BELIAL [Heb bĕliyyaʿal (‫])בְּ לִ ַּיעַּל‬.

Bĕliyyaʿal in Hebrew means wickedness and is

often found in compounds expressing evil people (e.g., “man of bĕliyyaʿal,” “sons of
bĕliyyaʿal”). The use of bĕliyyaʿal as a proper name for Satan is not found in the Hebrew
Bible, but Belial as the leader of the forces of darkness is ubiquitous in the
pseudepigraphic and Qumran material. The term (Gk belial/beliar) is also found once in
the New Testament as a term for the devil (2 Cor 6:15).
A. Etymological Considerations
B. In the Hebrew Bible
C. In the Pseudepigraphic Literature
D. At Qumran
E. In the New Testament
A. Etymological Considerations
According to the rabbis, the corrupt individuals known as bĕliyyaʿal had cast off the
yoke (ʿôl) of God and, being yokeless (bĕlı̂ ʿôl), they were uncontrollably lawless (Sanh.
111b; cf. paranomos, anomia, anomos LXX Deut 13:14; 2 Sam 22:5 = Ps 18:5; Ps 41:9;
1 Sam 25:17; 30:22). Since then many wide-ranging etymologies have been proposed for
Heb bĕliyyaʿal. Discussions of the various proposals are provided by Otzen (TDOT,
2.131–33) and Thomas (1963:11–17). Of the numerous suggestions, two avenues of
research have gained the most favor among modern scholars.
One approach favored by scholars is to analyze bĕliyyaʿal as being made up of Heb
bĕlı̂ (a negative) plus one of two roots. The traditional folk etymology found in many
lexica renders bĕliyyaʿal as “worthlessness” (bĕlı̂ plus the root yaʿal, “to profit, to be of
worth;” cf. Hipʿil). Pedersen (1926:539) found this etymology so agreeable that he
asserted “there is no reason to look for other explanations.” Yet folk etymologies may not
accurately reflect historically correct etymologies. Compare Heb ṣalmāwet, “darkness,”
which was most likely vocalized differently (ṣalmût ʾ ẓlm, “to be dark”) in its original
form before the folk etymology “shadow of death” (ṣēl + māwet) arose (Lewis 1989:11–
12). The other proposal incorporating Heb bĕlı̂ is to combine it with some form of the
Heb root ʿālâ, “to go up.” This proposal has long been suggested by earlier scholars with
the implication that “that which does not come up” = “unsuccessful” (cf. Qimḥi bal
yaʿăleh ̌bal yaṣlı̂ aḥ). The best formulation of this proposed analysis is that of Cross and
Freedman (1953:22 n.6) who argue that Heb bĕliyyaʿal = *bal (i) yaʿl (ê), “(place from
which) none arises, a euphemism for Hades or Sheol.” Compare Job 7:9 yôrēd s̆ĕʾôl lōʾ
yaʿăleh, “he who goes down to Sheol does not come up.” A well-known Akkadian
expression for the underworld is māt la t̯ ri, “the land of no return.” Hence Cross and
Freedman state that “bny blyʿl are simply ‘hellions’.” Compare Boling’s (Judges AB,
276) translation of bĕnê bĕliyyaʿal in Judg 19:22 as “the local hell raisers.” However,
Emerton (1987:214–17) correctly cautions against implying that Sheol is the abode of
only the wicked.
The second approach to solving the etymology of bĕliyyaʿal which has found favor
with modern scholars associates it with the root blʿ. The word blʿ means “to swallow” in
Heb and is well attested in the comparative Semitic languages (cf. Ar, Aram, Akk, Eth,
etc.). Several scholars (e.g., Thomas 1963:18–19; Dahood Psalms AB, 105; Tromp
1969:125–28) have emphasized how the notion of Belial as “the swallower” or “the
swallowing abyss” would fit nicely with what we know of the underworld and the
descriptions of Sheol and Mot (cf. Ps 18:5—Eng 18:4).
Driver’s (1934:52–53) argument that Heb blʿ can mean “to be confused” (< Arb
balaǵa = “slander”?) and hence bêliyyaʿal with a suffixed lamed = “confusion” is very
unlikely.
 In the Gk beliar is the equivalent of belial being the result of a dissimilation of the
two liquid consonants (2 Cor 6:15; see P. E. Hughes 2 Corinthians NICNT, 248–50 n.
12; W. Foerster TDNT, 1.607).
B. In the Hebrew Bible
The word bĕliyyaʿal occurs 27 times in the Hebrew Bible (see Thomas 1963:14 for
suggested additional occurrences resulting from conjectural emendations). Scholars have
long recognized the mythological background underlying references to bĕliyyaʿal often
citing Ps 18:5–6—Eng 18:4–5 (= 2 Sam 22:5–6) where the “torrents of bĕliyyaʿal” (cf.
Ps 41:9—Eng 41:8) are used in parallelism to the “cords/snares/breakers of Death” (see
MOT) and the “cords of Sheol” (see DEAD, ABODE OF THE). It is easy to understand
how the association with Sheol and Death colored bĕliyyaʿal as it was used to describe
“hellions” in biblical narrative. Parallel terms include “man of iniquity” (ʾı̂ s̆ʾāwen in Prov
6:12), “evil person” (ʾı̂ s̆ rāʿ in 1 Sam 30:22), “man of blood” (ʾı̂ š haddāmı̂ m in 2 Sam
16:7, cf. 2 Sam 12:5), and “the wicked” (rĕšāʿı̂ m in Prov 19:28). Yet, more specifically,
Maag (1965:294–95) and Otzen (TDOT, 2.134–35) have pointed out how the chaotic
nature of bĕliyyaʿal was often used to denote those who played roles which were
detrimental to the maintenance of social order. Graphic examples of this type of
unrestrained behavior would include the wicked men responsible for the tragic crime at
Gibeah (Judg 19:22; 20:13) and the two “scoundrels” who gave false witness against
Naboth (1 Kgs 21:10–13; cf. the ʿēd bĕliyyaʿal yālı̂ ṣ mišpāṭ, “the bĕliyyaʿal witness who
mocks justice” in Prov 19:28). bĕliyyaʿal type individuals subverted the institution of the
monarchy (cf. 1 Sam 10:27; 2 Sam 20:1; 2 Chr 13:7). According to royal ideology, the
Davidic king stood as the very antithesis to such behavior (TDNT, 2.135; cf. 2 Sam 23:6;
Ps 101:3). The expression “sons of bĕliyyaʿal” is also attested, albeit briefly, with
reference to the cult. The wicked who seduce Israel away to worship other gods are
described as “sons of bĕliyyaʿal” (Deut 13:14—Eng 13:13) as are the evil sons of Eli
“who do not know Yahweh” (1 Sam 2:12).
C. In the Pseudepigraphic Literature
Belial (Beliar) is amply attested in the pseudepigraphic material. The many
occurrences include Jubilees (1:20; 15:33), the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs
(Reuben 4:7, 11; 6:3; Simeon 5:3; Levi 3:3; 18:12; 19:1; Judah 25:3; Issachar 6:1; 7:7;
Zebulun 9:8; Dan 1:7; 4:7; 5:1, 10–11; Napthali 2:6; 3:1; Asher 1:8; 3:2; 6:4; Joseph 7:4;
20:2; Benjamin 3:3–4, 8; 6:1, 7; 7:1–2), the Sibylline Oracles (3:63–74); the Martyrdom
and Ascension of Isaiah (1:8–9; 2:4; 3:11, 13; 4:2, 4, 16, 18; 5:1, [4], 15) and the Lives of
the Prophets (Daniel 4:6, 20; Nathan 17:2). For translations and introductions to these
texts, see OTP.
Belial is called the angel of wickedness, the ruler of this world (Mart. Is. 2:4; 4:2). He
is the head of the demonic powers (Mart. Is. 1:8). In dualistic fashion, his law and will
are described as being set over against the law and will of the Lord (T. Naph. 2:6, 3:1).
His way is one of darkness as opposed to light (T. Levi 19:1; cf. T. Jos. 20:2). Belial’s
angels are set over against the angels of the Lord (T. Ash. 6:4). He is master of the spirits
of error (T. Jud. 25:3; T. Zeb. 9:8; T. Levi 3:3; cf. the spirit of truth and the spirit of error
in T. Jud. 20:1).
Belial accuses and ensnares people from the path of righteousness (Jub. 1:20) causing
them to stumble (T. Reu. 4:7). Those who belong to him become “like an ox under the
yoke” (Liv. Pro. 4:6). Chief among his works is sexual promiscuity, “the plague of
Belial,” which separates one from God (T. Reu. 6:3; T. Sim. 5:3). Belial is associated with
the most wicked of humanity. Being angry at Isaiah due to his prophecy (Mart. Is. 3:13;
5:1), he is said to have dwelt in Manasseh’s heart and was ultimately responsible,
according to tradition, for Manasseh’s sawing the prophet in half (Mart. Is. 1:8–9; 5:1–
16). Sibylline Oracles 3:63–74 records a description of the advent of Belial, the signs he
will perform (e.g., raising the dead, leading men astray), and his ultimate demise. Belial
here seems to be a reference to Nero (cf. Mart. Is. 4:1–2; Collins in OTP, 1.360; Knibb
in OTP, 2.161 n.4d). In addition, Belial is said to have tempted Dan to kill Joseph with a
sword (T. Dan 1:7), hindered the prophet Nathan on his way to David (Liv. Pro. 17:2),
troubled Potiphar’s wife (T. Jos. 7:4), etc. In eschatological imagery, Belial’s slaughter is
described as taking place on the earth when blood pours forth from a mountain (Liv. Pro.
4:20).
Moses intercedes in Jub. 1:19ff. with a prayer that the spirit of Belial may not rule
over God’s people to accuse them and ensnare them from every path of righteousness. In
T. Benj. 7:1, the faithful are instructed to flee from Belial because he offers a sword which
turns out to be the mother of the seven deadly sins. Yet even though Belial may be the
ruler of the world, the righteous can resist him in the present age (T. Reu. 4:11). T. Dan
5:1 exhorts, “Observe the Lord’s commandments … that Belial may flee from you” (cf.
T. Iss. 7:7; T. Ash. 3:1–2).
The length of Belial’s reign has been predetermined (Mart. Is. 4:12; see comment on
Nero above). He will be overcome in the last days by God’s anointed agents (T. Levi 3:3;
18:12; T. Dan 5:10–11). His demise is described in various ways including being trampled
down (T. Zeb. 9:8), bound (T. Levi 18:12), and cast into the fire (T. Jud. 25:3; cf. Sib. Or.
3:71–74). Those who have been captives of Belial will be liberated by God (T. Zeb. 9:8;
T. Dan 5:10–11).
D. At Qumran
Belial is the most frequently used title for the leader of the forces of darkness in the
Qumran material, occurring especially often in the War Scroll (1QM; Yadin 1962: 232–
34) and the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH). The references to Belial in the Qumran material
parallel what we have seen in the pseudepigraphic literature. Similar to the titles used in
the pseudepigraphic material, he is called the angel of enmity (CD 16:5; 1QM 13:11) who
is the prince of the kingdom of wickedness (1QM 17:5–6). He heads the forces of
darkness, often called “the army/troops or lot of Belial,” against the Sons of Light or “the
lot of God” (1QM 1:1, 13; 11:8; 15:3; 1QS 2:2, 5; Collins 1984:127–32). “All the spirits
of his lot, the angels of destruction, walk according to the precepts of darkness, and
towards them is their desire all together” (1QM 13:12). As in the pseudepigraphic sources
mentioned above (e.g., Jub. 10:8), the word maśṭemah, “hatred, malevolence,” is often
associated with Belial and his purposes (1QM 13:4, 11; 14:9; CD 16:5; 1QS 3:23).
1QM 13:11 points out that it was God who appointed Belial for the task of corruption.
It is because of the angel of darkness that all sons of righteousness go astray (1QS 3:21).
It was Belial, according to CD 5:18, who raised up Jannes and Jambres, the names of the
Egyptian magicians, in order to oppose Moses and Aaron (cf. Exod 7:11; 2 Tim 3:8).
Several times we find references to the cursing of Belial and his lot for the wicked plans
of hatred which they engender. This cursing is carried out by the levites in 1QS 2:4b–10
(cf. Deut 27:14) and by the priests, levites, and elders in 1QM 13:1–6 (cf. 4Q286–87;
4Q280–82; 4Q175:23).
The reign or dominion of Belial (mmšlt blyʿl) occurs frequently in the Qumran
material (e.g., 1QM 14:9; 18:1; 1QS 1:18, 24; 2:19; 3:21–22; CD 12:2). It was believed
that the present age was under his control (cf. 1QS 2:19 “year by year as long as the
dominion of Belial endures”). This is also supported by CD 4:12–19 which describes the
loosening of Belial against Israel. Mention is also made in this same passage of the three
nets of Belial with which he ensnares humans (cf. Kosmala 1965:91–113; Knibb
1987:40–43).
 The present age of wickedness brought about trials which would test the faithful
members of the community (1QS 1:17–18a). Yet this age was not to continue for long. In
the near future God would intervene and destroy the forces of Belial, as foretold by the
seers (1QM 11:8). The great eschatological war will be fierce, with the tide of battle
swaying back and forth between the Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness, the army of
Belial. Yet in the end, at the appointed time, the great hand of God will subdue and totally
annihilate Belial and all the angels of his dominion and all the men of his lot (1QM 1:4–
5, 13–16; 18:1–3; cf. 4QFlor 1:7–9). The divine inauguration of the new age follows
where injustice will be no more (1QS 4:18b–23a).
The Thanksgiving Hymns are known for their characteristic use of material from the
Hebrew Bible, and this is true of the Belial imagery as well. This is most clearly seen in
1QH 3:28b–32 which uses the imagery of the fiery “torrents of Belial” from Ps 18:5–6—
Eng 18:4–5 (= 2 Sam 22:5) to describe his personal sufferings which are likened to the
eschatological battle at the final consummation (“the period of wrath for all Belial”). On
the ambiguity of this eschatological language, see Collins (1984:137–38).
E. In the New Testament
In light of the extensive use of Belial above, it is surprising to find only one occurrence
of Belial in the NT. “What accord has Christ with Belial?” occurs in 2 Cor 6:15.
Interestingly, this phrase is preceded by the expression “what fellowship has light with
darkness” which reminds us of the dualistic use of Belial and the forces of Darkness
fighting God and the forces of light mentioned above in both the pseudepigraphic and
Qumran material. The use of Belial here as well as other vocabulary and concepts has led
some to conjecture that 2 Cor 6:14–7:1 was taken over by Paul from Qumran or some
other form of Jewish Christianity (see Kümmel 1975:287f.).

THEODORE J. LEWIS