ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS ANGULAR MOMENTUM IN QUANTUM PHYSICS L. C. BIEDENHARN J. D. LOUCKENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS and Its Applications GIAN-CARLO ROTA, Editor Department of Mathematics Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts Editorial Board Janos D. Aczel, Waterloo George E. Andrews, Penn. State Richard Askey, Madison Michael F. Atiyah, Oxford Donald Babbitt, U.C.L.A. Edwin F. Beckenbach, U.C..A. Lipman Bers, Columbia Garrett Birkhoff, Harvard Salomon Bochner, Rice Raoul Bott, Harvard James K. Brooks, Gainesville Felix E. Browder, Chicago A.B. Calderon, Buenas Aires Peter A. Carruthers, Las Alamos S. Chandrasekhar, Chicago S.S, Chern, Berkeley Hermann Chernoff, M.1.7. P.M, Cohn, Bedford College, London H. S. MacDonald Coxeter, Toronto George B. Dantzig, Stanford Nelson Dunford, Sarasota, Florida F. 3. Dyson, Inst. for Advanced Study Harold M. Edwards, Courant Harvey Friedman, Ohio State Giovanni Gallavotti, Rome Andrew M. Gleason, Harvard James Glimm, Rockefeller A. Gonzilez Dominguez, Buenas Aires M, Gordon, Essex Peter Henrici, ETH, Zurich Nathan Jacobson, Yale Mark Kae, U.S.C. Shizud Kakutani, Yale ‘Samuel Karlin, Stanford J.F.C. Kingman, Oxford Donald E. Knuth, Stanford Joshua Lederberg, Rockefeller ‘André Lichnerowicz, College de France M. J. Lighthill, London Chia-Chiao Lin, M.1.7. Tacques-Louis Lions, Paris G.G. Lorentz, Austin Roger Lyndon, Ann Arbor Robert J. McEliece, Urbana Marvin Marcus, Santa Barbara N. Metropolis, Los Alamos Jan Mycielski, Boulder L. Nachbin, Rio de Janeiro and Rochester Steven A. Orszag, M.1.T. ‘Alexander Ostrowski, Basle Roger Penrose, Oxford Carlo Pucci, Florence C.R Rao, indian Statistical Institute Fred S. Roberts, Rutgers ‘Abdus Salam, Trieste M.P. Schiitzenberger, Paris Jacob T. Schwartz, Courant Irving Segal, M.1.T. ‘Oved Shisha, Technion Olga Taussky. Caltech René Thom, Bures-sur-Yoette John Todd, Caltech John W. Tukey, Princeton Stanislaw Ulam, Colorado Veeravalli S. Varadarajan, U.C.L.A. Antoni Zygmund, ChicagoGIAN-CARLO ROTA, Editor ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS Volume 8 Section: Mathematics of Physics Peter A. Carruthers, Section Editor Angular Momentum in Quantum Physics Theory and Application L. C. Biedenharn Physics Department Duke University Durham, North Carolina J. D. Louck Los Alamos National Laboratory University of California Los Alamos, New Mexico With a Foreword by Peter A. Carruthers Los Alamos National Laboratory University of California Los Alamos, New Mexico a vv 1981 Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Advanced Book Program Reading, Massachusetts London Amsterdam-Don Mills, Ontario-Sydney*TokyoLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Biedenharn, LC ‘Angular momentum in quantum physics. (Encyclopedia of mathematics and its applications; vy. 8: Section, Mathematics and physics) Bibliography: p. Includes indexes. 1. Angular momentum. 2. Quantum theory. 1. Louck, James D., joint author. I. Title. TIL, Series: Encyclopedia of mathematics and its applications; v. 8 QCI74,17.A53B53 539.72 80-36893 ISBN 0-201-13507-8 Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge ‘The Pitt Building, Trumpington Sreet, Cambridge CB2 1RP 980): SLA60, S1A66, 32 East 57th Street, New York, NY 10022, USA 3A50, 33465, 33475, Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3206, Austratia © 1981 - Addison - Wesley, Reading, MA 01857 © Cambridge University Press 1984 in a retrieval system, First published 1981 by Addison Wesley tocopying, recording, First published by Cambridge University Press 1984 son-Wesley Publishing 7, USA. Printed in the United States of America ISBN 0521 302286EuGENE P. WIGNERContents Contents of companion volume ‘The Racah-Wigner Algebra in Quantum Theory by L. C. Biedenham and J. D. Louck (ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS, Volume 9)... . 60-60-00 e eee eee eee XVii Editor's Statement .. . . sees 2 Xx Section Editor's Foreword . eXXV Preface = ——. xxix Acknowledgments ©... 6.0... ee cee cece eee eee XXXi PARTI Chapter 1 Introduction 2.0.2.0... 6. s cece cece eee e eee eees 1 Notes... : References . Chapter 2 The Kinematics of Rotations Introduction .... Properties of Rotations . Dirac’s Construction . Cartan’s Definition of a Spinor + Relation between SU(2) and $0(3) Rotations . Parametrizations of the Group of Rotations Notes... eee eee eee References, aoahaeye Chapter 3. Standard Treatment of Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics . 1. Overview 2. Definition of the Angular Momentum Operators . .. 3. The Angular Momentum Multiplets . 4, Matrices of the Angular Momentum . ~ 5, The Rotation Matrices (General Properties) . ~6, The Rotation Matrices (Explicit Forms) . . .7 “9 10. +k 12. i. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21 pre 23. Chapter 4 yaepe Chapter 5 AAR eo oe Contents Wave Functions for Angular Momentum Systems Differential Equations for the Rotation Matrices . Orthogonality of the Rotation Matrices. Spherical Harmonics The Addition of Angular Momentum The Wigner Coefficients Relations between Rotation Cocfficiente 2 Concept of a Tensor Operator The Wigner-Eckart Theorem . . ‘The Coupling of Tensor Operators . Applications of the Wigner-Eckart Theorem . Racah Coefficients . 9-j Coefficients . Rotationally Invariant Produ Operators Associated with Wigner, Racah, and 9-j Coefficients . — Notes .. Appendices . References The Theory of Turns Adapted from Hamilton ........... 180 An Alternative Approach to Rotations . . 180 Properties of Turns (Geometric Viewpoint) . 184 Properties of Turns (Algebraic View) . . -193 The Space of Turns as a Carrier Space . Notes... References The Boson Calculus Applied to the Theory of Turns... . 205 Introduction 2.20.2... 0. 20 205 Excursus on the Boson Calculus . . 206 The Jordan Mapping.......... 212 ‘An Application of the Jordan Map . . . 214 Generalization of the Jordan Map. . . vee 217 Application of the Generalized Jordan Map ..........- 219 Application of the Generalized Jordan Map to Determine the Wigner Coefficients ........2.-0.000 05 23 Wigner Coefficients as “Discretized” Rotation Matrices . . .226 Appendices . . teeeeee References . . .Comtents Chapter 6 wane 10. he 12. 13; 14, 16. 17. 15 19. 20. aL 2. PART IL Chapter 7 I 2. a Orbital Angular Momentum and Angular Functions on the Sphere ..............2.. feces 2269 Rotational Symmetry of a Simple Physical System ...... .270 Scalar Product of State Vectors seve ee 271 Unitarity of the Orbital Rotation Operator 212 A (Dense) Subspace of H((S) . . 2B Only Integral Values of / can occur in the Quantization of Spatial (Orbital) AnglarMomentim 274 Transformations of the Solid Harmonics under Orbital Rotation. 2.0.0.6... e eee eee e eee 26 The Elements of the Rotation Matrix DR) are Homogeneous Polynomials bocce eee 277 ‘The Energy Eigenvalue Equation . +. 228 Tensor Spherical Harmonics . . » 279 Spinor Spherical Harmonics . . . = -283 Vector Spherical Harmonics » 284 Algebraic Aspects of Vector Spherical Harmonics. » .286 Summary of Properties of Vector Solid Harmonics ..... . 292 Decomposition Theorem for Vector Functions Defined on the Sphere Rotationally Invariant Spherical Functions of Two VECOTS oo eevee eee eee eee ee eee eee ene en ees 302 Applications of the Cartan Map to Spherical Functions . . .305 Rotationally Invariant Spherical Functions in Several Vectors - 307 Relationship of Solid Harmonics to Potential Theory .... .311 The Orbital Rotation Matrices as Forms . 2313 The Orbital Rotation Matrices are Equivalent to Real Orthogonal Matic 316 The “Double-Valued Representations” of the Proper Orthogonal Group S0(3) veces + 316 Noto. 319 References . . . aan Some Applications to Physical Problems ............ 324 Introductory Remarks ......... 324 Basic Principles Underlying the Applications. 2324 The Zeeman Effect ............... 326Contents a. Background = 326 b. The Normal Zeeman Effect . 37 c. Quantal Treatment . - 327 d. The Anomalous Zeeman Effect. 331 e. Relation to the Development of Angular Momentum Theory ..... i. 2.333 f. Concluding Remarks . 334 g Note ......... References . ‘The Nonrelativistic Hydrogen Atom « a. Algebraic Aspects b. Properties of the Bound States of the Hydrogen Atom c. Explicit Hydrogen Atom Wave Functions d. Momentum Space Representation e. Relationship between Rotation Matrices and Hyperspherical Harmonics {. Pauli Particle (Hydrogen Atom with Spin) g. Remarks ...... h. Appendix References . Atomic Spectroscopy a. b. pe ao ee oe References Electromagnetic Processes mreanee Introduction ‘The Approximate Hamiltonian for Many- Electron Atoms . ‘The Central-Field Model . A Short Vocabulary of Spectroscopy Terminology Closed Shells 20.0... cece eee ee eee ee The One-Electron Problem with Spin-Orbit Coupling : Two-Electron Configurations : Equivalent Electron Configurations . Operator Structures in /"-Configurations . . Appendix Preliminary Remarks. . Multipole Radiation... . ‘The Hansen Multipole Fields Classical Multipole Moments Reduction of the Electric Multipole Moments The Radiated Multipole Fields : ‘A Curious Property of the Multipole Expansion (Casimir (9) 000.000 e cee eee e eee eee 2 439Contents, h. The Radiated Power i. Angular Momentum Flux. j. A Vectorial Analog to the Rayleigh Expansion - k 1 An Illustrative Example... . : ‘The Density Matrix for Photon Angular Correlation Measurements. bet eetee eee eeeeee m. Notes . References . : Angular Momentuin Techniques in the Density Matrix Formulation of Quantum Mechanics . a. Preliminaries . . b. Statistical Tensors . c. A Geometric Characterization of the Density Matrices for Pure States of Spin-j d, The Density Matrix for a Relativistic Massive Particle of Spin-j 20.20.00. cece eee ee eset eee e. The Special Case of Massless Particles . . £. Coupling of Statistical Tensors g. Some Examples Illustrating the Coupling Formula... .471 h. The Majorana Formula . . . a References : Angular Correlations and Angular Distributions of Reactions a. The Nature of the Angular Correlation Process. b. Cascades... eee cece . c. Stretched Angular Momenta : d. More Involved Correlation Processes . e. Relativistic Regime : References . Some Applications to Nuclear Structure. a. Qualitative Considerations : The Nuclear Shell Model of Mayer and Jensen . ‘The Isospin Quantum Number . Properties of a Short-Range Interaction - ‘The Pairing Interaction (Seniority) Quispn. : Quasi-Spin Wave Functions (Seniority Label). Application of Quasi-Spin to Tensor Operators. . Seniority in Terms of Casimir Operators . . . Concluding Remarks .............. Note .. References . Body-Fixed Frames: Spectra of Spherical Top Molecules 449 -452 -453 -455 455 -457 Forrm mesesxvi Contents a. Introduction 527 b. Definition and Kinematics of a Body-Fixed Frame . . . .528 c. Form of the State Vectors for Isolated Systems Described in a Body-Fixed Frame... . 533 d. The Instantaneous Principal Axes of Inertia Frame... .534 e. The Eckart Molecular Frame . . » 535 f. Distinguished Particle Frames . » 539 Uniform Method of Defining Body-Fixed Frames. . .540 hb IntemalCooninates = 543 i. Internal Coordinates for the Eckart Frame . .. 544 j. Internal Coordinates for the Principal Axes Frame . . . .549 k. The Linear Momentum Operators. ..........-. - 584 1. The Hamiltonian for a Semirigid (Rigid) Polyatomic Molecule: sti 559 m. Approximate Form of the Hamiltonian for Spherical Top Molecules .........0....0005 - 563 n. First-Order Energy Spectrum of a Triply Degenerate Vibration in a Spherical Top Molecule ........... 572 o. The Point Group of a Rigid Molecule ............. 578 p. Higher-Order Corrections: Phenomenological Hina lc sss 587 q. Splitting Patterns 594 r. Symmetry Axes and Induced Representations = 602 s. High Angular Momentum Effects . . «609 t. Selection Rules and Statistical Weights . » 612 u, Spectra of Fundamental Transitions of SF, . . 624 v Appendics = - 626 References + 629 Appendix of Tables . . » 634 Bibliography .... » 667 Listol Symbols 3 670 Author Index . - 687 Subject Index ©... 00... 695Contents of Volume 9 Contents of companion volume Angular Momentum in Quantum Physics: Theory and Application by L. C. Biedenharn and J. D. Louck (ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS AND. ITS APPLICATIONS, Volume 8) Editor's Statement Section Editor's Foreword Preface Introduction by George W. Mackey Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Yer asaene Chapter 3 Introduction Algebraic Structures Associated with Wigner and Racah Operators Introduction and Survey Notational Preliminaries Fundamental Wigner Operators Properties of Unit Tensor Operators Coupling of Unit Tensor Operators Consequences of Associativity A Characterization of Racah—Wigner Algebra Notes Appendix: Orthogonality of the Racah Invariant Operators References Null Space Properties and Structure Theorems for RW-Algebra ‘The Pattern Calculus Structural Results for the General [SU/(2)] Wigner Operator Null Space Aspects of Wigner Coefficients ‘The Possibility of Defining RW-Algebras for Symmetries Other Than Angular Momentum Notexviii Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Topic 1. Contents, ‘Appendices A. Determination of P, from Its Characteristic Zeros B. Symbolic Forms of the Wigner Coefficients References W-Algebra: An Algebra of Invariant Operators Introduction Wigner Operators for the Direct Product Group SU(2)x SUQ) Construction of the W-Algebra Null Space Properties and Structure Theorems for W-Algebra The Matrix Boson Realization of Unit Racah Operators Notes Appendices A. Canonical Form of the Racah Coefficients 7 B. Proof of the Reflection Symmetry Property of the P, C. Determination of P, from Its Zeros D. Symbolic Forms of the Racah Coefficients References Special Topics Fundamental Symmetry Considerations Survey The Wigner Theorem on Symmetry Transformations in Quantum Mechanics Proof of the Wigner Theorem Extension of the Wigner Theorem: Relation to the Fundamental Theorem of Projective Geometry Implications for Rotational Symmetry Time Reversal ‘Time Reversal and Rotations; The Frobinius-Schur Invariant ‘The Univalence Superselection Rule for Angular Momentum ‘The Transformation of Eigenfunctions under Anti-unitary Operators: Corepresentations Concluding Remark Notes ReferencesContents Topic 2. Topic 3. Topic 4. Topic 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5, 6. eee xix Monopolar Harmonics Introduction and Survey The Defining Physical Problem Reformulation of the Problem Further Discussions Notes Addendum. Minimum Coupling and Complex Line Bundles References ‘A Minimal Realization of Angular Momentum States: The Symplecton Preliminary Remarks The Symplecton Realization of SU(2) Notes, Appendices A. Definition of the Characteristic Eigenpolynomials 9” B. Multiplication Law for the Eigenpolynomials 9,” C. Basis Property of the Eigenpolynomials 9” References Algebraic Aspects of Physical Tensor Operators References Complex Angular Momenta, Regge Trajectories, and Regge Poles Physical Motivation ‘The Regge Treatment of Nonrelativistic Potential Scattering An Illustrative Example ‘The Mandelstem-Chew Viewpoint The Irreducible Representations of SU(1, 1)! Concluding Remarks Notes References Radial Integrals and the Lie Algebra of SU(1, 1) Introduction Associated Laguerre Functions and the Lie Algebra of the Group SU(1,1) Integrals Involving Associated Laguerre Functions Iteration Method for Deriving the Integralsae Topic 7. Topic 8. vane Topic 9. pr aya x Contents Further Properties of Generalized Wigner Coefficients Interpretation of Integrals in Terms of the Lie Algebra of SU(I,1) Interpretation of Integrals in Terms of Tensor Operators Radial Integrals for the Harmonic Oscillator and the Coulomb Potentials Appendix: Summary of Properties of Associated Laguerre Polynomials and Functions References Uncertainty Relations for Angular Momentum ‘The Role of the Uncertainty Relations Résurhe of the Position-Momentum Uncertainty Relation Uncertainty Relations for Angular Momentum in Two Dimensions Uncertainty Relations for Angular Momentum in Three-Dimensional Space Notes References Interrelations between Angular Momentum Theory and Projective Geometry Introductory Survey Racah Coefficient as a Complete Quadrilateral Robinson's Interpretation Further Results Wigner and Racah Coefficients as Magic Squares References Physical Interpretation and Asymptotic (Classical) Limits of the Angular Momentum Functions Introductory Remarks Physical Interpretation of the Rotation Matrix Elements (Representation Coefficients) Physical Interpretation of the Wigner Coefficients Physical Interpretation of the Racah Coefficients The Nature of the Classical Limit The Ponzano-Regge Asymptotic Relations for the 6-j Symbol Symmetry Properties Proof of the Ponzano-Regge RelationContents 9. Asymptotic Forms Valid in the Transition and Classically Unallowed Regions 10. Asymptotic Forms for the Representation Coefficients (Rotation Matrices) 11. Concluding Remarks 12. Notes References Topic 10. Nontrivial Zeros of the 3-j and 6-j Symbols References Topic 11. The Relationship between Generalized Hypergeometric Functions and the Racah-Wigner Coefficients References Topic 12. Coupling of N Angular Momenta: Recoupling Theory 1. Introduction 2. The Multiplicity Problem and Recoupling Theory 3. The Enumeration of Binary Coupling Schemes 4. Binary Couplings and Binary Trees 5. Modification of the Enumerating Problem 6. The Basic Structures Underlying Transformation Coefficients 7. The Classification Problem for Transformation Coefficients 8. A Mapping of Pairs of Labeled Binary Trees to Cubic Graphs 9. Classification of Transformation Coefficients by Use of Cubic Graphs 10. Notes References Appendix of Tables List of Symbols Author Index Subject IndexEditor's Statement A large body of mathematics consists of facts that can be presented and described much like any other natural phenomenon. These facts, at times explicitly brought out as theorems, at other times concealed within a proof, make up most of the applications of mathematics, and are the most likely to survive changes of style and of interest. This ENCYCLOPEDIA will attempt to present the factual body of all mathematics. Clarity of exposition, accessibility to the non-specialist, and a thorough bibliography are required of each author. Volumes will appear in no particular order, but will be organized into sections, each one comprising a recognizable branch of present-day mathematics. Numbers of volumes and sections will be reconsidered as times and needs change. It is hoped that this enterprise will make mathematics more widely used where it is needed, and more accessible in fields in which it can be applied but where it has not yet penetrated because of insufficient information. GIAN-CaRLO ROTAForeword The study of the symmetries of physical systems remains one of the principal contemporary theoretical activities. These symmetries, which basi- cally express the geometric structure of the physical system in question, must be clearly analyzed in order to understand the dynamical behavior of the system. The analysis of rotational symmetry, and the behavior of physical quantities under rotations, is the most common of such problems. Accordingly, every professional physicist must achieve a good working knowledge of the “theory of angular momentum.” In addition, the theory of angular momentum is the prototype of continu- ous symmetry groups of many types now found useful in the classification of the internal symmetries of elementary particle physics. Much of the intuition and mathematical apparatus developed in the theory of angular momentum can be transferred with little change to such research problems of current interest. If there is a single essential book in the arsenal of the physicist, it is a good book on the theory of angular momentum. I have worn out several earlier texts on this subject and have spent much time checking signs and Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. Such books are the most borrowed and least often returned. I look forward to a long association with the present fine work, A good book on the theory of angular momentum needs to be thoroughly reliable yet must develop the material with insight and good taste in order to lay bare the elegant texture of the subject. Originality should not be erected in opposition to current practices and conventions if the text is to be truly useful. The present text, written by two well-known contributors to the field, satisfies all these criteria and more. Subtleties and scholarly comments are presented clearly yet unobtrusively. Moreover, the footnotes contain fascinating historical material of which I was previously unaware. The two chapters on the “theory of turns” and “boson calculus” are significant new additions to the pedagogical literature on angular momentum. Much of the theory of turns presented here was developed by the authors. By means of this approach the concept of “double group” is made very clear. The development of the boson calculus employs Gel'fand patterns in an essential way, in addition to .the more traditional Young tableaux. This section provides an excellent prototype for the analysis of all compact groups.ravi Foreword The representation theory is developed in the complete detail required for physical applications. This exposition of the lore of rotation matrices is especially thorough, including the Euler angle parametrization as well as others of practical value The text ends with a long chapter on applications well chosen to illustrate the power of the general techniques. The book concludes with a masterly development of the group theoretical description of the spectra of spherical top molecules. To my mind the recent experimental confirmation of this theory in high resolution laser spectrometry experiments is one of the most spectacular confirmations of quantum theory. The present text is really a book for physicists. Nevertheless, the theory generates substantial material of interest for mathematicians. Recent re- search (for example in non-Abelian gauge field theory) has produced topics of common interest to both mathematicians and physicists. Some of the more interesting mathematical outgrowths of the theory of angular momen- tum are developed in the companion volume currently in press. PETER A. CARRUTHERS General Editor, Section on Mathematics of PhysicsPreface “The art of doing mathematics,” Hilbert! has said, “consists in finding that special case which contains all the germs of generality.” In our view, angular momentum theory plays the role of that “special case,” with symmetry—one of the most fruitful themes of modern mathematics and physics—as the “generality.” We would only amend Hilbert’s phrase to include physics as well as mathematics. In the Preface to the second edition of his famous book Group Theory and Its Applications 10 the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra, Wigner? records von Laue’s view of how remarkable it is that “almost all the rules of [atomic] spectroscopy follow from the symmetry of the problem.” The symmetry at issue is rotational symmetry, and the spectroscopic rules are those implied by angular momen- tum conservation. In this monograph, we have tried to expand on these themes. The fact that this monograph is part of an encyclopedia imposes a responsibility that we have tried to take seriously. This responsibility is rather like that of a library. It has been said that a library must ‘satisfy two disparate needs: One should find the book one is looking for, but one should also find books that one had no idea existed. We believe that much the same sort of thing is true of an encyclopedia, and we would be disappointed if the reader did not have both needs met in the present work. To accomplish this objective, we have found it necessary to split our monograph into two volumes, one dealing with the “standard” treatment of angular momentum theory and its applications, the other dealing in depth with the fundamental concepts of the subject and the interrelations of angular momentum theory with other areas of mathematics. Fulfilling this responsibility further, we have made an effort to address readers who seek very detailed answers on specific points—hence, we have a large index, and many notes and appendices—as well as readers who seck an overview of the subject, especially a description of its unique and appealing aspects. This accounts for the uneven level of treatment which varies from chapter to chapter, or even within a chapter, quite unlike a "Quoted in M. Kac, “Wiener and integration in function spaces,” Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 72 (1966), p. 65. (The italics are in the original; Kac notes that the statement may be apocryphal.) 2E. P. Wigner, Group Theory and Its Applications to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra. p.v. Academic Press, New York, 1959, (We have added in brackets the word “atomic,” since this was clearly von Laue’s intended meaning.)xxviii Preface textbook with its uniformly increasing levels of difficulty. The variation in the treatment applies particularly to the Remarks. Quite often these Re- marks contain material that has not been developed or explained earlier. Such material is intended for the advanced reader, and it can be disregarded by others. We urge the reader to browse and skip, rather than trying, at first, any more systematic approach. ‘These considerations apply also to the applications. Some applications may be almost too elementary, whereas others are at the level of current research. The field of applications is so broad that we have surely failed to do justice in many cases, but we do hope that the treatment of some applications is successful. In discussing a particular subject, we have given more detail than is usual in mathematical books, where terseness is considered the cardinal virtue. Here we have followed the precepts of Littlewood? who points out that “1v0 trivialities omitted can add up to an impasse.” Let us acknowledge one idiosyncrasy of our treatment: We have not explicitly used the methods of group theory, per se, but have proceeded algebraically so that the group theory, if it appears at all, appears naturally as a subject is developed. No doubt this method of technique is an overreaction to the censure—now disappearing—with which many physi- cists greeted the Gruppenpest*, In any event, we think that this treatment does make the material more accessible to some readers. Let us make some brief suggestions as to how to use the first volume, Angular Momentum in Quantum Physics (AMQP). Part I: (i) Chapters 2 and 3 and parts of Chapter 6 constitute the standard treatment of angular momentum theory and will suffice for many readers who wish to learn the mechanics of the subject. The methods used are elementary (but by no means imprecise), and the whole treatment flows from the fundamental commutation relations of angular momentum. (ii) Chapters 4 and 5 are recommended to the reader who wishes a general overview of the subject with methods capable of great generalization. Paradoxically, although these two chapters contain much new material, this material also belongs to the very beginnings of the subject—in the multiplication of forms of Clebsch and Gordan, and in the £n calculus of Weyl—all of which are now incorporated under the rubric of the “boson calculus.” Part I: The appli- cations given in Chapter 7 are totally independent of one another and can be understood from the results given in Chapter 3. The second volume, Racah-Wigner Algebra in Quantum Theory (RWA), is also presented in two parts. Part I: In Chapters 2, 3, and 4 the algebra of the *5, E, Littlewood, A Mathematician’s Miscellany, p. 30. Methuen, London, 1953, (The are in the original) “B, G, Wybourne, “The Gruppenpest yesterday, today, and tomorrow,” International Journal f Quantum Chemistry, Symposium No. 7 (1973), pp. 35-43. icsPreface xxix operators associated with the two basic quantities in angular momentum theory—the Wigner and Racah coefficients—is developed within the frame- work of the algebra of bounded operators acting in Hilbert space. These chapters are intended to rephrase the concept of a “Wigner operator” (tensor operator) in algebraic terms, using methods from Gel’fand’s devel- opment of Banach algebras. This approach to angular momentum theory is rather new, and is intended for the reader who wishes to pursue the subject, from the viewpoint of mathematics. Part II: The twelve topics developed in Chapter 5 establish diverse interrelations between concepts in angular momentum theory and other areas of mathematics. These topics are inde- pendent of one another, but do draw for their development on the material of Chapter 3 of AMQP, and to a lesser extent on Chapters 2-4 of RWA. This material should be of interest to both mathematicians and physicists. L. C. BleEDENHARN J.D, LouckAcknowledgments This monograph could not have been completed without the extensive help of friends and colleagues. Professor L. P. Horwitz performed the vital chore of a thorough reading and criticism of the entire two volumes; his help is gratefully acknowledged. Other colleagues who have helped us by reading and criticizing particular chapters, the applications, or topics in Angular Momentum in Quantum Physics and in Racah-Wigner Algebra in Quantum Theory are: (’) AMQP. D. Giebink, Chapters 2~4; Professors H. Bacry and B. Wolf, Chapter 4; Professor R. Rodenberg and Dr. M. Danos, Chapters 2-6; Professor B, R. Judd, Chapter 7, Section 5; Drs. H. W. Galbraith, C. W. Patterson, and B. J. Krohn, Chapter 7, Section 10; (ii) RWA. Professor L. Michel, Chapters 2-4; Drs, H. Ruch and R. Petry, Topic 2; Dr. M. M. Nieto, Professors M. Reed, N. Mukunda, and H. Bacry, Topic 7; Professor T. Regge, Topic 9; Dr. B. J. Krohn, Topic 10; Dr. C. W. Patterson and Professor J. Paldus, Topic 12. Dr. W. Holman read both volumes to assist us with the indexing and suggested many improvements. Further acknowl- edgment of help from those not mentioned here is indicated in the relevant chapters. In a more general way, we are indebted also to Professors H. van Dam, E. Merzbacher, A. Bohm, and Dr. N. Metropolis for discussions and help extending over several years. This monograph is dedicated to Professor Eugene P. Wigner, whose picture (courtesy of the Niels Bohr Library of the American Institute of Physics) appears as the frontispiece. We not only acknowledge the inspira- tion of Wigner’s research, but also record his personal encouragement and help, and we are honored that he has accepted this dedication. We wish also to acknowledge our great indebtedness to the late Professor Giulio Racah, who encouraged our work at its most critical time, the very beginning. Professor Ugo Fano also helped us greatly in this same period. Special thanks are due to Professor Gian-Carlo Rota, editor of this Encyclopedia, for encouraging us to write at length on the subject of this monograph. Most monographs begin as course notes and lectures series, The present monograph is no exception and evolved from such notes and lectures given over the years. We are particularly indebted to Dr. H. William Koch for ‘urging us to write up the lectures on angular momentum theory (based onwail ‘Acknowledgments the concept of the turn) given at the National Bureau of Standards. This was finally achieved many years later, when a much expanded version was presented at Canterbury University (Christchurch, New Zealand, in 1973) and supported by an Erskine Fellowship arranged by Professor Brian Wybourne; part of the actual writing of the monograph was carried out during the tenure of a von Humboldt Fellowship (1976) under the sponsor- ship of Professor Walter Greiner at the University of Frankfurt (am Main). Without the patience and helpful attitude of the editorial and production staffs of the Advanced Book Program of Addison-Wesley, and the free-lance copy editor, Dorothea Thorburn, it would not have been possible to split our original manuscript into the present two volumes. The entire typing of the original manuscript and several of its revisions were carried through, without flinching, by Nancy Simon. Her loyalty to this task, extending over several years, is especially appreciated. Thanks are also given to Lena Diehl and Julia Clark for typing many of the final revisions. We are also indebted to Graphic Arts and Illustration Services of the Los Alamos National Laboratory for the figures and reproductions. The writing of a monograph can be traumatic to others besides the authors, We wish to thank our wives, Sarah Biedenharn and Marge Louck, for their unfailing support and encouragement in keeping us at our task. L. C. BIEDENHARN J.D. LouckCHAPTER 1 Introduction The quantum theory of angular momentum, as developed principally by Eugene Wigner and Giulio Racah, has become an indispensable discipline for the working physicist, irrespective of his field of specialization, be it solid-state physics, molecular-, atomic-, nuclear-, or even hadronic-structure physics. Angular momentum theory is no less valuable to theoretical physicists, mathematical physicists, and mathematicians, as one of the prime examples of the far-reaching power and great beauty of the symmetry approach that underlies, and generalizes, angular momentum theory. The concept of angular momentum, defined initially as the moment of momentum (£ = #x A), originated very early in classical mechanics. (Kepler’s second law, in fact, contains precisely this concept.) Nevertheless, angular momentum had, for the development of classical mechanics, nothing like the central role this concept enjoys in quantum physics. Wigner [1] notes, for example, that most books on mechanics written around the turn of the century (and even later) do not mention the general theorem of the conservation of angular momentum. In fact, Cajori’s well-known History of Physics [2] (1929 edition) gives exactly half a line to angular momentum conservation. That the concept of angular momentum may be of greater importance in quantum mechanics is almost self-evident. The Planck quantum of action, h, has precisely the dimensions of an angular momentum, and, moreover, the Bohr quantization hypothesis' specified the unit of (orbital) angular momen- tum to be # = //2n. Angular momentum theory and quantum physics are thus clearly linked. " We discuss this in more detail in the Note to Section 3 of Chapter 7. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATHEMATICS and Its Applications, Gian-Carlo Rota (ed.). Vol. 8: L. C. Biedenharn and J. D. Louck, Angular Momentum in Quantum Physics: Theory and Application Copyright © 1981 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Advanced Book Program, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, of transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.2 Introduction 1 One may discern two principal reasons underlying this change in the importance of angular momentum for quantum mechanics. The first reason—which applies to some extent also to classical mechanics —is the change in the conceptual framework that gradually occurred as the Newtonian laws of motion were replaced by the Lagrangian (and later, Hamiltonian) equations. The second is peculiar to quantum mechanics and concerns the quantal concept of state. Let us discuss these two reasons briefly, even though a fully satisfactory treatment lies outside the purview of this monograph. The shift in emphasis from the Newtonian laws of motion to the Lagrangian formulation was to some extent pragmatic (to eliminate holonomic con- straints) but primarily motivated toward conceptual generalization (for ‘example, to eliminate the particular role of Cartesian coordinates). This trend continues even today, for, as Lichnerowicz [3] has pointed out, the analytic mechanics of Lagrange, by providing the first examples of natural differenti- able manifolds of arbitrary dimension, began what has now become differen- tial geometry (Sternberg [4], Abraham [5], MacLane [6]) To appreciate the significance of this change in viewpoint, let us recall that, originally, angular momentum was considered important because it was (for central forces) a conserved quantity, just as the analogous conservation of linear momentum gave content to that concept. But the true import and depth of the conceptual change became apparent only when Hamel [7] in 1904 —using the Lagrangian-Hamiltonian formulation of mechanics —established that there is a connection between the conservation laws of linear and angular momentum and the fundamental symmetries of time and space (see Note 1). For an isolated system one necessarily has the symmetry implied by the homogeneity (spatial translational invariance) and isotropy (rotational in- variance) of space; thus, the Lagrangian is invariant to translations and to rotations, and hence one obtains, in this way, the conservation laws of linear and angular momentum. This fundamental relationship between symmetry principles and con- servation laws culminated in the classical general theorem of Noether [8] (see Note 1) relating the general invariance properties of the Lagrangian both to the conserved quantities and to their associated conservation laws (Roman [9]). These results greatly increased the conceptual importance of angular momentum, and this lesson has, by now, been so thoroughly absorbed that “angular momentum conservation” and “invariance under rotation” are currently viewed as virtually synonymous. It is important to note, however, that such a strong view is not completely justified, for, as Wigner [10] has emphasized, the invariance of the equations of ‘motion to rotations (say) does not imply the conservation of angular momentum. The existence of a Lagrangian (or, correspondingly, a Hamiltonian) is, in fact, essential in establishing the connection between symmetry (invariance) and