f| Design applications 0 raft foundations Ay We Crag Editor a oe VERSES SESE ES LDSDesign applications of raft foundations Edited by J. A. Hemsley Consulting Engineer 41 Thomas TelfordPublished by Thomas Telford Lid, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4D URL: http://www.t-telford.co.uk Distributors for Thomas Telford Books are USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400 Japan: Maruzen Co. Ltd, Book Department, 3-10 Nihonbashi 2-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103 ‘Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria First published 2000 Also available from Thomas Telford Publishing, Elastic analysis of raft foundations, by J. A. Hemsley, 1998, ISBN 0 7277 25947 ‘A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 07277 2765 6 ©1. A, Hemsley, 2000 All rights, including translation, reserved. Except for fair copying, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Books Publisher, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 45D. ‘This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication docs not necessarily imply that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers. ‘Typeset in Great Britain by the Midlands Book Typesetting Company Ltd, Loughborough, Leicestershire Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin, CornwallContents Contributing authors Preface 1. Concrete industrial ground slabs D. BECKETT 2. Development of design charts for concrete pavements and industrial ground slabs H. G. Poutos and J. C. SMALL. 3. Rigid pavements for airports J. M. BARLING and J. E, GRIMSDALE 4. Non-destructive evaluation of concrete pavement properties T. F. Fwa 5. Design of raft foundations on Winkler springs F.R. Lopes 6. Raft foundations for two Middle East tower blocks J. MorRIsON 7. Project design examples of shallow foundations P.R. Benson and P. J. H. Boy 8. Industrial chimney foundations J.G. TURNER 9. Soil-structure interaction in design L. A. Woop, ix ae 107 127 173 185DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS 18. ). Design of two raft foundations for buildings in London P. A. CRACKNELL . Case histories of rafts in civil engineering J.P. Aprep, M. A. Sousry and D. G. RENTON-ROsE . Calculation methods for raft foundations in Germany E. FRANKE, Y. EL-MossaLLamy and P. WITTMANN . Piled raft foundation projects in Germany R. KaTZENBACH, U. ARSLAN and C. MOORMANN . Behaviour of piled raft foundation for tall building in Japan M. Masima and T. NAGAO . Piled raft foundation for New Bibliotheca Alexandrina M. Hamza and M. GHONEIM Practical design procedures for piled raft foundations H. G. PouLos . Raft foundations with disconnected settlement-reducing piles I. H. Won, M. F. CHANG and X. D. Cao Developments in raft analysis and design J. A. HEMSLEY Index 243 265 283 a 393 4iL 425, 469 487 607Contributing authors J.P. APTED Hyder Consulting Lid, Medawar Road, Surrey Research Park, Guildford, Surrey GU2 SAR, England U. ARSLAN Institute and Laboratory of Geotechnics, Darmstadt University of Technology, Petersen- strasse 13, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany J.M. BARLING InfraPave, 15 Backwoods Lane, Lindfield, West Sussex RH16 2EQ, England (formerly of BAA ple, Gatwick Airport) D. Beckerr Downings Cottage, Egloskerry, Launceston, Cornwall PLIS 8RU, England (also University College London and University of Greenwich, Kent) P. R. BENSON Oscar Faber Group Ltd, Marlborough House, Upper Marlborough Road, St Albans, Hertfordshire ALI 3UT, England P.J.H. Boro Oscar Faber Group Ltd, Marlborough House, Upper Marlborough Road, St Albans, Hertfordshire ALI 3UT, England X.D. Cao MITIC Associates, 95 Cashew Road #03-03 Cashew Heights, Singapore 679666 M. F. CHANG MITIC Associates, 95 Cashew Road #03-03, Cashew Heights, Singapore 679666 P. A. CRACKNELL Ove Arup and Partners, 13 Fitzroy Street, London WIP 6BQ, Englandvi DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS YY. EL-MossaLLaMy ARCADIS Trischler and Parmer GmbH, Berliner Allee 6, D-64295 Darmstadt, Germany (also Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt) E. FRANKE Troyestrasse 344, D-64297 Darmstadt, Germany T.F. Fwa Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 119 260 M. GHonEIM Hamza Associates, 5 Ibn Marawan Street, Giza, Egypt (also Cairo University) J. E, GRIMSDALE BAA plc, Meadvale, Beehive Ring Road, Gatwick Airport, West Sussex RH6 OPA, England M. Hamza Hamza Associates, 5 Ibn Marawan Street, Giz , Egypt (also Suez Canal University) J. A. HeMsLey 21 Highland Avenue, Christchurch, Dorset BH23 SLN, England (also University of Southampton) R. KATZENBACH Institute and Laboratory of Geotechnics, Darmstadt University of Technology, Petersen- strasse 13, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany F.R. Lopes Graduate School of Engineering, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Caixa Postal 68506, Rio de Janeiro, RJ-21945-970, Brazil M. Masia Technology Research Centre, Taisei Corporation, 344-1 Nase-cho, Totsuka-ku, Yokohama-city 245, Japan C. MooRMANN Institute and Laboratory of Geotechnics, Darmstadt University of Technology, Petersen- strasse 13, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany J. Morrison Buro Happold Ltd, Camden Mill, Lower Bristol Road, Bath BA2 3DQ, EnglandCONTRIBUTING AUTHORS vii T.Nacao Technology Research Centre, Taisei Corporation, 344-1 Nase-cho, Totsuka-ku, Yokohama-city 245, Japan H.G. PouLos Coffey Geosciences Pty Ltd, 142 Wicks Road, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia (also University of Sydney) D. G. RENTON-RosE Hyder Consulting Ltd, Medawar Road, Surrey Research Park, Guildford, Surrey GU2 SAR, England J.C. SMALL Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia M. A. Sounry Hyder Consulting Ltd, Medawar Road, Surrey Research Park, Guildford, Surrey GU2 SAR, England J. G. TURNER: John Turner (Engineering Consultants) Ltd, 7 Woodland Rise, Studham, Dunstable, Bedfordshire LU6 2PF, England (also Bierrum and Partners Ltd, Dunstable) P. WITTMANN ARCADIS Trischler and Partner GmbH, Berliner Allee 6, D-64295 Darmstadt, Germany I. H. WonG. MITIC Associates, 95 Cashew Road #03-03, Cashew Heights, Singapore 679666 L. A. Woop Faculty of the Built Environment, South Bank University, 202 Wandsworth Road, London SW8 2JZ, EnglandPreface ‘The design of plain and piled raft foundations undoubtedly represents one of the more difficult technical aspects of civil engineering practice, particularly as it requires a synthesis of structural and geotechnical analysis. Until fairly recently, there was little alternative but to proceed on the basis of greatly simplifying assumptions combined with rudimentary analysis. But although many such designs were developed with remarkable success, the limitations of this traditional approach cannot be disregarded and often are unacceptable in modem practice. Older readers will recall that in earlier times, most foundation design had of necessity to be carried out using little more than a slide-rule as an aid to calculation. Then, as now, rigorous theoretical solutions were available only for foundations of simple shape under certain idealised conditions, and their derivation still remains an arduous task, Yet although such solutions have their rightful place in the general scheme of things, being especially useful in illustrating fundamental concepts and in calibrating the results of approximate methods, normally they cannot be applied directly to specific design configurations. Moreover, any prolonged indulgence with elaborate theory should not be allowed to divert attention from investigating the basic physics of particular practical problems; although these two activities need not be mutually exclusive. Of singular importance in design practice is the process of substantially reducing the primitive vagaries and numerous complexities inherent in real construction, in order to establish a valid and robust model suitable for analysis. This is distinctly apposite in the realm of soil-structure interaction, where the usual juxtaposition of reinforced concrete and natural ground implies that few parameters can be defined with lofty certitude. Tt follows that, irrespective of the method of analysis, it is prudent to compute bounding limits to key quantities such as raft displacement and bending moment, based on a sensible range of material properties. For the more demanding projects, considerable ingenuity is often necessary to achieve an acceptable balance between safety and economy, which is an intrinsic part of successful modern design. The general treatment of foundation interaction problems has been transformed over the past three decades by the increasing availability of computer-based methods of anal- ysis. Various numerical methods have been developed which enable fairly Tealistic assessments to be made of the response of ground-bearing structures under generalised applied loading. Among the potential benefits of this more rational approach are those of increased structural efficiency and reduced construction co:x DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS An extensive array of related computer software is currently available, thereby offering several alternative routes in solving a given problem, But engineers need carefully to check the basic assumptions implicit in such numerical analysis, as well as the interpretation and convergence characteristics of computed results. Undue reliance on unfamiliar numerical packages or codes is best avoided, whilst uncritical acceptance of computer output can be a recipe for disaster. Numerical methods clearly have a central role in the evolution of the subject, but it is their application to real projects which is of primary interest in the present context. Hence one of the main aims of this book is to illustrate the deployment of structural foundation analysis by means of an abundance of practical examples. In order to encom- pass a sufficiently broad spectrum of project experience, self-contained chapters have been written by leading consultants and contractors who draw upon their considerable store of knowledge in designing raft foundations and ground slabs in many countries. In the ensuing case histories, different forms of modelling are used to represent the ground strata and the foundation structure, and different calculation methods are used in the corresponding analyses. Several design methods used to satisfy ultimate load capacity and serviceability requirements are outlined, with reference to national and international Standards and Codes of Practice where appropriate. Various foundation design criteria are discussed, including those for building structures, industrial chimneys, immersed tunnel units, storage silos, industrial ground slabs, and road and airfield pave- ments, Rather more emphasis is placed on structural aspects than is found in many discussions of soil-structure interaction, which tend to embrace a disproportionate profusion of geotechnical detail. Construction techniques are also shown to influence raft design, especially as large concrete pours frequently can be used to advantage. The text is essentially descriptive rather than mathematical, and contains copious references to recent work on the subject, Many examples are given of project applica- tions covering a wide range of structural forms and ground conditions, while in some es, predicted foundation behaviour is compared with monitored field performance. Accordingly, it is intended that the book will become an invaluable reference work for design engineers, advanced students and research investigators. The editor is most grateful to the contributing authors for their notable efforts towards achieving this worth- while objective, to the general benefit of the profession and of society at large. J.A. Hemsley1. Concrete industrial ground slabs D. Beckett 1.1, Introduction Concrete literally provides the ‘shop floor’ for the vast majority of industrial enterprises and, in the United Kingdom alone, involves the use of some six million square metres per year in the construction of ground supported slabs. This requires the production and placing of about 1.5 million cubic metres of concrete. Concrete floors are probably responsible for more user complaints than any other building clement, other than roofs. Clients invariably consider that any form of visible cracking is unacceptable, even though it may not affect the efficient functioning of the floor. In the past, warehouses were constructed with little regard to possible change of use, but today, the situation has changed. A client may wish to alter the loading requirements for the floor during the lease period; and furthermore, property developers require floors to cater for immediate and future use. If an industrial site is speculative, then the performance specification for the floor will need to accommodate most possible uses. These considerations have led to a number of significant developments in design and construction methods with more onerous requirements for economy, including minimal maintenance, loading, surface regularity and crack control. The purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance for the design and construction of concrete floors which are fully supported on the ground. This will include alternatives to the classical work on the thickness design of ground slabs, and will include the use of fibres (steel and polypropylene) as a replacement or supplement to fabric reinforcement. Currently, the Concrete Society Technical Report No. 34 [1.1] provides the most comprehensive guidelines for the design and construction of industrial ground floors. However, the rapid development of design and construction techniques has necessitated consideration of a review of this document, with updating in several areas including design procedures, surface regularity, laser screeding, the use of fibres and jointless floors. 1.2. Main elements in concrete floor construction ‘The main elements in concrete floor construction are illustrated in Figure 1.1. Good building land is at a premium and with the redevelopment of inner city areas, there is an increasing need to build on filled sites. Clearly, the suitability of the sub-grade, and also2 DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS Fabric reinforcement Wearing surtace (frequired) Fibre reinforcement Formation level = Imported fil (it required) S Sub-grade Figure 1.1. Main elements in concrete floor construction the natural or imported fill, to provide adequate load-bearing characteristics and accept- able settlements should be based on a full site investigation. Specialist advice should also be sought if contamination is suspected. The formation level is the level of the ground surface after all excavation and filling is completed, above which is the sub-base. The sub-base consists of imported selected well-graded material, thoroughly compacted to form a smooth level working platform on which to construct the concrete slab. The sub-base also influences the load-bearing and deformation characteristics of the foundation system. A slip membrane is normally provided to reduce the friction between the concrete slab and the sub-base. A high level of restraint to contraction due to concrete drying shrinkage may lead to undesirable cracking. The fitness for purpose of the concrete slab in terms of strength, stiffness, surface regularity and abrasion resistance is largely dependent on its thickness, its interaction with the sub-base and sub-grade, the mix proportions and the construction technique adopted. Until recently, the primary purpose of reinforcement in the form of fabric was to control the development of cracks arising from shrinkage restraint, and not to enhance load-bearing capacity as in suspended-span construction. However, research has shown that by adopting an ulti- mate load approach rather than a permissible stress approach to thickness design, fabric reinforcement and some types of fibre reinforcement can enhance the load carrying capacity of a concrete ground slab. This is a matter for further consideration later in the chapter. ‘The purpose of the wearing surface is to enhance resistance to abrasion, slip and chemical attack. A common form of surface treatment is ‘dry shake’ flooring, which is a dry blend of cement powder with hard alloy aggregates. This is sprinkled on to the wet sereeded surface of newly laid concrete. However, the wearing surface will not beCONCRETE INDUSTRIAL GROUND SLABS 3 effective if the performance specification for the other elements of the floor construction is inadequate. 1.3. Loading The term ‘warehouse’ is now being supplanted by ‘distribution centres’ and ‘materials- handling systems’, with the implication that loadings are heavier and more complex. Although loading is not generally the primary cause of cracking in slabs, it is clearly important for the engineer to quantify loading magnitudes and locations as precisely as possible to enable realistic margins of safety to be achieved. Loadings may be broadly classified as follows, and can include both static and dynamic effects: (a) uniformly distributed loads (UDL), (b) line loads (LL); (c)__ point loads (PL). 1.3.1. Uniformly distributed loads The loading values given in Table 11 (storage occupancy; warehouses) of BS 6399 [1.2], other than the types listed separately (2.4 kPa for each metre of storage height), may not be adequate to cover current loading systems. A common loading system consists of modules or unit loads stacked on timber pallets with typical plan dimensions of 1.2 m x 1.0 m. Unit loads in the form of palletised loads, paper reels, etc. stacked on top of one another are referred to as block stacking and can impose uniformly distributed floor loads of up to 100 kPa, but more typically 25-50 kPa. If the distribution of the block stacking is undefined, it is necessary to consider loading arrangements which give the maximum negative (hogging) and positive (sagging) moments. Uplift of the slab can also occur, and analysis for uniformly distributed loading is covered in a subsequent section. 1.3.2. Line loads Line loads are defined as uniform loads over extended lengths such as intermediate or partition walls, or mobile racking rails. They are expressed in kN/m, by dividing the total weight of the wall or racking by the supporting length in metres. 1.3.3. Point loads Point loads arise from two sources; wheel loads and leg loads. Wheel loads include those from pallet transporters, counterbalance fork-lift trucks, narrow and very narrow aisle trucks, order-pickers and floor rail supported fixed-path stacker cranes. Leg loads include those from raised storage platforms (mezzanine), and from fixed and mobile racking. Further details are given in document TR34 [1.1], which includes useful tables of critical loadings for several floor usage categories (light, medium, heavy, very heavy) and types of floor loadings, with approximate maximum loads. Truck and storage equip- ment manufacturers should be consulted for more precise details of loadings (vertical and horizontal, static and dynamic), lift heights, aisle widths, guidance systems, surface regularity requirements, tyre contact pressures and so on. Some general guidelines are given below.DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS An important consideration in the thickness design of ground slabs (see later) is the position of the loads in relation to the slab edges, corners and joints. Although not always possible, there is potential economy if, at the initial planning stage, the loading and floor joint arrangements can be accurately defined. Mezzanine leg loadings can be in the range 35-120 KN. At the upper end of this range, the legs may require te foundations or a floor slab provided with additional reinforcement. The leg base plates are typically 200 x 200 mm in area and 10-16 mm thick, and it is considered appropriate to assess slab stress levels centred at 200 mm from a joint or slab edge [1.3]; see Figure 1.2. The adequacy of the base plate dimensions to distribute the leg loads to the ground slab should be checked. Proprietary systems of pallet racking consist typically of cold-formed perforated steel end-frames and beams, Arrangements for mezzanines and pallet racking are illustrated in reference [1.1]. Loadings on the end-frames are generally in the range 30-120 KN i.e. leg loads of 15-60 kN. They can however be considerably higher and this should be checked at the planning stage. Base plates for pallet racking are generally fairly flexible, and it is considered appropriate to assume a loaded area of 100 x 100 mm centred 150 mm from the slab edge or joi Figure 1.2. If the pallet racks are placed back-to-back, the rear legs will be spaced at about 300 mm centres and usually provide the critical load with, say, 60 kN carried on each leg. It is common practice to treat the double leg load as a single leg load acting on a combined contact area. To summarise, an assessment of the juxtaposition of the joint, edge and leg load posi- tions is a critical aspect in the economic design of ground floor slabs. However, many warehouse floors are in a category where a fixed racking layout can be positioned to avoid maximum leg loads occurring close to slab edges and joints. Quantification of the stress levels in relation to the load position on a slab (internal, edge and comer) is covered later in the section on thickness design. ‘Slab edge or joint 200 mm | { T 4100 mm 100 mer 200 mm 100 mm 200 mm Figure 1.2. Mezzanine and pallet racking base plates, after Chandler and Neal [1.3]CONCRETE INDUSTRIAL GROUND SLABS 1.4. Construction methods Several methods of construction for concrete ground-supported industrial floors are in common use in the United Kingdom [1.1], [1.4]. To achieve the highest standards of workmanship it is preferable to carry out the construction under cover, thus protecting the concreting operations from the vagaries of the weather. Three common methods of construction are outlined below; long (narrow) strip, wide strip and large area pours. The older practice of chequerboard construction in which the floor is divided into small, approximately square, slabs with every other slab cast first and infill panels cast later, has now been discredited for technical and practical reasons. 1.4.1, Narrow strip construction The floor is constructed by dividing it into a series of narrow strips 4.5-6.0 m in width. Each strip normally runs the full length of the floor up to 100 m or more. Every other strip is poured first, with the infill strips being placed a few days later. The narrow width of the floor allows the contractor good control over surface regularity. This is important in the construction of floors used to accommodate racking systems which require super- flat tolerances. Disadvantages of this form of construction are that it is slow, labour intensive and requires a large number of pre-formed construction joints which necessi- tate a high standard of workmanship if sharp joint edges are to be achieved. 1.4.2. Wide strip construction This is similar to narrow strip construction, the difference being that much wider strips are laid. Wide-span compacting beams allow the floor to be laid in strips up to 20 m wide, However, the width of strip is frequently limited by the distance between internal columns, say 8-16 m. Advantages of wide strip construction are increased production rates and a reduction in the number of pre-formed construction joints in the finished floor. A major disadvantage is that overall surface tolerances suffer significantly as the pour width is increased. 1.4.3. Large area construction This method of construction, partially or fully mechanised, is becoming increasingly popular for large warehouse construction, and pours of several thousand square metres per day can be achieved using free-flowing superplasticised concrete. It is particularly suitable in a building where laying the floor in one operation in one to three days would be a distinct advantage to the client, bearing in mind the overall building and services programme. Full or partially mechanised construction, including spreading, levelling and compac- tion of the concrete, is achieved by means of a laser-controlled machine. Laser control technology enables a reference plane of laser light to be established at every point over the work area. By using a laser receiver to detect the centre of the reference plane, the operator is able, by measuring a constant distance below the reference plane, to establish spot levels that give control of sub-base and finished floor elevations. For partially mechanised construction, the levelling of material to spot level references is achieved by hand screeding, Manual screeding is labour intensive, and faster screeding using fewer6 DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS personnel and a less workable concrete (thus reducing bleed water and surface defects) can be achieved using a laser screed machine. The machine is mounted on twin axles having a counterbalanced telescopic beam with a reach of about 6 m. A 3.7 m wide screed carriage assembly is mounted on the end of the beam. Multi-directional laser receivers mounted on each side of the screed carriage detect the level reference plane of laser light produced by a laser level transmitter, conveniently mounted on a nearby column or tripod. The laser screed operates in conjunction with concrete mixer trucks or pumps discharging a 5 m wide strip of concrete across the width of pour, with a surcharge of 25-35 mm to finished floor level. The telescopic beam is extended over the newly placed concrete and the screed carriage assembly is locked on to the finished floor level, governed by the automatic laser control system. As the beam is retracted, the screed carriage assembly is drawn across the concrete, levelling and compacting it as it passes. A further development of laser systems is in the control of construction equipment such as lift and tilt bulldozers used in sub-base preparation. The laser control mechanism is based on direct intervention of the machine’s hydraulic system, resulting in more consistent and lower level tolerances, and in material savings. 1.5. Floor slabs on piles The primary purpose of this chapter is to cover aspects of the design and construction of slabs supported directly on the ground surface. However, because of the continuing upward pressure on land prices, warehouses and distribution complexes are increasingly being constructed on poor quality ground. Thus, the construction of ground slabs on piles is gaining an increasing market share. The pile grid is normally in the range 3.5 m x 3.5 mto 5.5 m x 5.5 m, and a critical design factor is punching shear around the pile heads. This can be overcome by the use of drop panels (thickening of the slab at the location of the pile heads), although from a construction point of view, the use of a thicker slab of constant thickness is preferable. In this form of construction, higher fibre dosages are used (say, 35-60 kg/m*), while conventional reinforcement percentages are minimised and normally concentrated over the pile heads. Aspects of the structural design of slabs on piles will be outlined later in the chapter. 1.6. Flatness and surface regularity The first edition of document TR34 in 1988 set out parameters for the specification and measurement of floor flatness and levelness for warehouses and other industrial floors. Requirements were included for defined-movement areas (vehicles are restricted to permanently fixed paths) and free-movement areas (vehicles can travel freely and randomly in any direction) in a single table. The second edition of TR34 in 1994 introduced separate tables for defined and free- movement areas, and made changes to the specifications for free-movement areas. Numerous enquiries with regard to the suitability and adequacy of the specifications for free-movement areas led to the publication of a supplement to TR34 in 1997 (1.5). ACONCRETE INDUSTRIAL GROUND SLABS 7 FM2 and FM3, the first being the most onerous and only used for a free-movement area where very strict flatness and levelness tolerances are considered to be essential Reference should be made to the TR34 supplement for detailed guidance on surface regularity, and the following points should be noted, 1. TR34 uses four properties (I, II, III and IV) to define surface regularity, which relate to slope and elevation differences. 2. The construction of a sound floor, whatever the classification, requires skilled labour, and in normal circumstances with very good workmanship, only the long strip method will achieve the FM1 standard of surface regularity. 3. The need to minimise formed joints may be more important than flatness and levelness of a floor. 4. Differential thermal contraction and shrinkage may cause a slab to curl at the joints and affect levels. Furthermore, long-term loading can cause slab settlement and thus level changes, even in piled construction. The time-dependent properties of concrete necessitate that the flatness achieved should be assessed by survey at the start of the construction of the floor, and possibly also at intervals during construction and some months after completion of the floor. 5. There is a worldwide lack of consistency between the various national standards employed. In the USA, the ‘F-number’ and ‘Wave Index’ systems are used. In Europe, national standards have been employed, including two German DIN standards and other standards in the Netherlands and Sweden. Reference [1.6] should be consulted for further guidance on national standards. 1.7. Material properties and specification 1.7.1. Concrete ‘The most recent UK guidance on the specification, mix design and production of concrete for industrial floors 1.7] has been prepared by a Working Party of the Associa- tion of Concrete Industrial Flooring Contractors (ACIFC) in collaboration with the Floors Committee of the Concrete Society. This document should be read in conjunction with the Concrete Society Technical Report No. 34. The concrete specification should be such that adequate standards are achieved in relation to strength, durability, abrasion resistance and surface regularity. Specific guidance on concrete specification related to the expected use and trafficking of a floor is given in BS 8204 [1.8]. ‘As a general guideline, the minimum grade of concrete should be C40 with a minimum cement content of 325 kg/m’ and a maximum free-water/cement ratio of 0.55. The concrete grade relates to its characteristic compressive strength (e.g. C40 = 40 N/mm?). In the UK, this is based on the strength of test cubes, but with the increasing use of Euronorms, cylinder strengths will also be used. Eurocode 2 [1.9] gives the relationship between cylinder strength f,, and cube strength f,, shown in Table 1.1. It should be noted that concrete compressive strength has little relevance to the thick- ness design of concrete floors. Thickness design methods (clastic or ultimate load) rely on the flexural strength of concrete. The UK standard for determination of the flexural8 DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS. Table 1.1. Relationship between cylinder strength f,, and cube strength f.,, of concrete (average fx/fu, = 0.81), after Eurocode 2 [1.9] fg: Nimm? 2 16 20S 8085 SS fog: Nimm? 1 200-257 aS SSO Salles 080 080 080 083 081 0.78 080 082 0.83 Figure 1.3. Third-point loading beam test strength of conerete is BS 1881 [1.10], and uses a third-point loading beam test with the notation shown in Figure 1.3. The bending moment M at failure is given by PLL M=— 1.1) 6 ¢ where P, denotes the failure load. The flexural strength (or modulus of rupture) f,, is then fara a2) For the standard test, b = 1 = 150 mm and L = 450 mm. This test, however, is not in general use for ready-mix or site produced concrete, but is used extensively in deter- mining the toughness characteristics of steel fibre reinforced concrete (refer to later section on steel fibres). In TR34, the relationship between modulus of rupture and compressive strength at 28 days is given as foacag) = 9-393 fa Nimm* (1.3)CONCRETE INDUSTRIAL GROUND SLABS 9 This value can be increased by 10% if the slab is subjected to its maximum loading at 90 days or more. Equation (1.3) may not be accurate for other than commonly achieved mixes. The flexural strength of concrete is dependent on a number of factors, including grading, particle shape and source of aggregates. It appears that equation (1.3) is based on an expression given by Raphael [1.11], which in psi units is 2.3,f2° psi (4) where f, is the cylinder strength of concrete. Equation (1.4) is derived from the assump- tion of non-linear behaviour of the concrete in the tensile zone, resulting in a value of about 75% of the modulus of rupture obtained from equation (1.1). High compressive and flexural strengths can be achieved by the use of microsilica concrete. Flexural strengths in excess of 12 N/mm? can be achieved, and further benefits are low shrinkage and creep, high wear and abrasion resistance. Clearly, the cost impli- cations of using high performance mixes should be investigated. In summary, the concrete specification should achieve: (a) high flexural strength; (b) low shrinkage and creep; (c)_ high wear and abrasion resistance; (4) workability that is appropriate to the method of construction. Reference [1.7] gives guidelines for typical workabilities (slump) for common construc- tion and pour methods. Workability will be influenced by the use of admixtures and fibres, particularly steel. Consultations between the client, designer and contractor at the initial stages of the project are essential. 1.7.2. Reinforcement The most common form of reinforcement used in ground slabs is cross-welded steel wire mesh (fabric) to BS 4483 [1.12] manufactured from cold-reduced wire or ribbed wire. Three types of fabric to BS 4483 are manufactured; Ref. A (square mesh), Ref. B (struc- tural fabric) and Ref. C (long mesh). The standard sheet size is 4.8 m x 2.4 m and the characteristic strength of the wires is 460 N/mm’. It is also possible to obtain fabric rein- forcement tailored to meet particular requirements, and fabric manufacturers should be consulted with regard (o the range of options available and the design data for standard fabrics A, B and C. If Euronorms are specified [1.13], slightly higher characteristic strengths are used, typically grade B500 with a characteristic yield stress of 500 kN/mm?. Further, the term “ductility class’ is introduced. The two ductility classes are: high ductility; E> 5%, (ff) > 1.08 normal ductility; &,> 2.5%. (f/f) > 1.05 where g,, = characteristic elongation (%) of reinforcing steel at maximum load, and ( f/f.) = characteristic ratio of tensile strength to yield stress. Where ultimate load methods for10 DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS ground slab design are adopted e.g. plastic analysis (see later), it is essential to specify the high ductility class as this parameter is not covered by BS 4483. Strands for post-tensioned floors have typical nominal diameters in the range 12.5-16.0 mm, with characteristic breaking loads in the range 160-300 KN. Strands can comply with British (BS 5986) and European (ENV 10138) standards [1.14], [1.15]. Manufacturers should be consulted with regard to anchorage details and setting-out dimensions, An outline design for a prestressed concrete ground slab is given in section 1.8. 1.7.3. Steel fibres The use of fibres, classically straw and horse hair, to reinforce brittle materials such as bricks and plaster has a long history. However, it was not until the 1970s that the use of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) gained commercial momentum, In the 1988 edition of TR34, minimal reference was made to the use of steel (and polypropylene) fibres, but in the 1994 edition comprehensive data were included together with a design example. Classification of steel fibres is covered in the American Standard ASTM A820-90 [1.16], TR34 and a Concrete Society/ACIFC publication [1.17]. Broadly, the properties of SFRC are influenced by: (a) cross-section (normal, flat, cre (b) deformations (straight, undulat (©) aspect ratio (Ly/d,): (d) dosage (generally expressed as kg/m"); (©) tensile strength; (f) ductility (toughness). ‘The aspect ratio (L;/d,) is defined as the fibre length (L;) divided by its diameter or equivalent diameter (d,), and is generally in the range 30-100. The quantity of steel fibres in a mix can be expressed in three ways [1.18], namely 1007, 100F — 7850 V, W,= —= (1.5) T Ww. W, where W, = percentage of fibres by weight of concrete, 7; = weight of fibres in a batch (kg), T= weight of plain concrete in a batch (kg), F = weight of fibres per unit volume of plain concrete (kg/m*), W, = unit weight of plain concrete (kg/m*), and V; = volume fraction of fibres (%). It is common practice in the UK and Europe to specify the fibre dosage as a weight per unit volume of plain concrete (F). For slabs on ground, typical values of F are in the range 20-40 kg/m’, which correspond to volume fractions (V;) of 0.25-0.5%. It should be noted that test data for SRC can be misleading as the volume percentage of fibres is, not always quoted and may be between 1% and 2%. An important characteristic of steel fibres is their toughness or ductility. A measure of this toughness can be obtained from the American Standard ASTM C1018 [1.19] or the Japanese Standard JSCE-SF4 [1.20]. The Japanese Standard is easier to use and is based on the modulus of rupture (f,) of heams using a third-point loading test. With the rangeCONCRETE INDUSTRIAL GROUND SLABS iL Load > 3 = 3.0 mm (L/180) Deflection Figure 1.4. Typical load—deflection curve for flexural toughness determination based on third-point loading beam test of fibre doses 20-40 kg/m/ used in ground supported slabs, it is generally accepted that the value of f,, for plain concrete will not differ significantly from the stress at first cracking for steel fibre reinforced beams. However, the deformation characteristics after cracking of steel fibre concrete beams will differ considerably from those for plain concrete beams. Depending on the fibre type and dosage, steel fibre concrete beams can be shown to have considerable toughness (ductility). Using results from the third-point loading beam test, the area below the load-deflec- tion curve (7,) up to a deflection of 1/150 of the span (3 mm for L = 450 mm) can be measured; see Figure 1.4. The equivalent flexural strength f, , can be expressed as TL fos = (1.6) fos = sae The equivalent flexural ratio R, 5, expressed as a percentage, is given by 100f... R= an fa Slab tests undertaken at the University of Greenwich, England [1.21] and the Technical University of Brunswick, Germany [1.22] have shown that a significant increase of load- bearing capacity can be achieved by the addition of steel fibres in the dosage range 20-40 kg/m’. The greater the value of R.;, the greater the increase in load capacity. Generally, hook-ended or undulating fibres have better toughness characteristics than straight fibres. Values of R,, can be obtained from manufacturers’ test reports or by independent laboratories. Typical design values for flexural toughness are shown in Figure 1.5.12 DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS. 100 1 é zh (© Undulting ores (4/0, = 50) 18 Hook-ended fibres (Ly tol 4A Hook-ended foes (Ly/c = 60) A 1 20 25 30 35 40 ro 30 Fibre dosage: kam? Figure 1.5. Typical design values for flexural toughness for steel fibre reinforced concrete based on Japanese Standard JSCE-SF4 [1.20] References [1.1] and [1.17] should be consulted in relation to the beneficial charac- teristics of steel fibres regarding dynamic loads, abrasion, and the control of cracks arising from restrained shrinkage. In conclusion, SFRC is more durable than plain concrete using the same mix design. The fibres within the alkaline environment of the concrete are protected from corrosion. Under normal finishing processes, very few fibres will be left exposed at the surface of the slab; any such fibres will corrode and will be lost under trafficking. This corrosion does not lead to deterioration of the concrete surface. 1.7.4. Polypropylene fibres Polypropylene fibres were introduced into the UK and Europe in the 1980s as a means of improving the performance of concrete ground slabs, particularly during the plastic state of the concrete. This is achieved by enhancing the tensile strain capacity of the concrete, which provides increased resistance to plastic shrinkage and settlement cracking. The fibres have a tensile strength in the range 550-750 N/mm’, and the normal dosage is 0.9 kg per cubic metre of concrete. Polypropylene fibres are manufactured from olefin (hydrocarbons of the ethylene series) fibres, made from polymers or co-polymers ofCONCRETE INDUSTRIAL GROUND SLABS 13 propylene. Polypropylene is produced by melt-spinning the molten polymer, followed by stretching to orientate the fibre molecules. The molten ot semi-soft polypropylene is extended to form flat sheets or filaments. ‘Two types of polypropylene fibres can be formed. First, the flat sheets are broken up into minute fibrous elements from which the main structure is formed and cut to length These are fibrillated fibres and have an irregular cross-section, Alternatively, polypro- pylene filaments can be produced with a rounded cross-section, and cut to differing, lengths to create multi-filament or mono-filament fibres as required, Three types of fibre currently available in the UK which are supported by Agrément Certificates are classified as follows. 1. 19 mm long by 100 pm thick collated fibrillated polypropylene fibres. The fibres are manufactured from extruded sheet or film material which is subjected to molecular alignment, coated and cut to length. 2. 12mm long by 18 pm diameter crimped mono-filament polypropylene fibres. The fibres are manufactured in a continuous process by extrusion of polypropylene granules. The extruded material is heated, stretched to improve tensile strength, coated, cut to length and crimped. 3.12 mm long by 32 um thick mono-filament polypropylene fibres. The fibres"ase manufactured from extruded yarn which is subjected to molecular alignment, coated and cut to length. Itis claimed that the use of mono-filaments avoids problems with the thicker fibrillated fibres which have a tendency to protrude from the concrete surface. The UK Agrément Certificates list the characteristics of polypropylene fibre concrete; see also section 1.9.5. 1.7.5. Resistance to abrasion Tests have shown that fibre-dosed concrete can have a greater surface abra ance than conventional plain concrete. At the normal dosage rate of 0.1% by volume or 0.9 kg/m? of concrete, the compressive, flexural and tensile strengths of fibre concrete are not significantly different from plain concrete. If the fibre content is increased to 0.5% by volume, significant toughness can be obtained. It is also claimed that at a dosage of 1% by volume, improvement of shear strength can be achieved [1.23]; this is significant in the design of piled slabs on ground, where punching shear is a critical design factor. A recent development in polypropylene fibre technology is the use of an additive which is mixed with the resins used in the manufacture of the fibres. This helps to control the growth of fungi, yeast and certain types of bacteria. In conclusion, conventional fabric reinforcement, steel fibres and polypropylene fibres all have their place in ground slab design. Their appropriate use will be clarified in the following sections. ion14 DESIGN APPLICATIONS OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS Case 1 Case 3 Case 2 J ba Figure 1.6. Westergaard load positions for concrete ground slabs 1.8. Slab thickness design 1.8.1. Loading and subgrade reaction In 1925, Westergaard [1.24] presented a mathematical analysis to compute stresses in concrete roads. The analysis was based on the solution of the differential equation for deflection (w) of a plate in bending which was first obtained in the early nineteenth century [1.25]. For a plate on an elastic foundation [1.26], in addition to the applied loading (q), it is assumed that the intensity of the reaction (p) at any point at the bottom of the plate is proportional to the deflection at that point so that p = kw, where k denotes the modulus of subgrade reaction. For over 70 years, Westergaard’s equations, with subsequent modifications, have formed the basis of thickness design for concrete ground slabs, He considered three loading cases, as indicated in Figure 1.6. (a) Case I (internal loading) The wheel load is located at a considerable distance from the edges, and is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the area of a small circle of radius a. The critical tension occurs at the bottom of the slab under the centre of the circle.CONCRETE INDUSTRIAL GROUND SLABS 15 (b) Case 2 (edge loading) ‘The wheel load is positioned at the edge, but at a considerable distance from any comer. The applied pressure is assumed to be distributed uniformly over the area of a small semicircle with its centre at the edge and with radius a. The critical stress is a tension at the bottom of the slab under the centre of the circle. (©) Case 3 (corner loading) The wheel load acts close to a corner of a large rectangular panel forming part of the slab. The critical stress is a tension at the top of the slab. The resultant load is assumed to lie on the bisection of the right angle of the corner at the small distance a from each of the two intersecting edges. The distance from the corner is therefore a, = V2a. For all load cases, the following assumptions were made. 1. The slab acts as a homogeneous, isotropic, elastic solid. 2. The reactions from the subgrade are vertical, and are proportional to the deflec- tions of the slab. 3. The subgrade is an elastic medium whose stiffness can be characterised by the force which, distributed over unit area, will give a deflection equal to unity. This ‘quantity is known as the modulus of subgrade reaction k, and is measured as load per unit area per unit deflection e.g. N/mm* or MN/m’. ‘The modulus of subgrade reaction is sometimes referred to as the resilience modulus or the Winkler spring stiffness. In simple terms, the subgrade may be considered as acting as if it were made up of rows of closely spaced — but independent — elastic springs. The modulus of subgrade reaction is equivalent to the spring constant and is thus a measure of the stiffness of the subgrade. Values of k are determined from a plate loading test using a 750 mm diameter plate. If other loading plate diameters are used, a conversion factor is required. In 1995, the Transportation Research Board (USA) produced a comprehensive report on support under Portland cement concrete pave- ments [1.27], which should be consulted for details on k-values. An alternative to the use of a modulus of subgrade reaction is to consider the soil as acting as an elastic, tropic and homogeneous body [1.26]. The real soil behaviour lies between these two forms of modelling. The use of k-values is of more general application, and typical values are given in Table 1.2. Westergaard introduced another parameter which is a measure of the stiffness of the slab relative to the subgrade. It is in the nature of a linear dimension, and is referred to as the radius of relative stiffness (/) defined by 7 EP N2 (1 = vk) (18) where E, = modulus of elasticity of concrete, v, = Poisson's ratio (0.15) and f = slab thickness. 1.8.2. Westergaard equations There have been numerous modifications to the original Westergaard stress equations, which were reconsidered by Ioannides ef al. in 1995 [1.28]. Comparisons with a finite