supercapacitor and a lead acid battery in a single unit, creating a hybrid car battery that
lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current technologies used in hybrid
electric vehicles (HEVs).

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Batteries
 Energy Technology
  Electricity

Earth & Climate

 Energy and the Environment
 Renewable Energy
 Environmental Science

Reference
 Alternative fuel vehicle
 Battery (electricity)
 Automobile emissions control
 Biomass

“The UltraBattery is a leap forward for low emission transport and uptake of HEVs,” said
David Lamb, who leads low emissions transport research with the Energy Transformed
National Research Flagship.

“Previous tests show the UltraBattery has a life cycle that is at least four times longer and
produces 50 per cent more power than conventional battery systems. It’s also about 70
per cent cheaper than the batteries currently used in HEVs,” he said.

By marrying a conventional fuel-powered engine with a battery to drive an electric

motor, HEVs achieve the dual environmental benefit of reducing both greenhouse gas
emissions and fossil fuel consumption.

The UltraBattery also has the ability to provide and absorb charge rapidly during vehicle
acceleration and braking, making it particularly suitable for HEVs, which rely on the
electric motor to meet peak power needs during acceleration and can recapture energy
normally wasted through braking to recharge the battery.

Over the past 12 months, a team of drivers has put the UltraBattery to the test at the
Millbrook Proving Ground in the United Kingdom, one of Europe’s leading locations for
the development and demonstration of land vehicles.

“Passing the 100,000 miles mark is strong evidence of the UltraBattery's capabilities,”
Mr Lamb said.

“CSIRO’s ongoing research will further improve the technology’s capabilities, making it
lighter, more efficient and capable of setting new performance standards for HEVs.”

The UltraBattery test program for HEV applications is the result of an international
collaboration. The battery system was developed by CSIRO in Australia, built by the
Furukawa Battery Company of Japan and tested in the United Kingdom through the
American-based Advanced Lead-Acid Battery Consortium.
UltraBattery technology also has applications for renewable energy storage from wind
and solar. CSIRO is part of a technology start-up that will develop and commercialise
battery-based storage solutions for these energy sources.
Slicing Solar Power Costs: New Method
Cuts Waste In Making Most Efficient
Solar Cells

University of Utah mechanical engineers

Dinesh Rakwal and Eberhard Bamberg
watch as an electrified molybdenum wire
cuts a thin wafer of germanium
semiconductor, which is used in a solar
power cells. Their new cutting technique
promises to reduce the cost of the most
efficient type of solar power cell. (Credit:
Eberhard Bamberg, University of Utah)
ScienceDaily (Sep. 16, 2008) — University of Utah engineers devised a new way to slice
thin wafers of the chemical element germanium for use in the most efficient type of solar
power cells. They say the new method should lower the cost of such cells by reducing the
waste and breakage of the brittle semiconductor.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Solar Energy
 Electricity
 Acoustics

Earth & Climate

 Energy and the Environment
 Renewable Energy
 Environmental Science

Reference
 Germanium
 Solar cell
 Semiconductor
 Solar panel

The expensive solar cells now are used mainly on spacecraft, but with the improved
wafer-slicing method, "the idea is to make germanium-based, high-efficiency solar cells
for uses where cost now is a factor," particularly for solar power on Earth, says Eberhard
"Ebbe" Bamberg, an assistant professor of mechanical engineering. "You want to do it on
your roof."

Dinesh Rakwal, a doctoral student in mechanical engineering, adds: "We're coming up

with a more efficient way of making germanium wafers for solar cells – to reduce the
cost and weight of these solar cells and make them defect-free."

Bamberg and Rakwal are publishing their findings in the Journal of Materials Processing
Technology. Their study has been accepted, and a final version will be published online
late this month or in early October, and in print in 2009.

Brass-coated, steel-wire saws now are used to slice round wafers of germanium from
cylindrical single-crystal ingots. But the brittle chemical element cracks easily, requiring
broken pieces to be recycled, and the width of the saws means a significant amount of
germanium is lost during the cutting process. The sawing method was developed for
silicon wafers, which are roughly 100 times stronger.

The new method for slicing solar cell wafers – known as wire electrical discharge
machining (WEDM) – wastes less germanium and produces more wafers by cutting even
thinner wafers with less waste and cracking. The method uses an extremely thin
molybdenum wire with an electrical current running through it. It has been used
previously for machining metals during tool-making.

Germanium serves as the bottom layer of the most efficient existing type of solar cell, but
is used primarily on NASA, military and commercial satellites because of the high
expense – raw germanium costs about $680 per pound. Four-inch-wide wafers used in
solar cells cost $80 to $100 each, and the new cutting method may reduce the cost by
more than 10 percent, says Grant Fines, chief technology officer for germanium wafer-
maker Sylarus Technologies in St. George, Utah.

"Anything that can be done to lower this cost ultimately will lower the cost of solar
power per kilowatt-hour, which is beneficial," and will encourage wider use of solar
power, he adds. "That's why this technology Ebbe has come up with is very intriguing."

Sylarus is considering using the new method, but must determine if it can be scaled up so
wafers can be mass-produced in a commercially viable manner, Fines says.

Bamberg's method would "reduce the amount we have to recycle and increase the yield,"
he adds. "It has the potential to give good savings, which helps enable this technology
here on Earth."

A patent is pending on a way of using the new method so that multiple, parallel
electrically charged wires are used to cut germanium wafers – a mass-production method
Bamberg compares with an egg slicer.

Bringing High-Efficiency Solar Cells Down to Earth

Germanium is a semiconductor at the bottom of "multijunction" solar cells. Above it are

layers of gallium-indium-arsenide and gallium-indium-phosphide. The layers work
together to capture different wavelengths of sunlight, and the germanium also serves as
the substrate upon which the solar cell is "grown."

When sunlight hits a solar cell, the energy is converted to a flow of electrons in the cell,
namely, electricity.

Silicon-based solar cells on Earth have maximum efficiency of 20 percent, Fines says. In
space, germanium solar cells typically convert 28 percent of sunlight into electricity, but
on Earth where solar concentrators are used, they can convert more than 40 percent of
sunlight into electricity, and their efficiency theoretically exceeds 50 percent, he adds.

Despite the greater efficiency of germanium-based solar cells, a 2005 survey found that
94 percent of solar cells made for non-space uses were silicon-based because silicon is
much cheaper and less fragile than germanium, the Utah researchers say.

Bamberg says germanium-based solar cells are used on most spacecraft because they are
more efficient and lighter than silicon-based solar cells. By making it more attractive
economically to use efficient germanium solar cells on rooftops, the weight and size of
solar panels can be reduced "so it doesn't bother you aesthetically," he adds.

The new method may make germanium-based solar cells competitive with less efficient
but less expensive silicon-based solar cells for uses on Earth, says Bamberg.

Less Waste, More Wafers

In the new method, the molybdenum wire essentially is an electrode, and it is connected
to a pulsed power supply that charges the wire during the cutting process.

A cylinder-shaped germanium ingot rests on a horizontal support, and the wire is lowered
into the ingot as new wire is pulled continually from a supply spool to replace the cutting
wire as it wears. Thin, synthetic oil is injected along the wire, both to increase the
electrical charge on the wire and to flush away material that melts during the cutting
process.

The process is slow. Wire electrical discharge machining takes 14 hours to cut a single
wafer. Bamberg says the electrified wire method has to be done gently to avoid cracking
the germanium, but he hopes to increase the speed to the six hours it now takes to cut a
wafer using a wire saw.

Wire saws made of brass-coated steel have a thickness of about 170 or 180 microns
(millionths of a meter). The Utah researchers used molybdenum wire 75 to 100 microns
thick, a bit thicker than a human hair. Less germanium is wasted during the slicing
process because the electrified cutting wire is thinner.

The study found that a 100-micron-thick electrified wire significantly reduced the waste
and increased the number of wafers that could be made from a germanium ingot, but a
thinner 75-micron-wide wire did even better.

"At the current standard wafer thickness of 300 microns, you can produce up to 30
percent more wafers using our method" with a 75-micron-wide wire, Bamberg says.
"Since we produce them crack free, we can also make them thinner than standard
techniques. So if you go down to a 100-micron-thick wafer, you can make up to 57
percent more wafers [from the same germanium ingot]. That's a huge number."

Making the wafers thinner will reduce their cost because more can be made from the
same ingot, he adds.

The new study found that the "kerf" – which is the amount of germanium wasted during
the slicing process – was 22 percent less when a 75-micron diameter electrified wire was
used to cut the wafers, compared with the conventional wire saw method. The researchers
cut 2.6-inch-diameter wafers with a thickness of 350 microns.

The study also showed less germanium was wasted not only using the smaller wire size,
but also if the charge on the electrified wire was lower.

The study was funded by the National Science Foundation, University of Utah Research
Foundation and Sylarus Technologies.
Converting Sunlight To Cheaper Energy
ScienceDaily (Aug. 25, 2008) — Scientists are working to convert sunlight to cheap
electricity at South Dakota State University. Research scientists are working with new
materials that can make devices used for converting sunlight to electricity cheaper and
more efficient.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Optics
 Solar Energy
 Chemistry

Earth & Climate

 Energy and the Environment
 Renewable Energy
 Environmental Science

Reference
 Solar cell
 Materials science
 Organic chemistry
 Nanowire

Assistant professor Qiquan Qiao in SDSU’s Department of Electrical Engineering and

Computer Science said so-called organic photovoltaics, or OPVs, are less expensive to
produce than traditional devices for harvesting solar energy.

Qiao and his SDSU colleagues also are working on organic light-emitting diodes, or
OLEDs.

The new technology is sometimes referred to as “molecular electronics” or “organic

electronics” — organic because it relies on carbon-based polymers and molecules as
semiconductors rather than inorganic semiconductors such as silicon.

“Right now the challenge for photovoltaics is to make the technology less expensive,”
Qiao said.

“Therefore, the objective is find new materials and novel device structures for cost-
effective photovoltaic devices.
“The beauty of organic photovoltaics and organic LEDs is low cost and flexibility,” the
researcher continued. “These devices can be fabricated by inexpensive, solution-based
processing techniques similar to painting or printing."

“The ease of production brings costs down, while the mechanical flexibility of the
materials opens up a wide range of applications,” Qiao concluded.

Organic photovoltaics and organic LEDs are made up of thin films of semiconducting
organic compounds that can absorb photons of solar energy. Typically an organic
polymer, or a long, flexible chain of carbon-based material, is used as a substrate on
which semiconducting materials are applied as a solution using a technique similar to
inkjet printing.

“The research at SDSU is focused on new materials with variable band gaps,” Qiao said.

“The band gap determines how much solar energy the photovoltaic device can absorb and
convert into electricity.”

Qiao explained that visible sunlight contains only about 50 percent of the total solar
energy. That means the sun is giving off just as much non-visible energy as visible
energy.

“We’re working on synthesizing novel polymers with variable band gaps, including high,
medium and low-band gap varieties, to absorb the full spectrum of sunlight. By this we
can double the light harvesting or absorption,” Qiao said.

SDSU’s scientists plan to use the variable band gap polymers to build multi-junction
polymer solar cells or photovoltaics.

These devices use multiple layers of polymer/fullerene films that are tuned to absorb
different spectral regions of solar energy.

Ideally, photons that are not absorbed by the first film layer pass through to be absorbed
by the following layers.

The devices can harvest photons from ultraviolet to visible to infrared in order to
efficiently convert the full spectrum of solar energy to electricity.

SDSU scientists also work with organic light-emitting diodes focusing on developing
novel materials and devices for full color displays.

“We are working to develop these new light-emitting and efficient, charge-transporting
materials to improve the light-emitting efficiency of full color displays,” Qiao said.
Currently, LED technology is used mainly for signage displays. But in the future, as
OLEDs become less expensive and more efficient, they may be used for residential
lighting, for example.

The new technology will make it easy to insert lights into walls or ceilings. But instead of
light bulbs, the lighting apparatus of the future may look more like a poster, Qiao said.

Qiao and his colleagues are funded in part by SDSU’s electrical engineering Ph.D.
program and by National Science Foundation and South Dakota EPSCoR, the
Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research.

In addition Qiao is one of about 40 faculty members from SDSU, the South Dakota
School of Mines and Technology and the University of South Dakota who have come
together to form Photo Active Nanoscale Systems (PANS).

The primary purpose is developing photovoltaics, or devices that will directly convert
light to electricity.

Scientists are working with new materials that can make devices used for converting
sunlight to electricity cheaper and more efficient. (Credit: iStockphoto)
Creating Unconventional Metals:
Quantum Halfway House Between
Magnet And Semiconductor Discovered
ScienceDaily (Aug. 21, 2008) — The semiconductor silicon and the ferromagnet iron are
the basis for much of mankind's technology, used in everything from computers to
electric motors. In the journal Nature (August 21st) an international group of scientists,
including academic and industrial researchers from the UK, USA and Lesotho, report that
they have combined these elements with a small amount of another common metal,
manganese, to create a new material which is neither a magnet nor an ordinary
semiconductor.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Physics
 Materials Science
 Electronics
 Nanotechnology
 Quantum Physics
 Technology

Reference
 Electrical conduction
 Nanowire
 Semiconductor
 Germanium

The paper goes on to show how a small magnetic field can be used to switch ordinary
semiconducting behaviour (such as that seen in the electronic-grade silicon which is used
to make transistors) back on.

The new material exists in a quantum halfway house between magnet and semiconductor
- in the same way that much more complex materials such as ceramics which exhibit high
temperature superconductivity exist in quantum halfway houses between metals and
magnetic insulators. The research is of fundamental importance because it demonstrates,
for the first time, a simple recipe for reaching this halfway house, whilst also suggesting
new mechanisms for controlling electrical currents and magnetism in semiconductor
devices.

Professor J.F. DiTusa of Louisiana State University and a co-author of the paper said:
"It's amazing that something which was thought to exist theoretically in mathematical
physics could actually be found in an alloy which was simply formed by melting together
a few common elements."

Professor Gabriel Aeppli of UCL (University College London), another member of the
research team and Director of the London Centre for Nanotechnology, added: "It might
be possible to see similar effects in devices made using materials and methods found in
laser pointers. This would put what we've seen firmly in the realm of that which can
easily be achieved using current technologies."

The first author of the paper, Dr. N. Manyala of the National University of Lesotho, said:
"We are looking forward to investigating whether we can see these effects using thin
layers of the same materials deposited directly on the silicon wafers. These wafers are the
same as those used by mass market electronics manufacturers as the basis for integrated
circuits." Dr. Ramirez, who is now with LGS-Bell Labs Innovations echoed this thought,
noting that, "with the end of Moore's law in sight, mechanisms for controlling and
understanding possible new information bits such as spins in solids are actively being
sought after."

The magnetic bar magnets (called "magnetic moments") associated with the mobile
electrons (red arrows) responsible for electrical conduction and manganese atoms (green
arrows) in manganese doped iron silicide (Fe1-xMnxSi). This figure depicts the coupling
of the magnetic moments as the temperature is reduced from room temperature (top of
the figure) where the magnetic dipoles are independent, to very low temperature (bottom
of the figure) where coupling between the dipoles creates regions where the moments add
to zero (light blue region). The existence of a population of uncoupled complexes
(depicted here in the yellow region) down to the lowest temperatures results in the
material being neither a magnet nor common semiconductor. External magnetic fields
align these rare yellow regions to the magnetic field, switching on ordinary
semiconducting behavior. (Credit: UCL/London Centre for Nanotechnology)
etter Technology For Developing Plastic
Solar Cells And Plastic Electronic
Devices Created
ScienceDaily (July 9, 2008) — A new way to help technologists develop efficient and
inexpensive plastic electronic devices, such as plastic solar cells and a new type of
transistor was showcased by physicist Andrea Liscio, who is supported by the European
Science Foundation (ESF) through the EUROCORES programne SONS 2 (Self-
Organised NanoStructures), at the EMRS (European Material Research Society) Spring
Meeting held in Strasbourg, France at the end of May.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Materials Science
 Electronics
 Technology

Earth & Climate

 Energy and the Environment
 Renewable Energy
 Weather

Reference
 Scanning tunneling microscope
 Confocal laser scanning microscopy
 Electron microscope
 Spectroscopy

Liscio, a researcher at the Istituto per la Sintesi Organica e la Fotoreattività - Consiglio

Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR) in Bologna, Italy is working in the SUPRAMATES
collaborative research project and is using an analytical technique based on a powerful
type of microscopy, to analyse materials and map their electrical properties with
nanoscopic detail.

Liscio explained how he and his colleagues are using Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy
(KPFM), which is an extension of atomic force microscopy, and is 1000 times more
powerful than an optical microscope.

He presented details of a systematic study of KPFM measurements of nanostructures.

"We studied an extensive range of samples and structures with sizes spanning from
several micrometres down to a few nanometres," explained Liscio, "Our results indicated
that by operating the KPFM at high frequencies it is possible to visualize different
electrical behaviour in nanostructured samples."

A standard AFM has a very sharp probe (just a few atoms across) that scans across a
surface the tip bobs up and down following the atomic detail of the surface as forces
between the probe and the surface change. The probe's movement is recorded by a highly
focused laser linked to a computer. KPFM extends this approach by applying an electric
potential to the probe, which allows the electronic properties and composition of the
surface to be measured as well as its topography. One property revealed is the work
function of the surface, which is linked to a material's catalytic activity, corrosion
resistance, and its electronic properties.

"KPFM is a highly versatile tool," explained Liscio, "useful for studying both conducting
and semiconducting samples, as well as thin oxide layers, in a non-invasive way."

One group of materials on which the researchers have focused is conjugated

nanomaterials. These materials have been widely adopted as the active components of a
variety of optoelectronic devices, including organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), thin
film transistors, solar energy conversion materials.

Optimising such devices depends on being able to fine-tune the movement of electrons at
the interface between the electrode and the organic material as well as how they travel
through the material. Mapping quantitatively the electronic properties of the surface with
a high degree of precision is crucial to this endeavour.

To measure electrostatic interactions, the KPFM probe must be vibrating.

As the probe bobs up and down the force required to keep it oscillating at a steady rate
changes measurably, which tells the scientists about the nature of the scanned surface. By
using different vibration frequencies, it is possible obtain nanoscale measurements on
materials.

Liscio and co-workers and others have shown that vibrating the probe above its natural
resonant frequency, they could make the device more sensitive.

Liscio explains that within the frame of SUPRAMATES, the collaborative effort is
addressing the question of how nanoscale architecture and function are linked. He and his
colleagues have a strong interaction with the research groups of Klaus Müllen (MPIP
Mainz) and Alan Rowan (Radboud University Nijmegen), which means they can develop
new functional nanostructures for testing in organic electronics.

Within these collaborations, the researchers at the CNR Bologna node have used KPFM
to investigate organic semiconductors that can undergo self-assembly on a surface to
form sophisticated nanoscopic structures and nanofibres of other organic semiconductors,
both of which might one day find application in molecular electronics.
The CNR Bologna team has also applied the technique to studies of organic photovoltaic
materials, plastic solar cells in other words, which could significantly cut the costs of
renewable solar energy and make it commercially viable. They are testing structurally
well-defined plastics known as polyisocyanopeptide polymers as scaffolds on which they
can arrange thousands of electron-accepting molecules, among them a group of organic
molecules known as the perylene-bis(dicarboximides).

The result is that they can produce hundreds of nanometre-long light-absorbing wires.

They then used KPFM measurements to visualize directly the photovoltaic activity of the
nano wires, which offered new insights into how plastic solar cells might be made.
Within SUPRAMATES, the performance of devices based on these systems will be
explored in the groups of Richard Friend at the University of Cambridge and Franco
Cacialli of University College London and the London Center for Nanotechnology.

Thhe figure shows a blend of donor-acceptor organic assemblies. The KPFM images
recorded (c) in dark and (d) under illumination map the potential variation at the surface
to the sample due to the light. (a) Carton of illuminated sample showing both P3HT:PDI
(III: II, respectively) aggregates and isolated PDI assemblies (I). (b) Topographical
image of P3HT:PDI agglomerates, and corresponding KPFM images recorded (c) in
dark and (d) under illumination. Z-scales: (b) 20 nm, (c,d) 60 mV. (Credit: Image
courtesy of European Science Foundation)
Goodbye To Batteries And Power Cords
In Factories
ScienceDaily (June 11, 2008) — A broken cable or a soiled connector? If a machine in a
factory goes on strike, it could be for any of a thousand reasons. Self-sufficient sensors
that provide their own power supply will soon make these machines more robust.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Solar Energy
 Energy Technology
 Electricity
 Detectors
 Wind Energy
 Physics

Reference
 Machine
 Catalytic converter
 Industrial robot
 Robot calibration

When a factory machine breaks down, it’s hard to know what to do. Production often
comes to a standstill until the error has finally been pinpointed – and that can take hours.
The causes are legion; in many cases it is all due to a single interrupted contact.
Consequently, many manufacturers have long been hoping for a technology that will
work without vulnerable power and data cables. The idea is basically feasible, using
small devices that harvest energy from their surroundings and provide their own power
supply rather like a solar calculator.

Experts speak of energy self-sufficient sensor-actuator systems. These high-tech

components normally consist of a sensor, a processor and a radio module. They measure
position, force or temperature and transmit the data instantaneously by radio. In this way,
vital machine data reach the control center without using cables at all. Is the machine
overheating? Is the drive shaft wearing out?

So far, however, there are hardly any off-the-shelf solutions with their own energy supply.
Research scientists from the Fraunhofer Technology Development Group TEG in
Stuttgart have now joined forces with industrial partners and universities in the EnAS
project, sponsored by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology, to build a
transportable demonstrator. This is a miniature conveyer system driven by compressed air
that transports small components in an endless cycle.
The round workpieces are picked up by a vacuum gripper, transported a short way and set
down on a small carrier, which conveys the parts back to the starting point. All steps of
the process are monitored by sensors as usual. The special feature of the demonstrator is
that the sensing elements have no need of an external power supply.

The machine uses photo diodes, for instance, to check whether the carrier has been
correctly loaded – if so, the light from the diodes is obscured by the workpieces. Solar
cells supply the energy for this workpiece detector. Another example are pressure sensors
which monitor the work of the vacuum gripper. In this case, the power is supplied by
piezoelectric flexural transducers. The piezoelectric elements contain ceramics that
generate electricity on being deformed. This deformation happens when the vacuum
pump is switched on and off. The electricity thus generated is sufficient to send an OK
signal to the central control unit. The sensor thus draws its power from pressurized air
that is present anyway.

Within the next two years, the various system components are expected to make their
way into everyday industrial use.

Thehe demonstrator – a miniature conveyor system driven by compressed air – contains

wireless sensors that provide their own power supply. (Credit: Copyright Festo)
NASA Developing Fission Surface Power
Technology
ScienceDaily (Sep. 11, 2008) — NASA astronauts will need power sources when they
return to the moon and establish a lunar outpost. NASA engineers are exploring the
possibility of nuclear fission to provide the necessary power and taking initial steps
toward a non-nuclear technology demonstration of this type of system.

See also:
Space & Time
 Moon
 NASA
 Space Exploration

Matter & Energy

 Solar Energy
 Electricity
 Energy Technology

Reference
 Electric power
 Power station
 Heat pump
 Nuclear fission

A fission surface power system on the moon has the potential to generate a steady 40
kilowatts of electric power, enough for about eight houses on Earth. It works by splitting
uranium atoms in a reactor to generate heat that then is converted into electric power. The
fission surface power system can produce large amounts of power in harsh environments,
like those on the surface of the moon and Mars, because it does not rely on sunlight. The
primary components of fission surface power systems are a heat source, power
conversion, heat rejection and power conditioning and distribution.

"Our goal is to build a technology demonstration unit with all the major components of a
fission surface power system and conduct non-nuclear, integrated system testing in a
ground-based space simulation facility," said Lee Mason, principal investigator for the
test at NASA's Glenn Center in Cleveland. "Our long-term goal is to demonstrate
technical readiness early in the next decade, when NASA is expected to decide on the
type of power system to be used on the lunar surface."

Glenn recently contracted for the design and analysis of two different types of advanced
power conversion units as an early step in the development of a full system-level
technology demonstration. These power conversion units are necessary to process the
heat produced by the nuclear reactor and efficiently convert it to electrical power.

The first design concept by Sunpower Inc., of Athens, Ohio, uses two opposed piston
engines coupled to alternators that produce 6 kilowatts each, or a total of 12 kilowatts of
power. The second contract with Barber Nichols Inc. of Arvada, Colo., is for
development of a closed Brayton cycle engine that uses a high speed turbine and
compressor coupled to a rotary alternator that also generates 12 kilowatts of power.

"Development and testing of the power conversion unit will be a key factor in
demonstrating the readiness of fission surface power technology and provide NASA with
viable and cost-effective options for nuclear power on the moon and Mars," said Don
Palac, manager for Glenn's Fission Surface Power Project.

After a one year design and analysis phase, a single contractor will be selected to build
and test a prototype power conversion unit. When complete, the power conversion unit
will be integrated with the other technology demonstration unit's major components.
Glenn will develop the heat rejection system and provide the space simulation facility.
Glenn will also work in conjunction with the Department of Energy and NASA's
Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. Marshall will develop and provide a
non-nuclear reactor simulator with liquid metal coolant as the heat source unit for this
technology demonstration.

A nuclear reactor used in space is much different than Earth-based systems. There are no
large concrete cooling towers, and the reactor is about the size of an office trash can. The
energy produced from a space reactor is also much smaller but more than adequate for the
projected power needs of a lunar outpost.

Testing of the non-nuclear system is expected to take place at Glenn in 2012 or 2013.
These tests will help verify system performance projections, develop safe and reliable
control methods, gain valuable operating experience, and reduce technology and
programmatic risks. This technology demonstration is being conducted as part of NASA's
Exploration Technology Development Program.
Ann artist's concept of a fission surface power system on the surface of the moon. The
nuclear reactor has been buried below the lunar surface to make use of lunar soil as
additional radiation shielding. The engines that convert heat energy to electricity are in
the tower above the reactor, and radiators extend out from the tower to radiate into space
any leftover heat energy that has not been converted to electricity. The power system
would transmit a steady 40 kW of electric power, enough for about eight houses on
Earth, to the lunar outpost. (Credit: Courtesy of NASA)
ow-emission, High-performance Engine
For Future Hybrids
ScienceDaily (Sep. 17, 2008) — In an advance toward introduction of an amazing new
kind of internal combustion engine, researchers in China are reporting development and
use of a new and more accurate computer model to assess performance of the so-called
free-piston linear alternator (FPLA).

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Fuel Cells
 Electricity
 Vehicles
 Aviation
 Fossil Fuels
 Petroleum

Reference
 Internal combustion engine
 Alternative fuel vehicle
 Liquid nitrogen economy
 Combustion

Their study of the FPLA, which could provide a low-emission, fuel efficient engine for
future hybrid electric vehicles, is scheduled for the Sept. 17 issue of ACS' Energy &
Fuels, a bi-monthly journal.

Qingfeng Li and colleagues point out that the FPLA has only one moving part and is an
engine designed to generate electricity. In the device, a piston in a cylinder shuttles
between two combustion chambers. Permanent magnets on the piston generate electricity
by passing through the coils of an alternator centered on the cylinder. The engine can
burn a variety of fuels, including natural gas and hydrogen, and seems ideal use in a
future world of climate change and possible fossil fuel shortages, they suggest.

Their report describes development of a better computer model to evaluate performance

of the FPLA and guide engineers in construction of the engine. Results of their initial
simulations showed that the FPLA could accelerate three times faster than other internal
combustion engines and burns fuel in ways that minimize air pollution. "It is an
environmentally friendly power source for the future," the report concludes.
A cross-sectional view of the FPLA. (Credit: Qingfeng Li)
Fuel-saving Designs Improve Efficiency
Of Hydraulic Systems
ScienceDaily (Sep. 9, 2008) — Researchers at Purdue University have shown how to
reduce fuel consumption and dramatically improve the efficiency of hydraulic pumps and
motors in heavy construction equipment.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Nature of Water
 Sports Science
 Batteries
 Energy Technology
 Chemistry
 Construction

Reference
 Heat pump
 Electric power
 Machine
 Three-phase electric power

The new designs incorporate two innovations: They eliminate valves now needed to
direct the flow of hydraulic fluid in heavy equipment, and they also might incorporate
textured "microstructured" surfaces inside pumps to improve performance.

Research has shown the "valveless" design alone could reduce fuel consumption by 40
percent. Further savings could be realized by combining the valveless design with the
advanced microstructured surface concept, said Monika Ivantysynova, Maha Fluid Power
Systems Professor in Purdue's School of Mechanical Engineering.

The microstructured surfaces have been shown to dramatically reduce power losses due
to friction caused by hydraulic fluid, said Ivantysynova, director of Purdue's Maha Fluid
Power Research Center.

Findings were detailed in several technical papers presented by her research group earlier
this summer at the Fifth Fluid Power Net International Ph.D. Symposium in Krakow,
Poland.

"Currently, the best pumps and motors may have a top efficiency of 92 percent, but this
efficiency level is only in a certain range of operation," Ivantysynova said. "These
hydraulic pumps don't always run at this maximum level. Sometimes you only need them
to provide a small amount of pressure or flow, for example, to simply hold a tool in place.
Then you aren't running the pump under its highest loads, and the efficiency goes way
down."

Findings have shown the microstructured surfaces reduce losses due to friction by up to
57 percent when the pump is operating at low levels and about 10 percent when operating
under heavy loads. One of the research papers about the microstructured surfaces was
cited as a "best paper" during the conference and was written by graduate student
Jonathan Baker and Ivantysynova.

Engineers in the center are working on ways to design pumps and motors that are more
efficient in their entire range of operation.

Hydraulic systems use a central "variable displacement pump" that pressurizes fluid, and
valves direct the flow of fluid to "actuators," which move tools such as shovels and
buckets in excavation equipment. In the new valveless design, each actuator has its own
pump, eliminating the need for valves.

An excavator has been equipped with the new valveless technology in the Purdue center.

These microstructured surfaces are located in narrow gaps at several locations inside a
pump that are filled with hydraulic fluid. The fluid-filled gaps, which both seal the high-
pressure chamber and also work as a bearing that allows parts to move freely, are a major
source of power losses.

"We are working on those gaps by using computer simulations to understand all the
physical effects and to reduce efficiency losses due to friction caused by the viscosity of
hydraulic fluid," she said. "We know our simulations are very close to the real physics,
and we are currently working to manufacture the surfaces and will do measurements."

Conventional wisdom states that the surfaces should be polished smooth, but
Ivantysynova discovered that having a surface containing features one micron high
improves efficiency. The gaps are located between the pump's piston and cylinder walls
and between the cylinder block and a part called the valve plate, which connects to the
cylinder along with the pump ports.

Ivantysynova made the microstructured surface discovery while studying the effects of
improperly machined surfaces.

"We learned that it actually improved performance to have surfaces that were not
completely smooth, which was unexpected," she said.

Purdue has filed a patent for the innovation, called an "advanced gap surface design."

The innovations might be applied to a new "hydraulic hybrid" concept for cars that would
use a hydraulic motor to save energy in hybrid cars.
While hydraulic pumps work by compressing a fluid, which is then used to drive tools,
hydraulic motors operate in the reverse manner: high-pressure fluid is pushed into a
chamber, which is used to drive a shaft and provide torque.

The hydraulic hybrids would store energy while a car is braking by compressing
hydraulic fluid in a tanklike "accumulator." Then the high-pressure fluid in the
accumulator would be used to drive a hydraulic motor, providing torque to the wheels
and saving fuel.

In conventional electric hybrids, energy is stored by charging a battery while the car is
braking.

"With batteries, however, only a portion of the braking energy can be stored because it
takes much longer to charge the battery than it does to charge the accumulator with high-
pressure hydraulic fluid," she said.

Engineers in the center are building a test rig of the hydraulic hybrid design, and Purdue
has filed a patent on the concept.

The Maha Fluid Power Research Center is part of the Engineering Research Center for
Compact and Efficient Fluid Power, funded by the National Science Foundation,
participating companies and universities.
Monika Ivantysynova (center), the Purdue Maha Professor of Fluid Power Systems,
works in her lab with Edat Kaya (left), a lab engineer, and Donnell Cunningham, a
student from the Summer Undergraduate Research Program. Ivantysynova, director of
the university's MAHA Fluid Power Research Center, has shown how to dramatically
improve the efficiency of hydraulic pumps and motors in heavy construction equipment
and reduce the machinery's fuel consumption. (Credit: Purdue University photo/Vincent
Walter)
Catalyst For Water Oxidation Adopted
From Plants: A Means For Energy-
efficient Production Of Hydrogen?
ScienceDaily (Aug. 27, 2008) — Hydrogen will be one of the most important fuels of the
future. It would be ideal to obtain hydrogen by splitting water instead of from petroleum.
However, the electrolysis of water is a very energy intensive process, making it both
expensive and unsustainable if the electricity necessary to generate it comes from the
burning of fossil fuels. Photolysis, the splitting of water by light, is a highly promising
alternative.

See also:
Plants & Animals
 Drought
 Genetics
 Invasive Species

Matter & Energy

 Nature of Water
 Fuel Cells
 Organic Chemistry

Reference
 Redox
 Catalysis
 Fuel cell
 Photosynthesis

A team of Australian and American researchers has now developed a catalyst that
effectively catalyzes one of the necessary half reactions, the photooxidation of water. As
it reports in the journal Angewandte Chemie, the core of the catalyst is a manganese-
containing complex modeled after those found in photosynthetic organisms.

Electrolysis is the reverse of the process that occurs in a battery: that is electrical energy
is converted to chemical energy. The electrolysis of water involves two half reactions: at
the cathode, protons (positively charged hydrogen ions) are reduced to hydrogen, whereas
at the anode the oxidation of water produces oxygen. The goal of the researchers is to use
sunlight to get this energy-intensive process going. To make this work, the light-
harvesting power of modern solar cells must be combined with effective photocatalysts
for the oxidation of water and reduction of hydrogen ions into hydrogen gas.
The biggest hurdle to overcome in the photocatalytic splitting of water to date has been
the lack of a robust catalyst that oxidizes water. In fact, the best known catalyst, which
very effectively oxidizes water when irradiated with visible light, is a manganese-
containing enzyme in the photosynthetic apparatus of living organisms.

Robin Brimblecombe and Leone Spiccia at Monash University (Australia), Gerhard F.

Swiegers at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO,
Australia), and G. Charles Dismukes at Princeton University (USA) have used this
structure as a model for their photocatalyst.

The catalyst in question is a manganese oxo complex with a cubic core made of four
manganese and four oxygen atoms capped by ancillary phosphinate molecules. The
catalytically active species is formed when energy from light causes the release of one the
capping molecules from the cube.

However, the manganese complex is not soluble in water. The researchers have overcome
this problem by coating one electrode with a wafer-thin Nafion membrane. Housed
within the aqueous channels of this membrane, the catalytic species is stabilized and has
good access to the water molecules. Irradiation with visible light under an applied 1.2
volts leads to the effective electro-oxidation of water.

This anodic half-cell could be easily paired with a catalytic hydrogen-producing cathode
cell. This would result in a photoelectrochemical cell that produces pure hydrogen and
oxygen from water and sunlight.

Researchers have developed a catalyst that effectively catalyzes one of the necessary half
reactions, the photooxidation of water. (Credit: Image courtesy of Wiley-Blackwell)
Science News
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'Anti-noise' Silences Wind Turbines

ScienceDaily (Aug. 13, 2008) — If wind turbines clatter and whistle too loudly, they are
only permitted to operate under partial load to protect the local residents – but this also
means a lower electricity output. An active damping system cancels out the noise by
producing counter-vibrations.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Wind Energy
 Energy Technology
 Electricity
 Acoustics
 Construction
 Solar Energy

Reference
 Wind turbine
 Power station
 Biomass
 Water turbine

If wind energy converters are located anywhere near a residential area, they must never
become too noisy even in high winds. Most such power units try to go easy on their
neighbors’ ears, but even the most careful design cannot prevent noise from arising at
times: One source is the motion of the rotor blades, another is the cogwheels that produce
vibrations in the gearbox. These are relayed to the tower of the wind turbine, where they
are emitted across a wide area – and what the residents hear is a humming noise.

“People find these monotone sounds particularly unpleasant, rather like the whining of a
mosquito,” says André Illgen, a research associate at the Fraunhofer Institute for Machine
Tools and Forming Technology IWU in Dresden. If the wind energy converters hum too
loudly, they are only permitted to operate under partial load: They rotate at a slower
speed and generate less electricity. In some cases the operators have to install additional
damping systems or even replace the gearbox – an expensive business.

However, the effectiveness of the passive damping systems used until now is somewhat
limited: They only absorb noise at a certain frequency. Since modern wind energy
converters adapt their rotational speed to the wind velocity in order to generate as much
electricity as possible, however, the frequency of the humming sound also varies. Despite
noise attenuation measures, humming noises penetrate the surrounding area.

In a joint project with colleagues from Schirmer GmbH, ESM Energie- and
Schwingungstechnik Mitsch GmbH and the Dr. Ziegler engineering office, IWU
researchers have developed an active damping system for wind turbines. The project is
being funded by the Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt.

“These systems react autonomously to any change in frequency and damp the noise –
regardless of how fast the wind generator is turning,” says Illgen. The key components of
this system are piezo actuators. These devices convert electric current into mechanical
motion and generate “negative vibrations”, or a kind of anti-noise that precisely
counteracts the vibrations of the wind turbine and cancels them out. The piezo actuators
are mounted on the gearbox bearings that connect the gearbox to the pylon.

But how do these piezo actuators adjust themselves to the respective noise frequencies?
“We have integrated sensors into the system. They constantly measure the vibrations
arising in the gearbox, and pass on the results to the actuator control system,” says Illgen.
The researchers have already developed a working model of the active vibration dampers,
and their next step will be to perform field trials.

The round vibration exciter (left), suspended from a crane, induces vibrations in the
rectangular iron platform that are similar to those of a wind energy converter. The active
damper -- located at the center of the platform -- reduces these vibrations. (Credit:
Copyright Fraunhofer IWU)
Wind Powered Vehicle, Ventomobile,
Ready To Race In The Netherlands
ScienceDaily (Aug. 6, 2008) — Students of the Team InVentus at Stuttgart University
constructed a vehicle that is solely powered by wind energy, the Ventomobile. It took
them many months of intense construction work to reach this goal.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Wind Energy
 Construction
 Vehicles

Earth & Climate

 Renewable Energy
 Energy and the Environment
 Environmental Science

Reference
 Automotive aerodynamics
 Planetary boundary layer
 Machine
 Wind turbine

The first wind tunnel testing produced very promising results. The stylish three-wheeler
features a two-bladed rotor on top, with a diameter of two meters. The efficiency of this
setup proved to be extremely good.

On August, 23rd the InVentus Ventomobile will compete in the Aeolus Race in Den
Helder (Netherlands) on a three kilometre track with five teams from different
universities and research institutes from all over Europe. In this first edition of RACING
AEOLUS©, an event that is unique around the world, the teams are challenged to sail
straight into the wind, solely driven by the power of wind.

Before the Ventomobile is sent on its way to the Netherlands, we would like to invite you
to a presentation at the University campus in Vaihingen on Tuesday, the 12th of August.
Attending journalists will get the opportunity to observe the vehicle during wind tunnel
tests, to see the braiding of a drive shaft, and the laminating of a rotor blade.

InVentus was created by avid students of Aerospace Engineering in cooperation with the
Endowed Chair of Wind Energy. “The Ventomobile is another proof of what can be done
with renewable energies”, explains Prof Martin Kühn, Endowed Chair of Wind Energy at
Stuttgart University, recalling the time when solar powered vehicles were in their first
stages of development.

Stutudents of the Team InVentus at Stuttgart University constructed a vehicle that is

solely powered by wind energy, the Ventomobile. (Credit: Tobias Klaus)
Electric Solar Wind Sail Could Power
Future Space Travel In Solar System
ScienceDaily (Apr. 17, 2008) — The electric solar wind sail developed at the Finnish
Meteorological Institute two years ago has moved rapidly from invention towards
implementation. Electric sail propulsion might have a large impact on space research and
space travel throughout the solar system.

See also:
Space & Time
 Sun
 Northern Lights
 Solar System

Matter & Energy

 Electricity
 Solar Energy
 Energy Technology

Reference
 Solar wind
 Magnetosphere
 Geosynchronous orbit
 Spacecraft propulsion

The electric solar wind sail developed by Dr. Pekka Janhunen might revolutionise
travelling in space. The electric sail uses the solar wind as its thrust source and therefore
needs no fuel or propellant. The solar wind is a continuous plasma stream emanating
from the Sun. Changes in the properties of the solar wind cause auroral brightening and
magnetic storms, among other things.

The main parts of the device are long metallic tethers and a solar-powered electron gun
which keeps the tethers positively charged. The solar wind exerts a small but continuous
thrust on the tethers and the spacecraft.

“We haven't encountered major problems in any of the technical fields thus far. This has
already enabled us to start planning the first test mission,” says Dr. Pekka Janhunen. An
important subgoal was reached when the Electronics Research Laboratory of the
University of Helsinki managed to develop a method for constructing a multiline
micrometeoroid-resistant tether out of very thin metal wires using ultrasonic welding.
The newly developed technique allows the bonding together of thin metal wires in any
geometry; thus, the method might also have spinoff applications outside the electric sail.
Electric Sail For Space Travel

The electric sail could enable faster and cheaper solar system exploration. It might also
enable economic utilisation of asteroid resources for, e.g. producing rocket fuel in orbit.

“The electric sail might lower the cost of all space activities and thereby, for example,
help making large solar power satellites a viable option for clean electricity production.
Solar power satellites orbiting in the permanent sunshine of space could transmit electric
power to Earth by microwaves without interruptions. Continuous power would be a
major benefit compared to, e.g. ground-based solar power where storing the energy over
night, cloudy weather and winter are tricky issues, especially here in the far North,” says
Dr. Pekka Janhunen.

Component work for the electric sail was carried out at the University of Helsinki and in
Germany, Sweden, Russia and Italy. The electric sail was invented as a by-product of
basic research done at the Finnish Meteorological Institute on the interaction of the solar
wind with planets and their atmospheres. Work on the electric sail in Finland is currently
funded by the Academy of Finland and private foundations.

The first international electric sail meeting will be arranged at ESA ESTEC in Noordwijk,
The Netherlands on May 19, 2008.

The electric sail uses the solar wind as its thrust source and therefore needs no fuel or
propellant. (Credit: Credit: Antonin Halas / Image courtesy of Finnish Meteorological
Institute)
Astrophysicists Find Fractal Image Of
Sun's 'Storm Season' Imprinted On
Solar Wind
ScienceDaily (May 25, 2007) — Plasma astrophysicists at the University of Warwick
have found that key information about the Sun’s 'storm season’ is being broadcast across
the solar system in a fractal snapshot imprinted in the solar wind. This research opens up
new ways of looking at both space weather and the unstable behaviour that affects the
operation of fusion powered power plants.

See also:
Space & Time
 Sun
 Astronomy
 Northern Lights

Computers & Math

 Artificial Intelligence
 Information Technology
 Encryption

Reference
 Solar flare
 Corona
 Solar wind
 Solar radiation

Fractals, mathematical shapes that retain a complex but similar patterns at different
magnifications, are frequently found in nature from snowflakes to trees and coastlines.
Now Plasma Astrophysicists in the University of Warwick’s Centre for Fusion, Space and
Astrophysics have devised a new method to detect the same patterns in the solar wind.

The researchers, led by Professor Sandra Chapman, have also been able to directly tie
these fractal patterns to the Sun’s ‘storm season’. The Sun goes through a solar cycle
roughly 11 years long. The researchers found the fractal patterns in the solar wind occur
when the Sun was at the peak of this cycle when the solar corona was at its most active,
stormy and complex – sunspot activity, solar flares etc. When the corona was quieter no
fractal patterns were found in the solar wind only general turbulence.

This means that fractal signature is coming from the complex magnetic field of the sun.
This new information will help astrophysicists understand how the solar corona heats the
solar wind and the nature of the turbulence of the Solar Wind with its implications for
cosmic ray flux and space weather.

These techniques used to find and understand the fractal patterns in the Solar Wind are
also being used to assist the quest for fusion power. Researchers in the University of
Warwick’s Centre for Fusion, Space and Astrophysics (CFSA) are collaborating with
scientists from the EURATOM/UKAEA fusion research programme to measure and
understand fluctuations in the world leading fusion experiment MAST (the Mega Amp
Spherical Tokamak) at Culham. Controlling plasma fluctuations in tokamaks is important
for getting the best performance out of future fusion power plants.

The research by K.Kiyani, S. C. Chapman, B. Hnat, R. M. Nicol, is entitled "Self- similar

signature of the active solar corona within the inertial range of solar wind turbulence"
and was published on May 18th 2007 in Phys. Rev. Lett.

The researchers received support and data from STFC (previously PPARC), EPSRC, and
the NASA WIND, ACE and ULYSSES teams.

Scientists have devised a new method to detect fractal patterns in the solar wind. (Credit:
SOHO / NASA)
Ulysses Spacecraft Flies Over Sun's North
Pole
ScienceDaily (Jan. 24, 2008) — The Ulysses spacecraft today is making a rare flyby of
the sun's north pole. Unlike any other spacecraft, Ulysses is able to sample winds at the
sun's poles, which are difficult to study from Earth.

See also:
Space & Time
 Sun
 Solar System
 Northern Lights
 NASA
 Astronomy
 Space Missions

Reference
 Corona
 Earth's magnetic field
 Equatorial bulge
 Solar wind

Ulysses has flown over the sun's poles three times before, in 1994-95, 2000-01 and 2007.
Last week, solar physicists announced the first indications of a new solar cycle. Visiting
the pole at this time may lead to new insights about solar activity.

"This is a wonderful opportunity to examine the sun's north pole within a transition of
cycles," said Arik Posner, Ulysses program scientist at NASA Headquarters in
Washington. "We've never done this before."

Many researchers believe the sun's poles are central to the 11-year ebb and flow of solar
activity. When sunspots break up, their decaying magnetic fields are carried poleward by
vast currents of plasma. This makes the poles a sort of graveyard for sunspots. Old
magnetic fields sink beneath the polar surface 200,000 kilometers deep (about 124,000
miles), all the way down to the sun's inner magnetic dynamo, which generates the solar
magnetic field. There, dynamo action amplifies the fields for use in future solar cycles.

"Just as Earth's poles are crucial to studies of terrestrial climate change, the sun's poles
may be crucial to studies of the solar cycle," said Ed Smith, Ulysses project scientist at
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
Each previous flyby revealed something interesting and mysterious. One puzzle has been
the temperature of the sun's poles. In the previous solar cycle, the magnetic north pole
was about 80,000 degrees Fahrenheit (more than 44,000 degrees Celsius), or 8 percent
cooler than the south. The current flyby may help solve this puzzle because it comes less
than a year after a similar south pole flyby in Feb. 2007. Mission scientists will be able to
compare temperature measurements, north versus south, with hardly any gap between
them.

Ulysses also discovered the sun's high-speed polar wind. At the sun's poles, the magnetic
field opens up and allows solar atmosphere to stream out at a million miles per hour. By
flying around the sun, covering all latitudes in a way that no other spacecraft can, Ulysses
has been able to monitor this polar wind throughout the solar cycle and has found that it
is acting a bit odd.

"Twelve years ago, just before the previous 'sea change' between solar cycles, the polar
wind spilled down almost all the way to the sun's equator. But this time it is not. The
polar wind is bottled up, confined to latitudes above 45 degrees, " said Posner.

Launched in Oct. 1990 from the space shuttle Discovery, Ulysses is a joint mission of
NASA and the European Space Agency.

Artist concept of Ulysses making a north polar pass. (Credit: NASA/JPL)

Surprises From The Sun's South Pole
ScienceDaily (Feb. 20, 2007) — Although very close to the minimum of its 11-year
sunspot cycle, the Sun showed that it is still capable of producing a series of remarkably
energetic outbursts - ESA-NASA Ulysses mission revealed.

See also:
Space & Time
 Sun
 Northern Lights
 Astronomy
 Black Holes
 Solar System
 Cosmic Rays

Reference
 Solar flare
 Corona
 Solar radiation
 Van Allen radiation belt

In keeping with the first and second south polar passes (in 1994 and 2000), the latest
high-latitude excursion of the joint ESA-NASA Ulysses mission has already produced
some surprises. In mid-December 2006, although very close to the minimum of its 11-
year sunspot cycle, the Sun showed that it is still capable of producing a series of
remarkably energetic outbursts.

The solar storms, which were confined to the equatorial regions, produced quite intense
bursts of particle radiation that were clearly observed by near-Earth satellites.
Surprisingly, similar increases in radiation were detected by the instruments on board
Ulysses, even though it was three times as far away and almost over the south solar pole.
"Particle events of this kind were seen during the second polar passes in 2000 and 2001,
at solar maximum," said Richard Marsden, ESA's Ulysses Project Scientist and Mission
Manager. "We certainly didn't expect to see them at high latitudes at solar minimum!"

Scientists are busy trying to understand how the charged particles made it all the way to
the poles. "Charged particles have to follow magnetic field lines, and the magnetic field
pattern of the Sun near solar minimum ought to make it much more difficult for the
particles to move in latitude," said Marsden.

One of the puzzles remaining from the first high-latitude passes in 1994 and 1995 has to
do with the temperature of the Sun's poles. When Ulysses first passed over the south and
then the north solar pole near solar minimum, it measured the temperatures of the large
polar coronal holes.

"Surprisingly, the temperature in the north polar coronal hole was about 7 to 8 percent
lower compared with the south polar coronal hole," said Professor George Gloeckler,
Principal Investigator for the Solar Wind Ion Composition Spectrometer (SWICS) on
board Ulysses.

"We couldn't tell then whether this was simply due to progressive cooling of both polar
coronal holes as the Sun was approaching its minimum level of activity in 1996, or
whether this was an indication of a permanently cooler north pole."

Now, as Ulysses again passes over the large polar coronal holes of the Sun at solar
minimum we will finally have the answer. Recent SWICS observations show that the
average temperature of the southern polar coronal hole at the current solar minimum is as
low as it was 10 years ago in the northern polar coronal hole. "This implies that the
asymmetry between north and south has switched with the change of the magnetic
polarity of the Sun," said Gloeckler. The definitive proof will come when Ulysses
measures the temperature of the north polar coronal during the next 15 months.

A joint ESA/NASA mission, Ulysses (named after the hero of Greek legend) is charting
the unknown reaches of space above and below the poles of the Sun. (Credit: ESA)
Ulysses Starts New Journey Around The
Sun's Poles
ScienceDaily (Nov. 21, 2006) — Sixteen years after its launch on Oct. 6, 1990, the
Ulysses spacecraft has begun its third "solar polar orbit" -- a journey around the poles of
the sun. The mission, a joint NASA-European Space Agency venture, studies how the
sun's gaseous outer atmosphere spews into space, creating huge space storms. This
violent "space weather," in turn, can affect Earth's electricity, satellite and cell phone
communications.

See also:
Space & Time
 Sun
 NASA
 Astronomy

Earth & Climate

 Weather
 Renewable Energy
 Severe Weather

Reference
 Geosynchronous orbit
 Space observatory
 Geomagnetic storm
 Solar wind

Observations by previous spacecraft viewed the sun from its equator. Ulysses is the first
mission to move out of that plane and maneuver into an orbit that allows it to study the
sun's poles. That view gives a more complete perspective of the sun's atmosphere.

Ulysses Project Scientist Dr. Edward Smith of NASA'S Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which
manages Ulysses, commented on this mission's unique capabilities: "All the previous
spacecraft that have been flown, either to study the sun, the solar wind, cosmic rays, or to
study planets have been restricted to the solar equator. But it's been known for a long
time, since the very start of the space age, that there would be a great deal of benefit in
being able to make three-dimensional measurements basically, to escape out of the solar
equator, find out what's going on in regions that are very difficult to study, and so it was
decided that this Ulysses mission would do that."

Why is it important to study the sun's activity and the space storms it triggers? "They
affect our space technology, such things as communications satellites, weather satellites,"
Smith explained. "We are dependent to a large extent on satellite technology, to say
nothing of people suddenly finding they can't watch their favorite TV program."

Speaking on past effects of the sun on Earth, Smith added: "In the past, some of the large
solar flares have produced blackouts in major parts of the United States and elsewhere, so
that huge systems, including power systems, can be affected."

Artist's concept of Ulysses at sun's pole. (Image courtesy of NASA/Jet Propulsion

Laboratory)
Future Nanoelectronics May Face
Obstacles
ScienceDaily (Sep. 15, 2008) — Combining ordinary electronics with light has been a
potential way to create minimal computer circuits with super fast information transfer.
Researchers at Umeå University in Sweden and the University of Maryland in the U.S.
are now showing that there is a limit.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Electronics
 Technology
 Physics

Computers & Math

 Information Technology
 Hacking
 Quantum Computers

Reference
 Nanowire
 Electrical conduction
 Electron microscope
 Circuit design

When the size of the components approaches the nanometer level, all information will
disappear before it has time to be transferred.

“Our findings throw a monkey wrench in the machinery of future nanoelectronics. At the
same time, it’s a fascinating issue to address just how we might be able to prevent the
information from being lost,” says Mattias Marklund, professor of theoretical physics at
Umeå University in Sweden.

The electronics we know in our computers today is, as the name suggests, based on the
transfer of information with the help of electrons. Using electrons has allowed us to
shrink the size of computer circuits without losing efficacy. At the same time,
communication with the help of electrons represents a rather slow means of transmission.

To alleviate this problem, light can be used instead of electrons. This is the basis of so-
called photonic components. While the transfer speed in photonics is extremely high, the
size of the components cannot be shrunk to the same level as ‘ordinary’ electronics.
For a number of years, so-called plasmonic components have proven to be a possible way
around the dilemma of electronics and photonics. By combining photonics and
electronics, scientists have shown that information can be transferred with the help of so-
called plasmons. Plasmons are surface waves, like waves in the ocean, but here consisting
of electrons, which can spread at extremely high speeds in metals.

The findings now being presented by the Swedish-American research team show that
difficulties arise when the size of such components is reduced to the nanometer level. At
that point it turns out that the dual nature of electrons makes itself felt: the electrons no
longer act like particles but rather have a diffuse character, with their location and
movement no longer being clearly defined. This elusive personality leads to the energy of
the plasmon being dissipated and lost in the transfer of information. For nanocomponents,
this consequence is devastating, entailing the loss of all information before it can be
transferred.

“The effects we have discovered cannot be fully avoided, but the behavior of the
plasmons might nevertheless be controlled by meticulous component design that takes
into consideration the quantum nature of the nanoscale. It’s our hope that continued
research will provide a solution to this problem,” says Mattias Marklund.

New findings show that difficulties arise when the size of so-called plasmonic
components is reduced to the nanometer level. (Credit: iStockphoto/Andrey Prokhorov)
Graphene Used To Create World's
Smallest Transistor
ScienceDaily (Apr. 18, 2008) — Researchers have used the world's thinnest material to
create the world's smallest transistor, one atom thick and ten atoms wide.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Electronics
 Technology
 Materials Science

Computers & Math

 Computer Science
 Distributed Computing
 Computer Modeling

Reference
 Carbon nanotube
 Nanowire
 Semiconductor
 Integrated circuit

Reporting their peer-reviewed findings in the journal Science, Dr Kostya Novoselov and
Professor Andre Geim from The School of Physics and Astronomy at The University of
Manchester show that graphene can be carved into tiny electronic circuits with individual
transistors having a size not much larger than that of a molecule.

The smaller the size of their transistors the better they perform, say the Manchester
researchers.

In recent decades, manufacturers have crammed more and more components onto
integrated circuits. As a result, the number of transistors and the power of these circuits
have roughly doubled every two years. This has become known as Moore's Law.

But the speed of cramming is now noticeably decreasing, and further miniaturisation of
electronics is to experience its most fundamental challenge in the next 10 to 20 years,
according to the semiconductor industry roadmap.

At the heart of the problem is the poor stability of materials if shaped in elements smaller
than 10 nanometres* in size. At this spatial scale, all semiconductors -- including silicon
-- oxidise, decompose and uncontrollably migrate along surfaces like water droplets on a
hot plate.

Four years ago, Geim and his colleagues discovered graphene, the first known one-atom-
thick material which can be viewed as a plane of atoms pulled out from graphite.
Graphene has rapidly become the hottest topic in physics and materials science.

Now the Manchester team has shown that it is possible to carve out nanometre-scale
transistors from a single graphene crystal. Unlike all other known materials, graphene
remains highly stable and conductive even when it is cut into devices one nanometre
wide.

Graphene transistors start showing advantages and good performance at sizes below 10
nanometres - the miniaturization limit at which the Silicon technology is predicted to fail.

"Previously, researchers tried to use large molecules as individual transistors to create a

new kind of electronic circuits. It is like a bit of chemistry added to computer
engineering", says Novoselov. "Now one can think of designer molecules acting as
transistors connected into designer computer architecture on the basis of the same
material (graphene), and use the same fabrication approach that is currently used by
semiconductor industry".

"It is too early to promise graphene supercomputers," adds Geim. "In our work, we relied
on chance when making such small transistors. Unfortunately, no existing technology
allows the cutting materials with true nanometre precision. But this is exactly the same
challenge that all post-silicon electronics has to face. At least we now have a material that
can meet such a challenge."

"Graphene is an exciting new material with unusual properties that are promising for
nanoelectronics", comments Bob Westervelt, professor at Harvard University. "The future
should be very interesting".

*One nanometre is one-millionth of a millimetre and a single human hair is around

100,000 nanometres in width.

A paper entitled "Chaotic Dirac Billiard in Graphene Quantum Dots" is published in

April 17 issue of Science. It is accompanied by a Perspective article entitled "Graphene
Nanoelectronics" by Westervelt.
Dr Ponomarenko, who carried out this work, shows his research sample: graphene
quantum dots on a chip. (Credit: Image courtesy of University of Manchester)
Nanoscopic Golden Rods
ScienceDaily (Sep. 12, 2008) — Gold nanoparticles are under consideration for a number
of biomedical applications, such as tumor treatment. A German-American research team
at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Hunter College in New York, and the
RWTH Aachen has now developed a new method for the production of nanoscopic gold
rods.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Nature of Water
 Nanotechnology
 Thermodynamics
 Chemistry
 Optics
 Inorganic Chemistry

Reference
 White gold
 Nanomedicine
 Chemical compound
 Nanoparticle

In contrast to previous methods, they have achieved this without the use of cytotoxic
additives. As they report in the journal Angewandte Chemie, the synthesis is not carried
out in water, but in an ionic liquid, a “liquid salt”.

Cancer cells are relatively temperature-sensitive. This is exploited in treatments involving

overheating of parts of the cancer patient’s body. One highly promising method is
photoinduced hyperthermia, in which light energy is converted to heat.

Gold nanoparticles absorb light very strongly in the near infrared, a spectral region that is
barely absorbed by tissue. The absorbed light energy causes the gold particles to vibrate
and is dissipated into the surrounding area as heat. The tiny gold particles can be
functionalized so that the specifically bind to tumor cells. Thus, only cells that contain
gold particles are killed off.

The problem? Ordinary spherical gold particles do not efficiently convert the light energy
into heat; only rod-shaped particles will do. Unfortunately, the additives needed to
crystallize the rod-shaped particles from aqueous solutions are cytotoxic.

The team headed by Michael R. Bockstaller is now pursuing a new strategy: instead of
aqueous solution, they chose to use an ionic liquid as their medium of crystallization.
Ionic liquids are “liquid salts”, organic compounds that exist as oppositely charged ions,
but in the liquid state. In this way, the researchers have been able to produce gold
nanorods without the use of any cytotoxic additives.

In the first step, seed crystals are produced in the form of tiny spherical gold particles.
These crystals are added to a “secondary growth solution” containing monovalent gold
ions, silver ions, and the weak reducing agent ascorbic acid. The solvent is an
imidazolium-based ionic liquid. In this medium, the crystals don’t continue to grow into
spheres; instead they form rods with the round crystallization nuclei as “heads”.

The mechanism is presumed to involve the various, energetically inequivalent surfaces of

the crystal lattice: the aromatic, nitrogen-containing five-membered rings of the ionic
liquid prefer to accumulate at the highly energetic facets of gold surfaces. They thus
stabilize crystal shapes that have fewer low-energy facets than the normal spherical
equilibrium form. This results in long rods.

Scientists have developed a new method for the production of nanoscopic gold rods.
(Credit: Copyright Wiley-VCH)
Innovative Hydrogen-powered Car
Created
ScienceDaily (Sep. 17, 2008) — As the price of gasoline fuel soars, and concerns grow
about the impact of car culture on the environment, a team of scientists from the
University of Sunderland have come up with a hydrogen-powered car, which they believe
is a significant step forward in creating a mass-produced green machine.

See also:
Matter & Energy
 Alternative Fuels
 Vehicles
 Fuel Cells

Earth & Climate

 Energy and the Environment
 Renewable Energy
 Sustainability

Reference
 Fuel cell
 Alternative fuel vehicle
 Liquid nitrogen economy
 Automobile emissions control

The team, led by Dirk Kok from the Institute of Automotive and Manufacturing
Advanced Practice (AMAP), in partnership with the Centre for Process Innovation at
Wilton and Lambda One Autogas at Gateshead, have successfully adapted a Nissan
Almera to run on hydrogen so that it only emits water from its exhaust.

The HyPower Nissan Almera will be unveiled at the Partners4Automotive 2008

conference on September 17 at the University of Sunderland’s Sir Tom Cowie Campus.
This international event will look at alternative fuel technologies for vehicles and
transport systems, giving local business the chance to see cutting edge developments
from around the world.

Adrian Morris, Operations Manager at AMAP, says the HyPower project is a major
breakthrough in the development of green transport. He says: “This project marks a
significant step forwards in our understanding of hydrogen as a fuel for the automotive
industry.”
“This vehicle will act as a test bed to evaluate novel hydrogen technologies in vehicles
and will enhance the region’s status as an important automotive research and
development centre.”

Dirk Kok says: “The whole subject of hydrogen as a fuel for cars is intriguing. It all
depends upon the price of oil, the driving range of these new green vehicles, ease of
safely filling these vehicles, and the availability of competing systems, which we are also
researching.

“The HyPower project does demonstrate that hydrogen is a practical and environmentally
friendly alternative to fossil fuels. But though this is a significant step forward, there is
still a long way to go before we see these vehicles driving about our roads.”

Lead researcher Dirk Kok toasts the fuel of the future - water. (Credit: Image courtesy of
University of Sunderland)