Dimensional ranges of defects

• Point defects
– Vacancy
– Interstitial point defect
– Substitutional point
defect

Defects in compounds
(b) Schottky defect: a pair of
vacancies having opposite sign
(c) Frenkel defect: consisting of a
vacancy-self-interstial pair
Interstitial sites in
FCC structure

Interstitial sites in
BCC structure
 Equiblium of point defects
• Formation of point defect
– The enthalpy of the system H increases, and the configurational
entropy S also increases.
• At equilibrium, ∆G = 0.
∆G = ∆H – T∆S ; ∆S = nkln(N/n); ∆H = nHf
– X = n/N = exp(-Hf/kT);
• n and N are number of point defects and lattice sites
• Hf: formation enthalpy of point defect
– Hi > H v (i: interstial; v: vacancy)
– Xv >> Xi

For Cu, Hi = 580 kJ/mol; Hv = 83 kJ/mol.

At 300 K, Xv = 3.5 x 10-15
At 1000 K, Xv = 4.5 x 10-5; Xi = 5 x 10-31; Xv/Xi ~ 1026
• Production of point defects
– Quenching
– Plastic deformation
– Radiation
• Effect of point defects on mechanical properties
Line defects
 Edge and screw dislocations

• Burgers circuit For edge dislocation, b perpendicular to l

• Burgers vector b For screw dislocation, b parallel to l
• Dislocation line vector l
 Plastic deformation produced by movement of dislocation

b is parallel to the shear direction.

For edge dislocation, the direction of dislocation motion is parallel to
b.
For screw dislocation, the direction of dislocation motion is
perpendicular to b.
 Mixed dislocation

• Mixed dislocation: b neither

perpendicular nor parallel
to l.
• For a mixed dislocation, b
can be divided into an edge
component (be) and a
screw component (bs).
b = be + bs
bs

be
Electron micrographs of dislocations
 Dislocation loops
Shear loop Prismatic loop
 Movement of dislocations

Slip plane: the plane in which dislocation moves.

Slip plane is the plane containing b and l.
Shear strain is produced by dislocation slip.
Stress field around dislocations

Screw dislocation
Edge dislocation

σ 11 = −
(
Gbx2 3x12 + x22 )
(
2π (1 − υ ) x + x 2
1
2 2
2 )
σ 12 =
(
Gbx1 x12 − x22 )
(
2π (1 − υ ) x + x 2
1
2 2
2 )
σ 22 =
(
Gbx2 x12 − x22 )
(
2π (1 − υ ) x12 + x22 ) 2

σ 33 = υ ( σ 11 + σ 22 )
 Energy of dislocations

Elastic strain energy per unit volume

For an isotropic material

 Energy of dislocations

Strain energy per

Gb2
R Gb2 R
unit length of screw Us = ∫ 2πrdr = ln
dislocation ro 8π r
2 2
4π ro
Strain energy per Gb 2 R
unit length of edge U⊥ = ln
dislocation 4π (1 − υ ) ro
Dislocation self-energy = core energy + elastic strain energy

ρ −1 / 2
Ur =
Gb 2
+
Gb 2
10 4π (1 − υ )
(
1 − υ cos 2 α ln
5b
)
(core energy ~ Gb2/10; edge α = π/2; screw α = 0; R ~ ρ-1/2; ro = 5b)
 Force on dislocation
• A curved dislocation is considered to have “line tension” T.
T = U = (Gb2/4π) ln(R/5b), R: radius of curvature
T ~ U ~ Gb2/2

Force toward curvature center per

unit length of dislocation
= 2Tsin(dθ/2)/ds
~ T/R for small θ, sin(dθ/2) ~ dθ/2
~Gb2/2R

• Force per unit length of dislocation due to applied stress τ

F = τb (Peach-Koehler equation)
• Stress required to maintain a curved dislocation with radius R
τ = Gb/2R
 Dislocations in FCC structure
• Perfect dislocation
b = a/2[110]
• Imperfect or partial dislocation
Shockley partial: b = a/6[112]

a/2[110] = a/6[211] + a/6[12-1], on (-111) plane

Frank partial: b = a/3[111]
– Intrinsic fault
– Extrinsic fault
 Stacking fault
– Stacking fault is bounded by partial dislocations.
– There is repulsive force (F) between the two
partial dislocations.
Gb 2 ⋅ b 3 Gb 2
F= = (b = a/√6)
2πd 4πd
– The stacking fault energy (γSF) tends to pull the two
partial dislocation together.
– The width of stacking fault (d) or the separation
between the two partials is determined by the
balance between F and γSF.
γ SF ~ Gb2/4πd, (b = a/√6)
Stacking fault
• Slip plane is the plane containing b and l.
• Slip: dislocation moves on its slip plane.
• Climb: an edge dislocation moves out of its slip plane by climb.
• Cross slip: a screw dislocation moves from one slip plane to an
intersecting slip plane.
• Cross slip of a dissociated dislocation by the formation of a
constricted screw segment
 Lomer lock
• Dislocation line direction: l = [1-10]
• a/2[101] + a/2[01-1] = a/2[110]
Slip plane of a/2[101] is (11-1).
Slip plane of a/2[01-1] is (111).
Slip plane of a/2[110] is (001).
• Because (001) is not a close-packed plane in FCC, a/2[110] is a
sessile dislocation. This dislocation reaction forms a lock, which
becomes a barrier for further dislocation motion.
• Energy change of the reaction: a2/2 + a2/2 > a2/2 (∵ U α b 2)
 Lomer-Cottrell lock

 line direction of all dislocations: l = [1-10]

a/2[101] + a/2[01-1] → a/2[110]
a/6[112] + SF + a/6[2-11] + a/6[-12-1] + SF + a/6[11-2]
→ a/6[112] + SF + a/6[110] + SF +a/6[11-2]
a/6[112] + SF + a/6[2-11] on (11-1);
a/6[-12-1] + SF + a/6[11-2]on (111)
Energy change: a2/6 + a2/6 + a2/6 + a2/6 + 2γSF >
a2/6 + a2/18 + a2/6 +2γSF
Slip plane of a/6[110] : (001); ∴a/6[110]: sessile dislocation, stair-rod
 Sources of dislocations
• Stress required for homogeneous nucleation of dislocation ~
7.4 x 10-2 G (close to theoretical shear strength, G/30)
• Grain boundary steps and ledges could be responsible for the
emission of dislocations.
• In single crystals, surface steps can act as dislocation sources.
Frank-Read source
The minimum radius of curvature for the bow-out of a dislocation
segment (L): R =L/2
The critical stress required to cause bow-out of a dislocation
segment: τ ~ Gb/L
τbds = Tds/R; T ~ Gb2/2
→ τ ~ Gb/L
Frank-Read source formed by double cross-slip
Epitaxial growth of thin film
 Dislocation pileup
• All dislocations generated by a Frank-Read source are in
the same slip plane if they do not cross-slip.
• If dislocations encounter an obstacle, they will “pile up”
behind the leading dislocation.
• Each dislocation in a pileup is in equilibrium under the
effect of the applied stress and of the stresses due to
other dislocations in the pileup.
n 2
Gb
τb − ∑ =0
i = 0 ,i ≠ j 2π (1 − υ ) ( xi − x j )
• The stress acting on the leading dislocation due to
other dislocations and the applied stress (τ) is τ* = nτ.
(n: number of dislocations in the pielup)
• The length of pileup : L
• Under applied stress τ: n = Lπτ /Gb
 Intersection of dislocations
• “Forest” dislocations
• A dislocation is intersected by another dislocation, a step is formed
on the dislocation.
• The step is called “kink”, if the dislocation remains on the same slip
plane after intersection.
• The step is called “jog”, if two parts of the dislocation are on
different slip plane after intersection.
•Kink and jog in edge dislocation
•Kink and jog in screw dislocation
•Conservative motion
•Nonconservative motion
 Deformation produced by motion of dislocations
– Orowan’s equation

Shear strain: γ13 = Nb/dx3

Dislocation density ρ = Ndx2/(dx1 dx2 dx3)
γ13 = ρ b dx1
Assuming dislocation travel an average distance l
γ13 = ρ b l
Strain rate: dγ/dt = k ρ b v (v: average velocity of dislocations)
Mobile dislocation density is lower than total dislocation density.
 Peierls-Nabarro stress
The Peierls-Nabarro stress represents the resistance
that the crystalline lattice offers to the movement of a
dislocation. (Peierls stress; lattice friction)
Seeger mechanism

b
v D = vk
L
 Effects of temperature and strain rate on the
movement of dislocations
• Thermal energy may help
the applied stress to
overcome the obstacle.
∀ τ = τ* + τG
τ* depends on strain rate and
temperature.
Temperature dependence of
τG is the same as G.
• BCC metals: Peierls-
Nabarro stress is the major
obstacle at low temperature.
• FCC metals: forest
dislocations are the major
obstacles.