Noise and Sound

Noise—Excessive or unwanted sound which

potentially results in annoyance and/or hearing loss
(can be from occupational and/or non-occupational
sources). Noise refers to any external and unwanted
information that interferes with a transmission signal.
Noise can diminish transmission strength and disturb
overall communication efficiency. In communications,
noise can be created by radio waves, power lines,
lightning and bad connections.
Frequency
Sound—A pressure variation (wave) that travels
through air and is detected by the human ear. Sound is Frequency is the speed of the vibration, and
a pressure wave which is created by a vibrating object. this determines the pitch of the sound. It is only useful
This vibrations set particles in the surrounding medium or meaningful for musical sounds, where there is a
(typical air) in vibrational motion, thus transporting strongly regular waveform.
energy through the medium. Since the particles are
Frequency is measured as the number of wave cycles
moving in parallel direction to the wave movement, the
that occur in one second. The unit of frequency
sound wave is referred to as a longitudinal wave. The
measurement is Hertz (Hz for short).
result of longitudinal waves is the creation of
compressions and rarefactions within the air. A frequency of 1 Hz means one wave cycle per second.
A frequency of 10 Hz means ten wave cycles per
Physics of Sound
second, where the cycles are much shorter and closer
Amplitude together.

Amplitude is the fluctuation or displacement

of a wave from its mean value. With sound waves, it is
the extent to which air particles are displaced, and this
amplitude of sound or sound amplitude is experienced
as the loudness of sound. For a transverse wave, such
as the wave on a plucked string, amplitude is measured
by the maximum displacement of any point on the
string from its position when the string is at rest. For a
longitudinal wave, such as a sound wave, amplitude is
measured by the maximum displacement of a particle
from its position of equilibrium. When the amplitude of
a wave steadily decreases because its energy is "being Traveling Waves
lost" (converted to heat), it is said to be damped. Sound
Sound is produced when something vibrates.
waves in air are longitudinal, pressure waves.
The vibrating body causes the medium (water, air, etc.)
around it to vibrate. Vibrations in air are called traveling
longitudinal waves, which we can hear. Sound waves
consist of areas of high and low pressure called
compressions and rarefactions, respectively. Shown in
the diagram below is a traveling wave. Lighter areas
are low pressure (rarefactions) and darker areas are
high pressure (compressions).
Interference
When two waves meet, there can be two kinds of
interference patterns; constructive and destructive.
Constructive interference is when two waveforms are
added together. The peaks add with the peaks, and the
troughs add with the troughs, creating a louder sound.
Destructive interference occurs when two waves are
out of phase (the peaks on one line up with troughs on
the other).. For example, if two waveforms that are
exactly the same are added, the amplitude doubles,
but when two opposite waveforms are added, they
cancel out, leaving silence.
Noise-induced hearing loss
Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is hearing
impairment resulting from exposure to loud sound.
People may have a loss of perception of a narrow
range of frequencies, impaired cognitive perception of
sound including sensitivity to sound or ringing in the
ears. When exposure to hazards such as noise occur
at work and is associated with hearing loss, it is
referred to as occupational hearing loss.
Hearing may deteriorate gradually from chronic and
repeated noise exposure, such as to loud music or
background noise, or suddenly, from exposure to
impulse noise (a short high intensity noise), such as a
gunshot or air horn. In both types, loud sound
overstimulates delicate hearing cells, leading to the
permanent injury or death of the cells. Once lost this
way, hearing cannot be restored in humans.
There are a variety of prevention strategies available to
avoid or reduce hearing loss. Lowering the volume of
sound at its source, limiting the time of exposure and
physical protection can reduce the impact of excessive
noise. If not prevented, hearing loss can be managed
through assistive devices and cognitive therapies.
The largest burden of NIHL has been through
occupational exposures; however, noise-induced
hearing loss can also be due to unsafe recreational,
residential, social and military service-related noise
exposures. It is estimated that 15% of young people
are exposed to sufficient leisure noises (i.e. concerts,
sporting events, daily activities, personal listening
devices, etc.) to cause NIHL.
Sound pressure
Sound pressure or acoustic pressure is the
local pressure deviation from the ambient (average or
equilibrium) atmospheric pressure, caused by a sound
wave. In air, sound pressure can be measured using a Sound Pressure
microphone, and in water with a hydrophone.

The Sound Pressure is the force (N) of sound on a

surface area (m2) perpendicular to the direction of the
• Reference energy is the threshold of human hearing
sound.
• 10 * Bel = decibel (dB) –Sound pressure level (SPL)
The SI-units for the sound pressure are N/m2 or Pa.

Sound is usually measured with microphones

responding proportionally to the sound pressure. The
power in a sound wave goes as the square of the
• Acoustic energy cannot be readily measured
pressure.
• Acoustic energy is proportional to the square of the
The Sound Pressure Level (decibels) sound pressure

The lowest sound pressure possible to hear is • Where p is the sound pressure, and p o is the
approximately 2 102 Pa (20 micro Pascal, 0.02 mPa) or reference which is equal to the threshold of human
2 ten billionths of an atmosphere. The minimum hearing (i.e., 0.00002 Pa or 20 uPa)
audible level occurs between 3000 and 4000 Hz. For a
Adding Sound Pressure Levels
normal human ear pain is experienced at sound
pressures of order 60 Pa or 6 10-4 atmospheres. • Since SPLs are based on a log scale, they cannot be
added directly
It is convenient to express sound pressure with the
logarithmic decibel scale related to the lowest human
hearable sound - 2 10-5 Pa or 0 dB.

Sound Pressure Level can be expressed as:

• Where: SPLT is the total sound pressure level, and
Lp = 10 log (p2 / pref2) `2x
SPLi is the sound pressure level to be summed
= 10 log (p / pref)2

= 20 log (p / pref)

where

Lp = sound pressure level (dB)

p = sound pressure (Pa)

pref = 2 10-5 - reference sound pressure (Pa)

The softest audible sound modulates the air pressure

by around 10-6 Pascal (Pa). The loudest (pain
inflicting) audible sound does it by 102 Pa.
Noise Control
Noise Control - a set of strategies to reduce noise
pollution or to reduce the impact of that noise, whether
outdoors or indoors.
Active noise control is sound reduction using a power Construction Techniques in Acoustic Planning of a
source. Building

Passive noise control is sound reduction by noise- 1. Construction of Walls for Noise Control in

isolating materials such as insulation, sound-absorbing Buildings

tiles, or a muffler rather than a power source a. Wall mass and the thickness are
increased

b. Use of cavity in buildings

Active noise control (ANC), also known as noise c. Increase airspace width of cavities
cancellation, or active noise reduction (ANR), is a d. Increasing the stud spacing
method for reducing unwanted sound by the addition of e. Usage of studs in staggered manner
a second sound specifically designed to cancel the f. Studs and panels held together by
first. resilient materials

Sound is a pressure wave, which consists of

alternating periods of compression and rarefaction. A
noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with
the same amplitude but with inverted phase (also
known as antiphase) to the original sound.

Modern active noise control is generally achieved

through the use of analog circuits or digital signal
g. Panels used are dissimilar
processing. Adaptive algorithms are designed to
h. Sound absorbing blankets used in
analyze the waveform of the background aural or non-
the airspace
aural noise, then based on the specific algorithm
i. The cracks and edges are sealed
generate a signal that will either phase shift or invert
the polarity of the original signal.
Construction of Windows for Acoustic Control in
Buildings
1. Windows can be closed
2. Windows size can be reduced
3. Glass thickness can be increased

Construction of Doors for Acoustic Control in

Buildings
Doors are considered very difficult to handle than
windows, acoustically. Replacing a hollow core door by
2. Fan installations
a solid door is one of the solutions. This is found
3. Fan speed
relatively expensive.
4. Pneumatic exhausts
The sound insulation can be increased if at the bottom
5. Pneumatic nozzles
and at the top, a drop bar or gasket stops are installed.
Another solution is to reduce their use in walls facing
Noise in Buildings
noise directly. Install doors on the wall that is shielded.
Construction of Floors for Acoustic Control in The principal sources of rooms may be grouped into

Buildings three broad classifications: (a) People (b) Machinery

Special acoustical treatment is the only way to reduce and (c) Outdoor sources. The relative noise

the vibration of floors due to heavy noise. Installing a contributions from these three types of sources depend

heavy concrete floor or using a floating floor is some of to a large extent, on the use of the room in which the

the treatment methods. noises commingle.

Floating floor involves using a concrete or wooden slab This suggests that the effect of acoustical materials in
over the existing one, which is separated by a resilient reducing the noise level in a room maybe greater than
material. one might expect; since the absorptive treatment
lowers the average noise level, individuals can speak
Noise Control in Buildings by use of Masking in a lower voice and be heard.
This method involves the drowning of noise with the
help of a background noise. This is effective during
noise fluctuations. Masking can be created by soft
music, electronic devices or air conditioning systems
and heating systems.

Noise Control Techniques

1. Damping
a. Layer damping
Outdoor Noise
b. Constrained layer damping
Sounds of outside origin are often the principal
contributors to noise in offices, churches, and
residences. The largest source of outdoor noise is
generally automobile traffic.

Acceptable Noise levels in Buildings
Acceptable Noise Level- The highest level of noise
within a building that neither disturbs its occupants nor
impairs its acoustics. It depends, to a large extent, on
the nature of the noise and on the type and customary
use of the building. The time fluctuation of the noise is
one of the most important factors in determining its
tolerability.
A complication of such levels for various types of rooms
in which noise conditions are likely to be a significant
problem is given in this table.
The acceptable noise levels of this table are useful in
calculating the sound-insulation requirements of walls,
partitions and ventilation ducts under typical noise
conditions.
Achieving Higher Acoustical Privacy
Airtightness
The best assemblies for maintaining acoustical privacy
have surfaces with few or no interruptions, and are
sealed.
A 1 16‐inch crack 16 inches long will reduce a 9‐foot‐
long STC 50 wall to an STC 40 level. So try not to
interrupt walls and floor‐ceiling assemblies between
acoustically sensitive adjacencies with doors,
windows, and other surface intrusions, such as
electrical outlets, doorbells, fire alarms, intercoms,
built‐in cabinets, data jacks, and penetrations for
conduit, ducts, grilles, and pipes.
Mass
In general, the more massive the material, the more
noise it will mitigate for a given thickness. For example,
solid concrete is better sound insulator than solid wood
(of equal thickness), and a thicker concrete wall will
attenuate sound more effectively than a thinner
concrete wall. Multiple layers of thicker gypsum board
on the surface of a wall outperform a single thinner
layer. Just
doubling the weight of a stud wall by adding a gypsum
board layer to both outer surfaces can increase STC
by more than 5 points.
Structural Redundancy
A cavity wall outperforms a solid wall of
equal weight, and a staggered‐stud wall outperforms a
single‐stud wall because in staggered‐stud
construction, each stud attaches to only one side’s
gypsum wall board. A small room, like a closet, can be
designed as a buffer zone, provided the small room
extends the full length and height of the wall in
question.
Acoustic Privacy Checklist
Early Design
1. Program and space‐plan with acoustics in
mind. Keep the quiet spaces and noisy
spaces far away from one another, not only in
 plan, but in section as well. This is by far the
most effective, least costly, and
architectural of the solutions available.
2. Recognize that some rooms are simply too
noisy to be adjacent to noise‐sensitive
spaces, period.
3. Design rooms that are not noise sensitive as
buffer zones between noisy spaces and
quietspaces. For instance, place a row of
closets, utility rooms, vestibules, and bicycle
storagerooms between residential
Experience suggests that the room two‐
doors‐down is much quieter than the adjacent
room, so insert buffer rooms to effectively
move noisy rooms “two doors down.”
4. Recognize that an open plan will not afford
acoustic privacy. For instance,
conferenceroom and reception area are in
plain sight of one another without full‐height
partitionsbetween them, no acoustical
treatment will provide meaningful aural
separation.
Assembly Performance
1. Do not confuse sound absorption with sound
transmission loss. A material’s sound absorption or an
assembly’s impact noise performance has little—and
often no—effect on its sound transmission properties.
Noise reduction coefficient (NRC) and
insulation class (IIC) are independent of sound
transmission loss (TL) and sound transmission class
(STC). Most types of acoustical ceiling tile do not
adequately affect the transmission of sound between
occupied rooms.
2. Be conservative and specify an assembly that well
exceeds the minimum required. Sound transmission
class (STC) regularly varies +/− 2 points from
measurement to measurement. Some vary more.
Manufacturers, when publishing results from acoustic
tests, may put forth the highest score ever achieved
rather than a typical score.
3. If measuring as‐built assembly performance in the
most field, know that field test values usually come in below
those measured in the laboratory. This is because, in
situ, construction irregularities
and flanking paths compromise the robustness of the
more controlled samples tested as panels in the lab.
Nominally, one may assess a penalty of five points
when translating from lab measurements to field
measurements if there is the clear understanding that,
in some cases,
units. the penalty may be more than ten points.
4. Recognize that sound more easily passes between
rooms if open exterior windows of the adjacent rooms
are located near one another.
5. Specify massive, airtight, and structurally
discontinuous assemblies for walls and floor‐ceilings.
if the
Acoustic Privacy Checklist
Early Design
1. Program and space‐plan with acoustics in mind.
Keep the quiet spaces and noisy spaces far away from
one another, not only in plan, but in section as well.
This is by far the most effective, least costly, and most
architectural of the solutions available.
2. Recognize that some rooms are simply too noisy to
be adjacent to noise‐sensitive spaces, period.
3. Design rooms that are not noise sensitive as buffer
impact zones between noisy spaces and quiet spaces. For
instance, place a row of closets, utility rooms,
vestibules, and bicycle storage rooms between
residential units. Experience suggests that the room
two‐doors‐down is much quieter than the adjacent
room, so insert buffer rooms to effectively move noisy
rooms “two
doors down.”
4. Recognize that an open plan will not afford acoustic
privacy. For instance, if the conference room and
reception area are in plain sight of one another without
full‐height partitions
between them, no acoustical treatment will provide proprietary systems and are not equal in performance.
meaningful aural separation. In general, thick underlayments far outperform thinner
underlayments, and those with thicknesses less than
38 inch should be avoided, especially in light wood
construction. In concrete construction, a “floating floor”
may be used to isolate a concrete pad from the
Impact Noise
structural floor below it. In this system, a second floor
Impact Noise Isolation
surface hovers on spring
Impact noise is both particularly common and
or neoprene isolators. Most of the effective
particularly difficult to mitigate, especially in multifamily
underlayments will add a not‐insignificant thickness to
housing. Currently, the field often defines floor‐ceiling
the floor assembly, which can complicate the
construction not through design standards or building
installation of cabinets and doors. When designing for
codes, but rather through litigation. Impact noise, as a
an underlayment or floating floor, carefully detail to
type of structure‐borne sound, arises from impacts and
eliminate flanking paths at penetrations and walls.
vibrations transmitted directly to the building structure.
4. Damping between the structural floor and the ceiling
These sounds can be loud and sporadic, therefore
below. Generally, floor‐ceiling assemblies with ceilings
particularly annoying to building occupants, and unless
outperform those with exposed overhead structure.
they are accounted for in the initial design, structure‐
Decoupling the ceiling from the structure with spring
borne noise problems are difficult to correct.
hangers, resilient channel, or resilient brackets,
increases performance
further. For concrete construction, maintain four inches
Achieving Higher Impact Noise Performance in Design
minimum airspace between
1. Programming. As with most problems related to
the ceiling and the structure above it (eight inches is
noise control, positioning noisy areas so that they are
better).
far from quiet areas is often the best of the solutions
5. Insulation in the cavity. The use of sound‐absorbing
available. To mitigate problems that might arise from
fiberglass, cellulose, or mineral wool insulation in the
impact noise, consideration should be given as to
cavity between the floor above and the ceiling below
whether a parti that involves vertically stacking
increases impact insulation performance. This “fuzz” in
residential units is necessary at all.
the cavity benefits frame construction only slightly but
2. Damping at point of impact. The most effective
has a more meaningful impact in concrete
method to bolster the performance of a floor‐ceiling
constructions with suspended ceilings.
assembly is to prevent the impact sound energy from
6. Stiffness and mass. While “click‐clack” sounds are
entering the building structure altogether. This can be
associated with an inadequately resilient
achieved by specifying carpet with a soft
floor surface assembly, a “thud” sound is associated
underlayment, cork, or rubber tile surfaces. Of course,
with insufficient stiffness. In wood construction, short
even if carpet is specified, occupants may swap out
joist spans, nominally those 14 feet or less, outperform
their soft surface for a hard one sometime after taking
floors with longer joist spans in the field; floors with
ownership of a unit, significantly decreasing its impact
denser joist spacing, 16 inches on‐center or less,
noise performance.
outperform floors with sparser joist spacing. Lab tests
3. Damping between a hard finish surface and a
published for floor‐ceiling assemblies do not currently
structural surface. A resilient underlayment can consist
account for the variability of joist spans, and
of a mesh, pad, board, or mat layer. These are typically
manufacturers may disingenuously test a stiffer
structure in the lab than normally specified in the field
to bolster a product’s IIC numbers. To achieve
appropriate stiffness and mass in wood construction, a
concrete or gypsum‐ concrete floor topping should be
used.
sight from—and far from—windows. Institute a “buy
quiet” program for outdoor mechanical equipment and
lawn‐care equipment. Noise from air‐cooled outdoor
condenser units in split‐system air conditioning
systems is a particularly common problem.

Design
1. Position outbuildings, such as grounds equipment
storage buildings, parking garages, and maintenance
facilities, so that they are buffers to noise. Arrange
them so they block the direct line of sight from windows
to the noise source. Parks and parking lots can be
positioned to increase the distance between a noise
source and a residence.
2. Orient quiet spaces, such as bedrooms, so their wall
exposure is on a building face away from the noise
source. Noisier spaces, such as kitchens, bathrooms,
and utility spaces can be used as buffers on the noisy
face of the building.
3. Locate exterior doors on the quieter side of a
building. Specify outside doors with gaskets and drop
seals. Avoid the use of mail slots, pet doors, or similar
openings.
4. Thick windowpanes outperform thin ones; double‐
pane windows typically outperform single pane
windows; windows with larger spacing between panes
outperform those with smaller spacing. For these
reasons, interior and exterior storm windows are
effective. Of course, any increased performance
evaporates when the occupant opens the window.
5. Use gravel ballast, green roofs, or building‐in‐
building design where impact noise from rain is a
concern, as might be the case for a recording studio.
Airborne noise transfer through roofs is typically not a
ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING DESIGN
concern unless the noise source is located overhead
or is especially loud. Architectural Lighting Design is a field within
6. Keep noisy exterior building equipment, such as architecture, interior design and electrical
fans, air‐conditioning compressor units, cooling towers, engineering that is concerned with the design
pumps, generators, electrical transformers, and of lighting systems, including natural light, electric light,
dumpsters (whose lids slam shut) out of direct line of or both, to serve human needs.
LIGHTING DESIGN: BASIC STRATEGIES

Light plays an essential role in our ability to perceive

the world around us; the lighting system plays a

critical role in how we perceive a space and can even

influence how we act in that space. Lighting can affect
performance, mood, morale, safety, security and
decisions.
The first step in producing the right lighting design is to
ask what the space is used for. The lighting designer
can then determine quantity of light, color quality,
brightness and direction.
It is beyond the scope of this article to go step by step
through the process of producing a lighting design.
Instead, we will review the several ways that lighting
professionals look at lighting design, from the simple to
the sophisticated.
Standard. A typical general approach to lighting
design is, after determining how the space is used, to
provide general, localized general, localized and task
illumination to meet these needs. General lighting
provides a generally uniform light level on the
workplane throughout the lighted space. Localized
general lighting is similar but is tailored more to the
location of tasks in the lighted space. Localized
lighting, also called supplemental lighting, is used to
provide light to a specific area. Task lighting delivers
light tailored for a specific task.

Sophisticated. A final way

of looking at lighting design
Simple. One way is to ensure that the lighting system
is more sophisticated,
1) provides ambient illumination for orientation focused not only on simply
and general tasks in the space, providing quantity of foot
candles for tasks with accent
2) task illumination for local, more demanding
illumination for highlighting,
tasks, and
but also on the art of using
3) accent illumination to highlight special light to produce a desired
objects of interest or to guide occupants. effect.

An example of this scheme is an open office plan

with workstations; we might provide indirect
fixtures to provide ambient illumination, task
lighting at the workstations for work, and accent
lighting to highlight pieces of corporate art on the
walls.
DIRECTION OF LIGHT

To explain of how the direction of light is controlled, let

us start with an object.
Key Light
When we shine a light on an object from a single point
source of light it is called key light; it highlights contours
on the object and creates shadows; the exact effect
depends on the angle of the beam of light. Most of the
time we want to light the object to we can see its front.
In these cases, the light source may be best place in
front of and to the side of the object at an angle of 45°.
Fill Light
While this scene effects drama, for our purposes we
will assume we need fill light. It can either be directional
or diffused. In our example we could shine a directional
light on the object from the opposite direction of the key
light, softening or eliminating shadows depending on
the strength of the fill light relative to the strength of the
key light. We could also place fill light sources behind
the object to light the entire room evenly. In the Figure
below, we see the keylight supplemented by a single
fill light.
Grazing and Washing Surfaces
On walls or on the surface of an object, we can change
the way light impacts them so that we can produce
different effects. Suppose we have a brick wall with a
rough texture that we want to emphasize. We could
graze the surface with light, meaning the light would
strike the surface at a sharp angle. In this case, the light
source would be mounted close to the wall. Now
suppose the wall is smoother, and we want to
emphasize that smoothness. We could wash the
surface with light, meaning the
light would strike the surface at a
wider angle.

Silhouetting
Suppose we wanted to emphasize the shape of the
object as a silhouette. In this event, we would soften or
even eliminate the key light and directional fill light, and
instead provide only fill light, either intense or diffused,
depending on the clarity of the silhouette and the
drama we want to produce.

Uplighting
Suppose we wanted to uplight the object. The effect of
uplighting is either very desirable or very undesirable
because it is unusual. Effects range from intimate to
eerie. A lot of landscape lighting includes uplighting to
accentuate bushes and trees.

The selection of strategy or

combination of strategies
again will depend on how the
space is used. In a retail
environment, it might be
desirable to provide strong keylighting to accentuate
and dramatize key merchandise, while in an office such
strong concentrations of accentlighting and shadowing
might prove visually fatiguing. Uplighting may work well
in an intimate restaurant or to highlight bottles of
alcohol in a bar, but may make people look sinister in
the home or office. Sparkle and glitter may work well in
a restaurant, but might prove distracting in many
industrial work areas.
displays a transmittance between 80 and 90%, frosted
glass between 70 and 85%, and solid opal glass
between 15 and 40%.
Similarly, the ratio of reflected to incident light is
variously called reflectance, reflectance factor, and
reflectance coefficient. Thus if half of the amount of the
light incident on a surface is bounced back, the
reflectance is 50% or 0.50. The remainder is absorbed,
transmitted or both. The amount of absorption and
reflection depends on the type of the material and the
angle of light incidence, since light impinging upon a

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING surface at small (grazing) angle tends to be reflected

rather than absorbed or transmitted.
Fundamental Laws of Light

Design of lighting installations is possible because light

is predictable, that is, it follows certain taws and An example of
almost perfect
exhibits certain fixed characteristics. Although some of
these are so well known as to appear self-evident, a reflection from

review is in order. an opaque

surface would be
The luminous transmittance of a material such as a that from a well-
fixture or diffuser is a measure of its capability to silvered mirror
transmit incident light. By definition, this quantity known while almost
variously as transmittance, transmission factor, or complete
coefficient of transmission is the ratio of the total absorption takes
emitted light to the total incident light. In the case of place on an
incident light containing several components passing object covered
through a material that displays selective absorption, with lamp black or
this factor becomes an average of the individual matte finish black
transmittances for the various components and must paint. The effect of the material finish on reflection is
be used cautiously. A piece of frosted glass and a piece shown. in figure below.
of red glass may both have a 70% transmission factor
but obviously affect the incident light differently. In
general then,
transmission factors
should be used only If the reflection takes place on a smooth surface such

when referring to as polished glass or stone it is called specular

materials displaying reflection, as in figure (a). If the surface is rough,

nonselective multiple reflection takes place on the many small

absorption. Clear projections on the surface, and the light is diffused as

glass, for instance, in figure (b). Since the reflection factor is a measure of
total light reflected, it does not depend on whether the
reflection is specular or diffuse, or a combination of
both, as shown in figure (c). Diffuse transmission takes
place through any translucent source such as frosted
glass, white glass, milky plexiglass, tissue paper and
so on. This diffusing principle is widely employed in
lighting fixture to spread the light generated by the bulb
or tube within the fixture. Diffuse and non-diffuse
transmission are illustrated in figure (a) and (b).
The candlepower (candela), abbreviated cp (cd). is the
unit of luminous intensity. It is analogous to pressure in
a hydraulic system and voltage in an electric system
and represents the force that generates the light that
we use.
An ordinary wax candle has luminous intensity
horizontally of approximately one candlepower
(candela), hence the name. The candlepower and
candela have the same magnitude. A candle radiates
light equally in all directions. If we imagine such a
source surrounded by a transparent sphere of one foot
(meter) radius (see fig. (a) below), then by definition the
amount of luminous energy (flux) emanating from one
square foot (meter) of surface on the sphere is one
lumen {lumen} abbreviated lm.
Since there are 411" sq. ft. (meters) surface area in
such. a sphere, it follows that a source of one
candlepower (candela) intensity produces 411" or
12.57 lm. The lumen is the unit of light quantity, and in
terms of power is equal to 0. 001 5 w, (it therefore also
follows that a 1-cp (cd) source produces 12.57 x 0.001
5 w, that is 0.0189 w or approximately 1/50 w of
luminous energy). The lumen, as luminous flux, or
quantity of light is analogous to flow in hydraulic
systems and current in electric systems. One tumen of
luminous energy incident on one square foot of area
produces an illumination of one footcandle. lfc).
Restated, illumination is the density of luminous
energy, expressed in terms of lumens per unit area. If
we were to consider a lightbulb to be analogous to a
sprinkler head, the amount of water released would be
the lumens and the amount of water per square foot of
floor area would be the foot candles. When the area is
expressed in square feet the resulting illumination is
footcandles; when the area is in square meters, the
illumination is expressed in lux (lx). Thus, the Sl unit
(metric), lux, is smaller than the corresponding unit,
footcandles, by the ratio of square feet to square
meters, that is
Footcandle illumination at a point can also be
computed intensity as shown in the next section on
inverse square law. A foot lambert, the conventional
unit of luminance or brightness, is defined as the
luminance of a surface reflecting, transmitting, or
emitting I lumen of illumination per square foot of area,
in the direction being viewed. This latter qualification is
important since many surfaces (fabrics, for instance
exhibit different luminances at different angles. This
unit has no readily conceivable mechanical or electrical
analogy. The brightness of a non-luminous diffusely
reflecting surface equal to the product of the
illumination falling on the surface and the reflectance of
the surface, that is,

Reflecting surfaces that derive their brightness from

incident illumination are known as secondary sources.
Primary sources are those that generate light and
transmit directly to the eye. The largest and best known
primary and secondary brightness sources are the sun
and the moon. respectively. The same unit of
luminance, the footlambert (fl) is used for a luminous
surface that either emits (self-luminous) or transmits
light. As stated above, a surface emitting or
transmitting an average of l lim/sq. ft. has a luminance
of a transilluminated source is equal to the product of
the illumination and the transmission factor, that is
 room surfaces that obtain their light from the primary
sources and by reflection become light sources
themselves. (see fig. (b) below). To the extent that the
primary sources can be mirrored by the vision task
glare exists. (we are for the moment ignoring daylight)

Considerations of Lighting Quality

Direct Glare

Glare by definition produces discomfort and

interference with vision. This is a general qualitative
statement. To determine whether a specific lighting
situation is producing discomfort glare requires a
quantitative examination by the factors involved. These
factors are brightness, size, position of each light
sovrce in the field of vision, plus consideration of
surrounding or background brightness. The discomfort
effect of a single luminance was determined to be.

Reflected Glare
In all cases the result is a distinct loss of contrast due
The problem of reflected glare is much more complex
to the veiling of the image by the reflection of the light
than that of direct glare because it involves both the
source. It is imperative to an understanding of this
source and the task and is inherent in the act of seeing.
problem, to appreciate the importance of the nature of
Vision is produced by light being reflected from the
the ob· ject being viewed, that is, the task. If the object
object seen. The object mirrors the source of light in
were perfectly absorbent that is. if it had a reflection
the room
coefficient of 0%, it would appear completely black as
In an interior space there are multiple sources of light. no light would be reflected into the eye.
The primary sources are usually one or more lighting
fixtures near the observer. Secondary sources are
other, more remote fixtures in the room, and all the
Conversely, if the object were perfectly specular, as a
clean mirror. and no light source were within the
geometry of reflection, we would not see it (see fig. d).
Thus if we took a.mirror out on a cloudy night and
shined a light on it from over and shoulder, it would be
practically invisible since no light would be reflected in
the eye.

viewing positions in classroom lighted with ceiling-

mounted continuous tows of 2 by 4ft. (0.60 x 1,120 m.),
four lamp, 40 -w fluorescent fixture with lens type
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL ILLUMINATION (ESI),
wraparound diffusers. on 1 0 ft. (3.00m) centers.
CONTRAST RENDITION FACTOR (CRF), AND
LIGHTING EFFECTIVENESS FACTOR (LEF)

As with direct glare, a scientific approach to the solution Control of Reflected Glare
of reflected glare problems required a means for
Although there is no known lighting method or material
accurately
that will completely eliminate veiling reflections, there
defining the loss
are number of techniques that will minimize contrast
of contrast due
loss due to veiling reflections while maintaining
to glare. This
adequate illumination. These are: Physical
requires a
arrangement of sources, task, and observer so that
reproducible,
reflected glare is minimal. Adjusting brightness (eye
measurable light
adaptation level) so that objectionable brightness is
quality, that is, a
minimized. Design of the light source so that it causes
reference lighting system in which seeing ability, which
minimal reflected glare. Changing the task quality.
is defined by degree of contrast for a given task, can
be measured and to which other lighting systems
visibility for the same task can be compared.

The lighting effectiveness factor (LEF) is the ESI

footcandles divided by the test illumination in "raw"
footcandles, and is therefore a measure of the lighting
effectiveness of the total system. A well-known study
of school lighting gave the illustrated results for four
(c) CONTROL OF SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS

The reflected brightness that causes loss of contrast is

proportional to the luminaire brightness. It is apparent
then that glare may be reduced by reducing the
luminaire brightness at the reflection angle. This can
be accomplished in four ways.

1. Dimming or switching lamps.

2. Using luminaires with lower overall
brightness.

3. Reduce the luminaire brightness only at the

offending angles. Diffuser manufacturers
designed and row produce a prismatic
diffuser whose output 30° and above 60° are
diminished, in order to minimize reflected and
direct glare, respectively due to
characteristics shape of the distribution curve,
elements that are so designed are known
industrywide as "batwing' diffusers or lenses.
If observers can be positioned so that their
sight lines are perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the ceiling fixtures, lenses
with linear (side to side) batwing
.characteristics will perform well. If the
observing position varies in aspect with
respect to the fixture, a radical batwing curve
(in all directions) is required. The figure shows
typical batwing distribution curves.

4. Using the luminaire as a primary source to
illuminate a large, low brightness secondary
source.
Patterns of Luminance
One of the factors of visual acuity is the lighting
condition. Its primary factors are (a) Illumination level
(b) Disability glare (c) Discomfort glare. Its secondary
factors are (d) luminance ratios (e) Brightness patterns
and (f) Chromacity.
There is a widely held but erroneous belief that diffuse
lighting is better than directional lighting for all
installations. Although this is frequently true for offices,
schoolrooms, machine shops, and drafting rooms
where shadows would be highly disturbing and could
be dangerous (as in the case of a machine shop), it is
decidedly not the case where texture must be
examined, surface imperfections detected by grazing
angle reflections, or in any installation where the flat
monotony of diffuse lighting is undesirable. For this
reason, some directional lighting is often introduced as
an adjunct to diffuse general lighting to lend interest by
producing shadows and high brightness variations.
 Daylighting

 Daylight is the combination of all direct and

indirect sunlight during the daytime.
 This includes direct sunlight, diffuse sky
radiation, and often times both of these
reflected by the Earth and terrestrial objects,
like landforms infrastructures and buildings.

• Illuminance

Illuminance is the quantity of light or luminous flux

falling on a unit area of a surface. The unit of
Illuminance is lumen per meter square or Lux.
lndeed it would be well for a designer to prepare a
reference sketchbook of such shadow diagrams. It is  Daytime is the period of time each day when
these patterns of light and darkness that give the daylight occurs. Daylight happens as Earth
rotates, and either side on which the Sun
ambience and the subject reactions of: shines is considered daylight.

sociability / isolation
 Day lighting is a process of lighting an indoor
clarity / fuzziness space with openings such as windows and
skylights that allow daylight into the building.
spaciousness / crampedness
This type of lighting is chosen to save energy,
formality / informality in order to avoid hypothesized adverse health
effects of over-illumination by artificial lighting,
definition / shapelessness
and also for aesthetics.
simplicity / clutter
 Day lighting has its own psychological
boredom / excitement
benefits as well as practical utility in reducing
the amount of energy required for artificial
lighting.
 The quality and quantity of daylighting in a
space are determined by the size and
orientation of its window opening,
transmittance of glazing, reflectance of room
surfaces and outdoor surfaces, and
obstructions of overhangs and nearby trees.

The amount of daylight received in an internal space

can be analyzed by measuring illuminance on a grid or
undertaking a daylight factor calculation. Computer
programs such as Radiance allow an architect or
engineer to quickly calculate benefits of a particular
design. The human eye's response to light is non-
linear, so a more even distribution of the same amount
of light makes a room appear brighter.
 Day Harvesting
Day Harvesting is a process or system which
uses daylight to decrease the amount of
electric lighting needed to properly light a
space, in order to reduce energy
consumption.
 Daylight factor
The amount of daylight received into an
indoor space or room is defined as a daylight
factor, being the ratio between the measured
internal and external light levels.
In architecture, a daylight factor is the ratio of
the light level inside a structure to the light
level outside the structure. It is defined as:
DF = (Ei / Eo) x 100%
Where:
Ei - illuminance due to daylight at a point on
the indoors working plane,
Eo - simultaneous outdoor illuminance on a
horizontal plane from an unobstructed
hemisphere of overcast sky.
To calculate Ei, it requires knowing the
amount of outside light received inside of a
building. Light can reach a room via through a
glazed window, roof light, or other aperture
via three paths:
 Sky component (SC)
Direct light from a patch of sky
visible at the point considered.
 Externally Reflected Component (ERC)
Light reflected from an exterior
surface and then reaching the point
considered.
 Internally reflected component (IRC)
Light entering through the window
but reaching the point only after
reflection from an internal surface.
The sum of the three components gives the
illuminance level (typically measured in lux) at
the point considered:
Illuminance = SC + ERC + IRC
The daylight factor can be improved by
increasing SC (for example placing a window
so it "sees" more of the sky rather than
adjacent buildings), increasing ERC (for
example by painting surrounding buildings
white), increasing IRC (for example by using
light colors for room surfaces). In most rooms,
the ceiling and floor are a fixed color, and
much of the walls are covered by furnishings.
This gives less flexibility in changing the
daylight factor by using different wall colors
than might be expected; meaning changing
SC is often the key to good daylight design.
Tips on Daylighting
1. The larger and higher the window, the more
daylight will enter a room
2. Light shelves shade glazing from direct
sunlight while reflecting some light into the
ceiling.
3. The ceiling and black wall are effective in
reflection and distribution of daylight.
4. Skylights is a great example of daylighting a
space from above without excessive heat
gain.
5. Place windows adjacent to side walls for
additional reflectance and illumination.
 6. Excessive brightness can lead to glaring and
impairment, it can be prevented by using
shading devices and allowing daylight from at
least two directions.

Sources:

1. George S. Salvan - Architectural Utilties 3

2. D.K.Ching – Building Construction Illustrated
3. Illuminance – Wikepedia
4. Daylighting - Wikipedia