©2005 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 100, pp. 1583–1603

Intrusion-Hosted Mineralization in the Charters Towers Goldfield,

North Queensland: New Isotopic and Fluid Inclusion Constraints on
the Timing and Origin of the Auriferous Veins
OLIVER P. KREUZER†,*
Economic Geology Research Unit, School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia

Abstract
Auriferous quartz sulfide veins of the Charters Towers goldfield are mainly hosted in oxidized I-type grani-
toids of the Ravenswood batholith. K-Ar and Ar-Ar isotope age data of hydrothermal muscovite from alteration
envelopes of veins at Charters Towers and the Hadleigh Castle mine (~40 km east of Charters Towers) are in-
distinguishable within error, suggesting broadly synchronous gold deposition between 410 and 404 Ma and
across a significant segment of the Ravenswood batholith. Published geochronological data indicate that sev-
eral granitoid bodies were emplaced into the Ravenswood batholith at the time of gold mineralization. Despite
their association in space and time with igneous rocks, the gold deposits lack an obvious causative intrusion.
Moreover, published lead isotope studies indicate that the lead in the ore was not acquired from any of the ex-
posed intrusions. A distal origin of the ore-forming fluids also may be inferred from nitrogen isotope values of
hydrothermal sericite, suggesting wall-rock interaction with metamorphic fluids or fluids that were in equilib-
rium with metamorphic rocks during the paragenetic stage of pyrite and arsenopyrite deposition (stage II).
Veins of the Charters Towers goldfield contain three different types of fluid inclusions, which are distinguish-
able by petrography and microthermometry. This study is the first to report saline fluid inclusions in sphalerite
(18.9–28.3 wt % NaCl equiv) and vein quartz (20.9–24.7 wt % NaCl equiv), trapped during the stage of gold
deposition (stage III). The range of temperatures and salinities, particularly of the saline inclusions in spha-
lerite, could indicate mixing between hotter, more saline fluids (e.g., deep-seated magmatic) and cooler, more
dilute solutions (e.g., modified meteoric) as the cause of gold deposition. The geological and geochemical data
are not compatible with derivation of fluids, metals, and ligands from individual plutons. Similarity of host
rocks, ore element associations, alteration assemblages, structural controls, and tectonic settings strongly sug-
gest that the auriferous veins of the Charters Towers goldfield belong to a group of granitoid-hosted lode gold
deposits that are generally classified as orogenic.
Introduction cases, temporally associated with magmatic activity. How-
THE CHARTERS TOWERS goldfield in northern Queensland ever, isotopic tracers of fluid sources have failed to provide
was one of the largest producers of gold in Australia (Solomon definitive evidence of the origin of the ore-forming fluids
and Groves, 2000), with production in excess of 6 million (e.g., Ridley and Diamond, 2000).
ounces (Moz) Au, 1 Moz Ag, 3,000 t Pb, and 1,000 t Cu metal The eastern part of the main mining area of the Charters
during the period of 1872 to 1918 (Levingston, 1972). Eco- Towers goldfield is hosted by the Millchester Creek tonalite
nomic zones were characterized by high average grades of 34 (Fig. 1A), which was emplaced between 426 ± 4 and 425 ± 4
g/t Au (Blatchford, 1953). Ma (based on U-Pb and Rb-Sr biotite whole-rock ages: table
Peters and Golding (1989) suggested that the Late Sil- 8 in Hutton and Rienks, 1997). Although the ages do not
urian to Early Devonian gold-bearing veins precipitated overlap, the tonalite could be as little as 1 m.y. older than the
from deep-seated magmatic or metamorphic fluids. Sillitoe auriferous veins, which are enveloped by wall-rock alteration
(1997) questioned this origin and in a subsequent publica- zones that have whole-rock K-Ar ages of 416 ± 4 to 397 ± 4
tion (Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998) assigned the veins to a Ma (Morrison, 1988) and an Ar-Ar muscovite age of 414.8 ±
class of deposits with an Au-As-Pb-Zn-Cu association, ge- 1 Ma (Perkins and Kennedy, 1998). Based on this timing, Sil-
netically linked to their host intrusions. Groves et al. (2003) litoe and Thompson (1998) concluded that a genetic relation-
classified the veins of the Charters Towers goldfield as oro- ship between the host intrusion and gold deposits could not
genic gold deposits, following similar previous classifications be ruled out. However, Groves et al. (2003) argued that ig-
by Groves et al. (1998), Bierlein and Crowe (2000), and neous bodies, such as the Millchester Creek tonalite, might
Goldfarb et al. (2001). Many granitoid-hosted gold deposits, only have contributed heat for convection of externally de-
such as those of the Charters Towers, Etheridge (Bain et al., rived ore-forming fluids.
1998), Grass Valley (Johnston, 1940), Parcoy-Pataz Previous investigations (e.g., Peters, 1987; Morrison, 1988;
(Schreiber, 1990a, b; Haeberlin et al., 2004), and Jiaodong Peters and Golding, 1989; Perkins and Kennedy, 1998) fo-
districts (Qiu et al., 2002; Fan et al., 2003), have similarities cused on the main mining area (~15 km2) at Charters Towers,
to orogenic gold deposits but are spatially and, in many but the geology, geochemistry, and timing of similar aurifer-
ous veins elsewhere in the Charters Towers goldfield were
† E-mail address: okreuzer@els.mq.edu.au
not as well documented. This paper presents new fluid inclu-
*Present address: ARC National Key Centre for the Geochemistry and
sion and stable isotope data that were collected from veins of
Metallogeny of Continents (GEMOC), Department of Earth and Planetary the Charters Towers and Hadleigh Castle areas (Fig. 1A).
Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia. Data collection and analysis were part of a district-scale

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1584 OLIVER P. KREUZER

Fig. 1. A. Simplified map illustrating the main subdivisions of the Ravenswood batholith (modified from Hutton and
Rienks, 1997). Also shown are the locations of veins of the Charters Towers goldfield (veins included in this study are la-
beled), volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) and porphyry-related gold deposits and occurrences (Hutton and Rienks,
1997; Hartley and Dash, 1993; Hartley, 1996; G.W. Morrison, writ. commun., 2003; Australian map grid). B. Outcrop areas
of the Ravenswood and Lolworth batholiths (modified from Hutton and Rienks, 1997; Hutton et al., 1997). Abbreviations:
CT = Charters Towers, MI = Mingela, RAV = Ravenswood, TVL = Townsville.

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 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
research project on the prospectivity of the Charters Towers
goldfield and the geology, structure, timing, and genesis of its
lode gold deposits (Kreuzer, 2003, 2004, 2006; Kreuzer and
Alston, 2004).
In this study, data from published records on the Ravens-
wood batholith (Hutton and Rienks, 1997; Hutton et al.,
1997) are combined with new results from the Charters Tow-
ers and Hadleigh Castle areas to test whether fluids were de-
rived from individual plutons or if they are part of a much
larger system of energy and mass flux (cf. Wyborn et al., 1994;
Hronsky, 2004) that postdated the host intrusions. New and
published data are used (1) to more tightly constrain the spa-
tial and temporal relationship between magmatism and gold
mineralization, (2) to better characterize the origin of the ore-
forming fluids, and (3) to compare the characteristics of the
veins with those of orogenic and intrusion-related deposits in
similar granitoid-hosted gold provinces elsewhere.
The results presented in this paper extend another study by
Kreuzer (2006), in which the paragenetic relationships,
quartz, and ore textures and gold-related hydrothermal wall-
rock alteration of the veins are described.
Geologic Framework
Most auriferous veins in the Charters Towers goldfield are
hosted by granitoids of the Ravenswood batholith (Fig. 1A).
This composite plutonic mass crops out over >6,000 km2 of
the largely concealed Lolworth-Ravenswood terrane (Fig.
1B), which forms part of the northern Tasman fold belt (e.g.,
Scheibner and Veevers, 2000). Intrusions of the Ravenswood
batholith are mainly oxidized (magnetite-series), hornblende-
bearing I-type granitoids (Richards, 1980) that were em-
placed into a composite basement. To the south, the base-
ment consists of greenschist or lower grade volcanic and
sedimentary rocks of the Cambrian to Ordovician Seventy
Mile Range Group and the Kirk River Beds (e.g., Berry et al.,
1992; Hutton and Rienks, 1997). Basement rocks in the
northern part of the Ravenswood batholith are mainly green-
schist to amphibolite-grade metasedimentary rocks of the
Neoproterozoic or Early Cambrian Charters Towers Meta-
morphics. Metaigneous rocks, such as the Bucklands Hill
diorite, occur as dikes and sills that intruded the basement
during Middle Cambrian time (e.g., Hutton and Rienks,
1997).
The intrusive history of the Ravenswood batholith has been
divided into Early to Middle Ordovician, Middle Silurian to
Middle Devonian, and late Carboniferous to Early Permian
phases of magmatic activity (Fig. 1A; Hutton and Rienks,
1997). These subdivisions are based on isotopic and geophys-
ical data, igneous geochemistry, crosscutting relationships,
and the fabric of the rocks. Early to Middle Ordovician intru-
sions (Pb-Pb, U-Pb, and Rb-Sr biotite whole-rock ages of 490
± 6 to 463 ± 3 Ma: table 4 in Hutton and Rienks, 1997) are
mainly granitic and generally strained or recrystallized (Teni-
son-Woods and Rienks, 1992; Hutton and Rienks, 1997). Fol-
lowing two major regional deformation events (D1 and D2:
Hutton and Rienks, 1997), Middle Silurian to Middle Devon-
ian magmatism (K-Ar, U-Pb, and Rb-Sr biotite whole-rock
ages of 426 ± 4 to 382 ± 5 Ma: table 8 in Hutton and Rienks,
1997) overlapped with Late Silurian to Early Devonian gold
mineralization and regional shortening (D4: Kreuzer, 2004).
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Middle Silurian to Middle Devonian plutons are typically
hornblende and biotite-bearing granodiorites and tonalites,
making up 60 percent of the exposed Ravenswood batholith.
Late Carboniferous to Early Permian plutons and volcanic
rocks (K-Ar and Rb-Sr biotite whole-rock ages of 311 ± 3 to
283 ± 9 Ma: table 9 in Hutton and Rienks, 1997) crop out pri-
marily in the eastern and southeastern parts of the
Ravenswood batholith, accounting for only 6 percent of its
volume (Hutton and Rienks, 1997).
Little is known about the emplacement depth of the intru-
sions and their current exposure level. However, gravity mod-
eling suggests that the Ravenswood batholith is a 5- to 6-km-
thick tabular body, exposed at or close to its roof zone
(Hutton and Rienks, 1997).
Structural framework
Middle Ordovician to Middle Silurian deformation (D1) of
the Ravenswood batholith was likely the result of northeast-
southwest– to north-south–oriented regional shortening,
having produced mainly sinistral and up to 50-km-long,
east-west–striking mylonitic shear zones (Fig. 1A; Hutton
and Rienks, 1997; Kreuzer, 2004). These zones are locally
overprinted by dextral, northwest-southeast–striking struc-
tures that formed during north-south–directed regional
shortening (D2) sometime after D1 but prior to the Middle
Silurian (Hutton et al., 1997). Broad doming of the
Ravenswood batholith or extension along a north-south to
northeast-southwest axis (D3), which overlapped with em-
placement of diorite dikes in the Middle Silurian (Peters,
1987; Hutton and Rienks, 1997), was terminated prior to the
Late Silurian. This age is constrained by the Late Silurian to
Early Devonian age of formation of the veins of the
Charters Towers goldfield (Morrison, 1988; Perkins and
Kennedy, 1998; this study). Gold deposition occurred dur-
ing an episode of northeast-southwest–directed regional
shortening (D4), which was characterized by conditions of
low strain and the brittle reactivation of earlier structures
(Kreuzer, 2004).
Middle Silurian to Middle Devonian magmatism
Crosscutting relationships and limited radiometric data
suggest that auriferous vein formation was temporally and
spatially associated with magmatism, particularly that associ-
ated with the emplacement of the Chippendale, Deane,
Carse-O-Gowrie, and Broughton River granodiorites (Rb-Sr
whole-rock ages of 411 ± 2 to 406 ± 4 Ma: Hutton and Rienks,
1997; Fig. 1A).
At the regional scale, the gold mineralization and plutonism
of the Ravenswood batholith overlapped in time with the em-
placement of the nearby Lolworth (K-Ar and U-Pb ages of
414–382 Ma: Hutton et al., 1997; Fig. 1B) and Reedy Springs
batholiths (U-Pb and K-Ar ages of 410–403 Ma: Hutton et al.,
1997). There was also temporal overlap between gold miner-
alization (K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages of 426–398 Ma: Bain et al.,
1998) and granitoid emplacement (Rb-Sr and U-Pb ages of
431–420 Ma: Withnall et al., 1997) in the Georgetown inlier.
Based on the Y-undepleted and Sr-depleted geochemical
signature of intrusions of the Ravenswood batholith (cf.
Wyborn et al., 1992), Hutton and Rienks (1997) proposed a
model of melt generation by underplating of the thickened
1586 OLIVER P. KREUZER
crust by basic magmas, followed by emplacement of the
Middle Silurian to Middle Devonian intrusions into a zone of
back-arc extension. A subduction-related origin for the Mid-
dle Silurian to Middle Devonian intrusions of the
Ravenswood batholith is supported by: (1) the geochemical
diversity of the granitoids, commonly with volcanic-arc gran-
ite signatures (cf. Hutton and Crouch, 1993); (2) the abun-
dance of cogenetic mafic intrusions, commonly with conti-
nental magmatic-arc signatures (cf. Hutton and Crouch,
1993); (3) the spatial and temporal association of Middle Sil-
urian to Middle Devonian intrusions with a linear, over 700-
km-long igneous belt that is subparallel to the margin of the
Australian craton; and (4) their spatial and temporal coinci-
dence with the deposition of thick continental margin sedi-
mentary successions in the adjacent Hodgkinson-Broken
River fold belt (e.g., Henderson, 1987).
Auriferous Veins of the Charters Towers Goldfield
Geology
Detailed descriptions of veins of the Charters Towers
goldfield are given in Reid (1917), Levingston (1972), Pe-
ters (1987, 1990, 1993), Peters and Golding (1989), and
Kreuzer (2003, 2004, 2006). The veins are shallow to mod-
erately east-, northwest- to northeast-, and less abundant S-
dipping structures. Adjacent to and within most host struc-
tures, wall rocks have been fractured into clasts or
pulverized to rock flour, forming coherent cataclasites. The
largest veins (Brilliant and Day Dawn; Fig. 1A) have strike
lengths of 1 to 2.4 km, proven vertical extents of up to 900
m, and widths of up to 15 m and are characterized by abun-
dant splays. Most veins of the Charters Towers goldfield,
however, have strike lengths ranging from 0.1 to 1 km, ver-
tical extents of <400 m, and widths of 0.75 to 1 m (Reid,
1917; Peters, 1987).
Veins of the Charters Towers goldfield are mainly hosted by
medium-grained, hornblende- and/or biotite-bearing granite,
granodiorite, and tonalite, belonging to three igneous suites
defined by Peters (1987) and analyzed by Hutton and Crouch
(1993): (1) the medium- to high K calc-alkaline Hogsflesh
supersuite (Early to Middle Ordovician Hogsflesh Creek
granodiorite and Towers Hill granite), (2) the medium K calc-
alkaline Millchester supersuite (e.g., Middle Silurian Mill-
chester Creek tonalite), and (3) the high K calc-alkaline
Broughton River suite (Late Silurian to Early Devonian
Broughton River granodiorite). Less than 5 percent of the
known deposits are contained within dioritic, gabbroic, and
metamorphic basement rocks, and only four of these occur-
rences yielded more than 5,000 oz Au (Reid, 1917; Peters,
1987).
As reported by Peters (1987), each auriferous vein is ac-
companied by a narrow, symmetrically zoned alteration enve-
lope, generally up to two or three times the width of the vein.
Alteration envelopes can locally be as wide as 40 to 100 m
where they surround complex zones of auriferous quartz
veins. Peters (1987) subdivided the alteration into distal
propylitic and proximal sericitic zones that are generally not
texturally destructive. Sericitic zones appear green in color,
and the broader, reddish propylitic zones are dominated by
montmorillonite and chlorite.
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Mineralogy and geochemistry
Quartz is the major constituent of the auriferous veins of
the Charters Towers goldfield, illustrating euhedral buck,
comb, and modification textures (e.g., Dowling and Morrison,
1989). Sulfide minerals generally make up 10 to 20 vol per-
cent, and locally the sulfide mineral content of the veins can
be as high as 90 percent. The most common sulfide minerals
are pyrite, galena, and sphalerite (>90% of the total sulfide
mineral volume). Chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, and tetra-
hedrite-tennantite are less abundant, although gold is associ-
ated with these minerals. Pyrrhotite is scarce. Carbonate min-
erals and clasts or included fragments of wall rock, tourmaline
veins, or dike material each constitute 3 to 5 percent of the
volume of a typical vein (Kreuzer, 2006).
Both native gold and electrum are present in the veins,
forming a continuous compositional series with identical tex-
tures, settings, and paragenetic relationships. Gold particles
vary from 5 µm to 2 mm in size, and the maximum particle di-
mension is generally between 40 and 80 µm. Most of the gold
is spatially associated with paragenetically earlier pyrite, oc-
curring as minute inclusions in pyrite cubes, fracture infill-
ings, and is attached to pyrite grain margins. Gold is com-
monly accompanied by and precipitated with galena,
chalcopyrite, or both. Free gold is rare and mainly hosted in
fractures and vugs in quartz that is close to pyrite or other sul-
fide aggregates (Kreuzer, 2006) and notable amounts were
only recorded at two locations (Mary Lou reef: Marks, 1913;
Day Dawn reef: Reid, 1917). Rare petzite and hessite were
reported by Reid (1917).
Veins of the Charters Towers goldfield formed during four
paragenetic stages (Fig. 2). Stages I and II were significant in
terms of vein growth by deposition of large volumes of buck
quartz and lesser quantities of comb quartz, calcite, and
ankerite. Voluminous pyrite and arsenopyrite precipitation of
stage II was accompanied by wall-rock sulfidation and alter-
ation. Gold was introduced during stage III, after sphalerite
but simultaneously with galena and chalcopyrite, minor pyrite,
and tetrahedrite-tennantite, and scarce petzite, hessite, and
pyrrhotite. Buck and comb quartz were less voluminous in
stage III than in stages I and II. Stage III was also character-
ized by modification of existing vein quartz by deformation,
overprinting, and fluid interaction (Kreuzer, 2006).
Trace element data (S.C. Dominy, James Cook University,
unpub. data) for 66 chip channel samples from the B lode at
Hadleigh Castle mine are plotted in Figure 3. These data
show that gold concentrations correlate well with silver, iron,
arsenic, and, to a lesser extent, with tellurium. Figure 3D il-
lustrates the correlation between gold and silver and lead,
zinc and copper, which is the metal association of paragenetic
stage III (Fig. 2). Antimony correlates only weakly with gold,
whereas gold and tungsten are not correlated. There appears
to be no association between gold and molybdenum, and gold
and bismuth, which are commonly associated with gold in in-
trusion-related deposits (Smith et al., 1999; Mustard, 2001;
Baker, 2002).
Previous work
K-Ar dating of hydrothermal muscovite from cored granitic
wall rocks of the Day Dawn and Brilliant reefs (Fig. 1A)
 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
Fig. 2. Paragenetic relationships of veins of the Charters Towers goldfield
(CTGF; modified from Kreuzer, 2003, 2006). Quartz nomenclature based on
Hodgson (1989).
yielded absolute ages of 416 ± 4, 407 ± 3, 404 ± 4, and 397 ±
4 Ma (Morrison, 1988). Subsequent Ar-Ar dating by Perkins
and Kennedy (1998) provided an age of 414.8 ± 1 Ma for hy-
drothermal muscovite from wall rock of the Brilliant reef.
However, the Ar-Ar age spectrum of the sample was not ideal.
Hence, Perkins and Kennedy (1998) suggested that the total
fusion age of 417 Ma may be the best estimate for the time of
gold deposition.
Drill core samples of vein quartz from the Day Dawn, Bril-
liant, and Queen reefs collected and analyzed by Peters
(1987) and Peters and Golding (1989) contained 80 percent
single-phase liquid inclusions (type 1 of Peters, 1987) with
maximum dimensions of <5 µm and 20 percent two-phase,
liquid-rich inclusions (type 2 of Peters, 1987) with maximum
dimensions of ≤10 µm. Analyses of 52 primary inclusions
(type 2 of Peters, 1987) in 16 separate wafers yielded final ice-
melting temperatures (Tm(ice)) ranging from –4.0° to –7.8°C.
Homogenization temperatures (Th) ranged from 140° to
280°C with the majority falling in the temperature range of
160° to 230°C. From their microthermometry data, Peters
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(1987) and Peters and Golding (1989) calculated salinities
ranging from 5.3 to 11 wt percent NaCl equiv and estimated
trapping temperatures (Tt) between 240° and 300°C, based
on an expected formation depth between 2.5 and 3.5 km and
a pressure gradient of 0.25 kbar/km. According to Peters and
Golding (1989), the ore-forming fluids were likely water rich
and of low to moderate salinity. Using reconnaissance laser
Raman spectroscopy, Peters (1987) and Peters and Golding
(1989) detected CO2 in two inclusions of their type 2. Other
dark inclusions were suspected to contain CO2. Based on the
temperature range of CO2 clathrate dissociation (Tm(clath)) in
10 inclusions of Peters (1987) type 2, Peters and Golding
(1989) calculated a salinity of 7.5 wt percent NaCl equiv for
the CO2-bearing inclusions.
The three secondary inclusions of Peters (1987) type 2
yielded Tm(ice) ranging from approximately –2.5° to –3.5°C
and Th ranging from approximately 175° to 280°C. Salinities
of secondary inclusions of Peters (1987) type 2 were not
calculated.
Calculated oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions of
ore-forming fluids from Day Dawn, Brilliant, Queen, and La-
dybird reef ores measured by Golding and Wilson (1981),
Golding et al. (1987), Peters (1987), and Peters and Golding
(1989) overlap with both magmatic and metamorphic waters.
The δ13C values of calcite crystals measured by Peters (1987)
and Peters and Golding (1989) overlap with magmatic δ13C
values (–8 to –4‰: Campbell and Larson, 1998), whereas sul-
fur isotope data fall within the typical range of many porphyry
systems and orogenic lode gold deposits (cf. Hofstra and
Cline, 2000). Golding and Wilson (1981) suggested that oxy-
gen isotope values decreased with depth (15.7‰ at 100 m
below surface to 12.2‰ at 900 m below surface), and Peters
and Golding (1989) suggested that this reflected the host rock
(Hogsflesh Creek granodiorite, δ18O whole rock = 6.5‰;
Towers Hill granite, δ18O whole rock = 7.3‰; Millchester
Creek tonalite, δ18O whole rock = 7.9‰).
Black et al. (1997) interpreted the similar 207Pb/204Pb and
206Pb/204Pb ratios of veins in the Charters Towers goldfield
and intrusions of the western Ravenswood batholith to indi-
cate a temporal relationship between granitoid emplacement
and hydrothermal activity. However, they emphasized that
there is no support for the Pb having been derived from any
of the analyzed intrusions. The authors also argued that the
differing 208Pb/204Pb ratios of the veins and the granitoids
were inconsistent with Pb derivation from these intrusions,
implying a more complex source of Pb.
New Data
Ar-Ar geochronology
Two hydrothermal muscovite samples (Figs. 1A, 4) from
sericite alteration zones at the Hadleigh Castle mine were
collected underground from the 04 lode (sample Ar-01,
James Cook University collection number 69326 located at
855 m RL, end of west drive development as on 05 May
2001), a typical fault-fill vein with well-developed ribbon
banding (cf. Kreuzer, 2006), and a narrow, auriferous exten-
sion vein (sample Ar-02, James Cook University collection
number 69327 located at 855 m RL, end of west drive devel-
opment as on 05 May 2001) in the hanging wall of the 04 lode.
1587
1588 OLIVER P. KREUZER

Fig. 3. Bivariate plots illustrating correlations between Au and Ag, Au and As, Au and Te (A-C), elements of paragenetic
stage III (D), and elements that are commonly enriched in magmatic-hydrothermal systems (E-H). Shading in (B), (G), and
(H) show typical As, Mo, and Bi concentrations (ppm) of granitoids of the Ravenswood batholith. Plots are based on ICP-
MS assay data of 66 pulp samples from the B lode, Hadleigh Castle (S.C. Dominy, James Cook University, unpub. data), with
0.1 to 489.5 g/t Au. As, Mo, and Bi background concentrations in (B), (G), and (H) are based on granitoid whole-rock geo-
chemistry (XRF) data published in Hutton and Crouch (1993) and the OZCHEM database (http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/
#geochem).

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 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
The samples were analyzed at the Western Australian argon
isotope facility, operated by a consortium of Curtin University
and University of Western Australia. After irradiation in the
H5 position of the nuclear reactor at McMaster University,
Fig. 4. 40Ar/39Ar geochronology samples Ar-01 (04 lode, Hadleigh Castle
mine) and Ar-02 (gently dipping extension vein in the hanging wall of the 04
lode, above sample Ar-01). Boxes indicate the locations of samples Ar-01 (A)
and Ar-02 (B) with respect to the auriferous quartz veins. Photomicrographs
(PPL) illustrating the virtually sulfide-free parts of samples Ar-01 (C) and Ar-
02 (D) that were selected for 40Ar/39Ar dating. The locations of hydrothermal
muscovite analyses Ar-01/06 and Ar-02/01 are shown in (E) and (F), respec-
tively. The stills also illustrate the high spatial resolution of the laser ablation
method (boxes indicate laser traverses), permitting analysis of individual
grains and making contamination by K- and Ca-bearing phases less likely. Ab-
breviations: bt = biotite, hbl = hornblende, PPL = plane-polarized light, qtz
= quartz, ser = hydrothermal muscovite.
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1589
Canada, the samples were analyzed, using the infrared laser
ablation total fusion technique (e.g., Hodges, 1998). Analyti-
cal methods and equipment were similar to those described
by Willner et al. (2004).
Radiometric data from sample Ar-01 fall within a range
from 412.2 ± 2.4 to 405. 0 ± 4.0 Ma; those from sample Ar-02
fall within the range of 409.8 ± 2.4 to 400.1 ± 4.9 Ma (Fig. 5,
Table 1). Two of the analyses showed higher than average
37Ar/39Ar ratios, suggesting possible contamination by a Ca-
bearing phase. The inverse isochron plot for all analyses
(using an average J value of 0.020583 ± 0.000103) gives an in-
verse isochron age of 405.4 ± 3.7 Ma, a 40Ar/36Ar intercept of
295 ± 82 (atmospheric 40Ar/36Ar air ratio), and a value of the
mean square of weighted deviates (MSWD) of 1.05. The in-
verse isochron age is within error of the unweighted and
weighted mean ages quoted in Table 1.
The geochronological data from samples Ar-01 and Ar-02
are indistinguishable within error and fall within the range of
previously determined K-Ar (Morrison, 1988) and Ar-Ar
(Perkins and Kennedy, 1998) data for hydrothermal mus-
covite from Charters Towers. Given the similar ages of the
deposits and the fact that the Ravenswood batholith to the
west of Charters Towers is concealed by younger cover se-
quences, deposits of the same age may have formed within an
area of at least 1,200 km2.
Fluid inclusions
Fluid inclusions were studied in two auriferous vein sam-
ples collected underground from the Maude St Ledger reef
(James Cook University collection 69328 located at the Cross
Vein 2 trial mine via the Central decline, 895 m RL: Aus-
tralian map grid: 7780271 m N/423800 m E; Fig. 1A) and the
B lode (James Cook University collection 69317 located in the
Hadleigh Castle mine, 2 level, 1110 m RL: local mine grid:
9865 m N/10345 m E). A third auriferous sample from the
Great Britain prospect (James Cook University collection
69329 from diamond drill hole SHDD 001 at 79.8-m depth
downhole: local grid: 9990 m N/5080 m E) was included to
compare the fluid inclusions in granitoid-hosted veins with
Fig. 5. Gaussian plot illustrating the distribution of the 40Ar/39Ar
geochronology results, mainly ranging from 410 to 404 Ma.
1589
 TABLE 1. Measured Isotopic Ratios and 40Ar/39Ar Ages from Hydrothermal Muscovite from Granitic Wall-Rock Samples from the Hadleigh Castle Mine 1590
Analysis Area Age (Ma) ± 40Ar*/39Ar ± 40Ar/39Ar ± 38Ar/39Ar ± 37Ar/39Ar ± 36Ar/39Ar ± 39Ar (cm3) ± %40Ar*

Sample Ar-01 (04 lode)1

#01 core 406.98 2.26 12.30 0.04 12.51 0.01 0.01136 0.00016 0.01066 0.00122 0.00072 0.00014 1.88E-11 2.17E-14 98.31
#02 rim, #01 412.15 2.36 12.47 0.05 12.52 0.01 0.01306 0.00018 0.00977 0.00115 0.00016 0.00016 1.66E-11 1.63E-14 99.62
#03 core 405.10 2.75 12.23 0.07 12.34 0.02 0.01245 0.00022 0.04606 0.00161 0.00037 0.00023 1.78E-11 2.17E-14 99.11
#04 core 404.95 4.00 12.23 0.12 12.43 0.01 0.01170 0.00027 0.01551 0.00284 0.00067 0.00040 1.00E-11 5.59E-15 98.41
#05 rim, #04 407.42 5.75 12.31 0.18 12.49 0.02 0.01217 0.00031 0.02230 0.00439 0.00061 0.00062 8.74E-12 1.21E-14 98.55

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
#06 core 409.57 3.18 12.38 0.09 12.43 0.02 0.01189 0.00021 0.00909 0.00218 0.00014 0.00029 1.86E-11 2.50E-14 99.66

Sample Ar-02 (extension vein in the hanging wall of the 04 lode)2

#01 core 405.42 3.66 12.24 0.11 12.24 0.01 0.01193 0.00001 0.00603 0.00268 0.00000 0.00000 1.50E-11 1.12E-14 100.00
#02 core 409.38 3.93 12.37 0.12 12.37 0.02 0.01282 0.00018 0.00417 0.00260 0.00000 0.00000 1.55E-11 2.18E-14 100.00
#03 rim, #02 409.79 2.35 12.39 0.05 12.52 0.02 0.01278 0.00045 0.00498 0.00350 0.00045 0.00015 9.09E-12 1.41E-14 98.95
#04 core 407.26 2.30 12.30 0.05 12.42 0.02 0.01239 0.00050 0.00988 0.00349 0.00041 0.00014 9.83E-12 1.68E-14 99.02
#05 core 407.40 3.13 12.31 0.09 12.58 0.01 0.01158 0.00029 0.51263 0.00814 0.00092 0.00029 1.41E-11 1.46E-14 97.83
#06 rim, #05 400.10 4.88 12.06 0.15 12.49 0.02 0.01178 0.00051 0.35892 0.00337 0.00144 0.00051 7.96E-12 1.46E-14 96.59

Analyses were carried out using the infrared laser ablation total fusion technique of 40Ar/39Ar dating, irradiation standard: Tinto B biotite (409.24 ± 0.71 Ma), J value: 0.020581 ± 0.00103, errors are
1σ
1 Weighted mean (n = 6): 408.2 ± 1.2 Ma, unweighted mean (n = 6): 407.7 ± 2.5 Ma, see Figure 2 for sample location
2 Weighted mean (n = 6): 407.5 ± 1.2 Ma, unweighted mean (n = 6): 406.6 ± 3.2 Ma, see Figure 2 for sample location

1590
OLIVER P. KREUZER

sions, sp = sphalerite, V = vapor.

galena, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, sp = sphalerite.

paragenetic stage as the gold (Figs. 2, 7).

(Maude St. Ledger reef, Charters Towers). Abbreviations: Au = gold, gn =

paragenetic stage III, having precipitated after quartz and pyrite of stage II
Fig. 7. Reflected light photomicrograph of gold, galena, and sphalerite of
with different orientations cutting each other and a euhedral crystal of vein

pseudo-secondary fluid inclusions, qtz = quartz, S = secondary fluid inclu-

= primary fluid inclusions, PPL = plane-polarized light, py = pyrite, PS =
Castle mine; CPL). Abbreviations: CPL = cross-polarized light, L = liquid, P
quartz (dark gray), suggesting a complex inclusion history (04 lode, Hadleigh
growth zones of quartz crystals were considered to be primary

Hadleigh Castle mine; CPL). D. Secondary fluid inclusion trails (arrows)

clusions (arrow) in growth zones of a subhedral grain of vein quartz (04 lode,
reef, Charters Towers sample BD; PPL). C. Arrangement of primary fluid in-
primary, secondary, and pseudo-secondary inclusions (Maude St. Ledger
lerite-hosted inclusions illustrating clear paragenetic relationships between
Fig. 6. Photomicrographs showing fluid inclusion types. A and B. Spha-
ments were conducted on over 50 fluid inclusions in comb
those from veins in metamorphic basement rocks. Measure-

saline (type 2b) inclusions. Only those fluid inclusions in

These samples contain two different types of fluid inclu-
sphalerite (Fig. 6A, B), which precipitated during the same

(type 1), and two-phase liquid-rich, low-salinity (type 2a) to

and subhedral buck quartz and honey-colored, iron-poor

sions in varying abundance, including single-phase liquid

 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES 1591

(Fig. 6C), whereas most other quartz-hosted inclusions are

secondary (Fig. 6D).
Primary type 1 inclusions form subparallel trails, outlining
growth zones in comb quartz, whereas secondary type 1 in-
clusions are commonly arranged in discontinuous trails, ter-
minating at the boundaries of subhedral to euhedral crystals
of buck quartz. Given that most buck and comb quartz
formed before gold deposition (Fig. 2), it is possible that the
single-phase inclusions represent an early fluid inclusion type.
Type 1 inclusions are also present in sphalerite where they are
restricted to grain boundaries and discontinuous fractures.
These are likely secondary, postdating gold and sulfide depo-
sition of stage III. The composition of these single-phase in-
clusions is unknown; most have leaked and are empty.
Type 2a inclusions commonly occur in quartz, whereas liq-
uid-rich, L + V, saline aqueous type 2b inclusions are more
abundant in sphalerite. Type 2a and 2b inclusions have simi-
lar petrographic characteristics and can only be discriminated
by microthermometry. Large (≥5–30 µm), isolated or clus-
tered type 2 inclusions with rectangular and round shapes
were considered primary, whereas secondary type 2 inclu-
sions are commonly smaller (<5 µm), with elongate and ir-
regular shapes, and are arranged in discontinuous trails
(healed fractures), which terminate against grain boundaries.
Heating and freezing experiments were performed only on
least deformed grains. Inclusions showing obvious signs of
necking down or occurring in clusters with highly variable liq-
uid/vapor ratios were excluded from analysis. Microthermo-
metric data of the analyzed fluid inclusions are summarized in
Figures 8 to 10 and in Table 2.
Temperatures of first melting (Tfm) of secondary quartz-
hosted type 2a fluid inclusions from the Maude St. Ledger
reef and B lode range from –5.3° to –9.9°C. Similar inclusions
in a quartz vein from the Great Britain prospect have slightly
lower Tfm values, ranging from –10.0° to –11.9°C. Ice-melting
temperatures (Tm(ice)) of quartz-hosted type 2a inclusions
range from –0.1° to –6.9°C, similar to those determined by
Peters (1987) and Peters and Golding (1987), who reported
Tm(ice) of –4.0° to –7.8°C from their type 2 inclusions. Ho-
mogenization temperatures (Th) range from 177° to 280°C,
with the majority of inclusions homogenizing into a liquid
phase between 220° to 240°C (Fig. 8). The range of Th values
of type 2a inclusions is similar across the studied deposits and
overlaps with data obtained by Peters (1987) and Peters and
Golding (1987) from their type 2 inclusions. The Tfm of sec-
ondary type 2a inclusions in sphalerite from the Maude St.
Fig. 8. Histograms of freezing and heating data for type 2a and 2b fluid
Ledger and the B lode range from –7.1° to –9.5°C (excluding inclusions. A. Drill core sample from the Great Britain prospect, Charters
one value of –2.7°C). Ice-melting temperatures range from Towers (GB 128). B. Underground mine sample from the B lode, Hadleigh
–0.5° to –6.6°C, whereas Th values are significantly lower Castle (B 2-1). C. Underground mine sample from the Maude St. Ledger
than those of quartz-hosted type 2a inclusions, ranging from reef, Charters Towers (BD). Abbreviations: Tfm = temperature of first melt-
ing, Th = homogenization temperature, Tm(ice) = temperature of final ice
80° to 137°C. melting.
Microthermometric data of type 2b inclusions differ
markedly from those of type 2a fluid inclusions (Fig. 9). Tem-
peratures of first melting of secondary, quartz-hosted type 2b thus are generally higher than those of secondary, sphalerite-
inclusions in the B lode range from –31.2° to –42.2°C, hosted type 2a fluid inclusions. Homogenization tempera-
whereas Tm(ice) ranges from –17.9° to –23.6°C. Primary, spha- tures of quartz-hosted type 2b fluid inclusions were not
lerite-hosted type 2b inclusions in the two samples from the recorded in this preliminary study.
Maude St. Ledger reef and B lode have Tfm values ranging Salinities were calculated using the equation of Bodnar
from –28.7° to –45.3°C. The Tm(ice) ranges from –15.3° to (1993), which is applicable to most H2O-NaCl-KCl fluid in-
–29.4°C, and the Th values range from 121° to 254°C and clusion compositions. Secondary type 2a inclusions in quartz

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 1592

ing (1989).
not be visible.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Note: 1 = plotted from fluid inclusion data of Peters (1987), Peters and Gold-
ing, III = cooling, IV = boiling with cooling (modified from Wilkinson, 2001).
and Great Britain prospect (GB 128), and Charters Towers ores previously
inclusions in samples from the Maude St. Ledger reef (BD), B lode (B 2-1)

trates typical trends in Th-salinity space: I = immiscible fluids, II = fluid mix-

type 2b inclusions are not plotted as their Th were not measured. Inset illus-
investigated by Peters (1987) and Peters and Golding (1989). Quartz-hosted
indicate mixing. Boxes represent ranges of salinity and Th of quartz-hosted
tle mine) indicate a range of salinities and temperatures that individually may
in the Maude St. Ledger reef (Charters Towers) and B lode (Hadleigh Cas-
clusions in quartz and sphalerite. Data for sphalerite-hosted fluid inclusions
Fig. 10. Plot of salinity vs. homogenization temperature (Th) for fluid in-
inclusions. Note that Tfm is approximate only as the earliest first melting may
melting (Tm(ice)), illustrating the different properties of type 2a and 2b fluid
Fig. 9. Temperature of first melting (Tfm) vs. temperature of final ice

1592
TABLE 2. Summary of Fluid Inclusion Characteristics in the Three Samples from the B Lode (sample B 2-1, Hadleigh Castle Mine), Maude St. Ledger Reef
(sample BD, Charters Towers), and Great Britain Reef (sample GB 128, Great Britain Prospect, Charters Towers)
OLIVER P. KREUZER

Type Phases Vapor (%) Size (µm) Shape Timing Host mineral Paragenetic stage Th [°C]2, 3 Salinity Composition

1 L 0 <5 Equant P and S Quartz Stage IIc to IId - - H2O-(NaCl)

L 0 <5 Equant S Sphalerite Stage IIc or IId - -

2a L+V 20-25 <20 Irregular S Quartz Stage IIa to IId B 2-1: 177-305 (n = 43)1 B 2-1: 0.7-10.4 (n = 30) H2O-(NaCl)
BD: 219-256 (n = 17) BD: 0.2-1.6 (n = 8)
GB 128: 221-225 (n = 8) GB 128: 0.2-8.5 (n = 8)
L+V 5-10 5-30 Elongate S Sphalerite Stage IIc or IId B 2-1: 080-137 (n = 3) B 2-1: 5.4-6.0 (n = 3)
BD: 105-107 (n = 3) BD: 0.9-10.0 (n = 3)

2b L+V 5-10 5-25 Irregular S Quartz Stage IIc B 2-1: 177-305 (n = 43)1 B 2-1: 20.9-24.7 (n = 7) H2O-NaCl-FeCl2, H2O-Na2CO3-
K2CO3, H2O-NaCl-MgCl2, H2O-
FeCl2, or H2O-MgCl2
L+V 5-10 5-25 Irregular P Sphalerite Stage IIc B 2-1: 235-251 (n = 3) B 2-1: 28.0-28.3 (n = 3) H2O-NaCl-FeCl2, H2O-Na2CO3-
BD: 121-254 (n = 18) BD: 18.9-28.3 (n = 22) K2CO3, H2O-NaCl-MgCl2, H2O-
FeCl2, or H2O-MgCl2

1 Range
of type 2a and 2b inclusions
2 Data
collected at the School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University, having used a Linkam DSC 600 heating-freezing stage mounted on an Olympus BX 51 system microscope
2 2 2 2
3 Heating-freezing temperatures were controlled to within 0.1°C, stage calibration was carried out using the fluid standards H O-CO (25 mol % CO ) and H O (critical density), mean calibration

error was ±0.3°C

Note: See Figure 2 for sample locations and Figure 4 for details on paragenetic relationships of veins of the Charters Towers goldfield
Abbreviations: L = liquid, P = primary, S = secondary, V = vapor
 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES 1593

and secondary type 2a inclusions in sphalerite have Tfm values
that are well below the eutectic temperature (i.e., –21.2°C) of
the H2O-NaCl system (cf. Roedder, 1984; Shepherd et al.,
1985; Brown, 1998). Salinities of type 2a inclusions in quartz
range from 0.2 to 10.4 wt percent NaCl equiv, similar to that
of type 2a fluid inclusions in sphalerite (0.9–10 wt % NaCl
equiv). The Tfm values of type 2b inclusions are well below
–20.8°C, so the presence of additional salts is implied (cf.
Roedder, 1984; Shepherd et al., 1985; Brown, 1998). Eutec-
tic temperatures of type 2b inclusions range from –31.2° to
–42.2°C (quartz-hosted) and from –28.7° to –45.3°C (spha-
lerite-hosted). Therefore, these fluid inclusions contain a
more complex salt system (e.g., H2O-MgCl2, H2O-FeCl2,
H2O-NaCl-MgCl2, H2O-NaCl-FeCl2, H2O-Na2CO3-K2CO3,
or H2O-NaCl-CaCl2). Calculated salinities for type 2b fluid
inclusions range from 20.9 to 24.7 wt percent NaCl equiv
(quartz-hosted) and 18.9 to 28.3 wt percent NaCl equiv
(sphalerite-hosted). Average salinities of all type 2b inclusions
are approximately 23 wt percent NaCl equiv. Salinities above
26 wt percent NaCl equiv may be overestimations as none of
the analyzed type 2b inclusions contained any daughter salts.
Alternatively, the fluids may be undersaturated with respect
to other salts if the major cations are not Na (Roedder, 1984).
When the Th values are plotted against the salinity of fluid in-
clusions in sphalerite (Fig. 10) they indicate a range of fluid
compositions from a hotter more saline to a cooler, more di-
lute fluid.
Isochores calculated for individual inclusions using the pro-
gram FLINCOR (Brown, 1989) indicate pressures in the
range of 0.5 to 4.7 kbars, suggesting formation depths be-
tween ~2 and 17.5 km (Fig. 11). However, most pressure es-
timates fall within the range of 0.9 to 3.8 kbars (equivalent to
depths between 5–14 km).
The wide range of pressure estimates may reflect a decom-
pression path related to Silurian to Devonian uplift of the
Ravenswood batholith, as proposed by Hutton and Rienks
(1997). The common occurrence of structures, such as (1) hy-
draulic breccia (cf. Jébrak, 1997), (2) flat-lying to shallow-dip-
ping extensional veins, and (3) open-space filling textures
(Kreuzer, 2004, 2006), which, at formation depths >2 km, are
indicative of fluid overpressuring (e.g., Harley and
Charlesworth, 1996), suggests that veins of the Charters Tow-
ers goldfield formed under conditions of lithostatic to
supralithostatic fluid pressure (Kreuzer, 2004). When super-
imposed on a lithostatic fluid pressure gradient, the likely
depth range of vein formation can be further restricted to
~7.5 to 10 km, which is consistent with (1) the range of fluid
inclusion-based P-T estimates for gold deposits within green-
schist facies rocks (e.g., McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998), (2) the
approximate P-T boundary conditions of abundant quartz
veining (e.g., Bons, 2001), (3) the approximate P-T boundary
conditions for greenschist facies metamorphism (e.g., Yard-
ley, 1989), and (4) the approximate depth ranges of the seis-
mogenic zone (e.g., Sibson, 2001), the fault-valve mechanism

Fig. 11. Isochore plots and pressure estimates for type 2a and 2b sphalerite- and quartz-hosted fluid inclusions. Trapping
pressures have been estimated by constructing isochores (each representing a sample) from fluid inclusion data, using the
program FLINCOR (Brown, 1989). Isotopic equilibrium temperatures based on quartz-mica (170°–200°C, 200°–230°C, and
330°–360°C) and sphalerite-galena (310°C) isotope fractionation data of Peters and Golding (1989) provided independent
trapping temperature (Tt) estimates for defining positions along the constructed isochores, as described by Roedder (1984)
and Shepherd et al. (1985). Calculations in FLINCOR were based on the H2O-NaCl system, applying the equation of state
from Brown and Lamb (1989). For the purpose of pressure calculations for type 2a and 2b inclusions components other than
H2O and NaCl were neglected. A. Drill core sample GB 128 (Great Britain prospect, Charters Towers). B. Underground
mine sample B 2-1 (B lode, Hadleigh Castle). C. Underground mine sample BD (Maude St. Ledger reef, Charters Towers).
Abbreviations: gn = galena, ms = hydrothermal muscovite, qtz = quartz, sp = sphalerite, Tt = trapping temperature.

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 1594

al., 2003).

rich (1999, 2000).

Nitrogen isotopes

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
herent cataclasite (e.g., Twiss and Moores, 1992).

gin (Faure, 1986; Jia and Kerrich, 1999, 2000; Glasmacher et

8 and 17 per mil. Most δ15N values are >10 per mil (Fig. 12).
contents ranging from 11 to 44 ppm and δ15N values between
erous veins at Charters Towers and Hadleigh Castle had N
tions (≤1.5 µg/g), hydrothermal muscovite grains from aurif-
Although most samples had very low nitrogen concentra-
al., 2003; Jia et al., 2003). K-bearing silicates such as potas-
als has been shown to be an effective tracer of distal fluid ori-
for nitrogen isotopes (Table 3). Nitrogen in rocks and miner-

amounts of Na+ in feldspars and clay minerals (Glasmacher et

Kerrich, 1999, 2000). In addition, NH4+ may replace minor
erals can be partly replaced by NH4+ (Faure, 1986; Jia and
rock-forming minerals for such analyses, as K+ in these min-
sium feldspar, biotite, and muscovite are the most suitable
veins at Charters Towers and Hadleigh Castle were analyzed
(e.g., Gaboury and Daigneault, 2000), and occurrence of co-

Samples of sericitized, granitic wall rocks next to auriferous

Fig. 12. Plot of N content vs. δ15N values of hydrothermal muscovite

from alteration envelopes of auriferous veins at Charters Towers and

Archean igneous feldspar, biotite, and muscovite are based on Jia and Ker-
mine. Fields of Archean and Phanerozoic hydrothermal muscovite, and
hanging-wall granodiorite (bulk granitoid HC) near the Hadleigh Castle
Hadleigh Castle. The graph also shows a value obtained from unaltered

1594
OLIVER P. KREUZER

TABLE 3. Nitrogen Isotope Data from Hydrothermal Muscovite from Auriferous Veins at Charters Towers, Hadleigh Castle, and Robinson Crusoe,
also including a Whole-Rock Sample of Unaltered Granitoid from near the Hadleigh Castle Mine

Area Vein/intrusion Material1 Sample no. JCU no. Sample location Mass2 (mg) δ15N2 (‰) Total N2 (µg) N (ppm)

CT Maude St. Ledger Muscovite N-CT01 69295 894 to 896 m RL Central decline 79.0 10.27 1.16 14.7
CT Maude St. Ledger Muscovite N-CT02 69300 894 to 896 m RL 77.5 14.03 1.25 16.1
CT Maude St. Ledger Muscovite N-CT03 69302 894 to 896 m RL 77.5 10.81 1.06 13.7

HC 02 lode Muscovite N-HC01 69297 855/02 m RL Hadleigh Castle mine 74.8 7.93 1.14 15.2
HC 04 lode Muscovite N-HC02 69296 855/04 m RL (west) 74.4 9.83 3.28 44.1
HC 04 lode Muscovite N-HC03 69301 920/04 m RL (west) 80.7 16.61 1.19 14.8
HC 04 lode Muscovite N-HC04 69303 855/04 m RL (west) 78.6 17.21 1.40 17.9
HC B lode Muscovite N-HC05 69299 2 level, 1110 m RL 77.3 14.22 2.46 31.8

HC Robinson Crusoe Muscovite N-HC06 69298 Robinson Crusoe pit 78.1 9.31 0.89 11.4

HC Hanging-wall gdrt Whole rock N-HG01 69304 0460782 m E, 7777135 m N (AMG) 72.3 –1.75 0.40 5.6

1 Mineral separates of samples N-CT01 to N-CT03 and N-HC01 to N-HC06 were produced at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (Lower Hutt, New Zealand), using standard separa-

tion techniques, concentrations to >97% purity were achieved by handpicking under the binocular microscope, pulverized mineral separates were loaded into tin capsules and weighted
2 Analyses were carried out on a high-precision, continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometer (CF-IRMS) at the Centre for Soil Research (University of Saskatchewan, Canada), analytical preci-

sion (1σ) for mica separates is typically ±0.2 per mil for δ15N (Jia and Kerrich, 2000)
Note: see Figure 2 for sample locations
Abbreviations: AMG = Australian map grid, CT = Charters Towers, gdrt = granodiorite, HC = Hadleigh Castle, JCU no. = James Cook University collection number
 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES 1595

These data are incompatible with meteoric surface waters
(δ15N <10‰) and mantle-derived (N = 1–2 ppm, δ15N =
–5‰) or granitic fluids (N = 21–27 ppm, δ15N = 6–10‰: Jia
and Kerrich, 2000; Jia et al., 2003), but they are compatible
with values of fluids of metamorphic origin. In particular, the
Charters Towers goldfield data overlap with N concentrations
and δ15N values of Archean quartz veins (N = 20–70 ppm,
δ15N = 11–24‰) that are interpreted to be products of meta-
morphic fluids (Jia and Kerrich, 2000).
Discussion
Any genetic model for the origin of the gold in veins of the
Charters Towers goldfield must explain the similar ages (Fig.
13) and the uniformity of veins and zones of gold-related
wall-rock alteration within an area of at least 1,200 km2 and to
depths of at least 1 km (Fig. 1A), the lack of zoning with re-
spect to individual intrusions, and that the veins postdate the
emplacement, crystallization, and brittle fracturing of their
host intrusions. Similar features, including a spatial and tem-
poral link between gold deposition and I-type magmatism
were recognized in the Etheridge and Cape York peninsula
goldfields (Bain et al., 1998; Table 4). These characteristics
suggest that the ore-forming fluids in North Queensland were
more likely sourced from a single regional-scale, tectonother-
mal system of Late Silurian to Early Devonian age rather than
from single intrusions.
Veins of the Charters Towers goldfield are not obviously
genetically linked to a particular intrusion, and Figure 14

Fig. 13. Plot of median ages (with 2σ ranges) of granitoids of the Ravenswood batholith (K-Ar biotite, K-Ar hornblende,
Rb-Sr whole rock, and U-Pb) and hydrothermal muscovite in alteration envelopes of auriferous veins of the Charters Tow-
ers goldfield (Ar-Ar and K-Ar), illustrating temporal overlap of granitoid emplacement and gold mineralization. 1 = Morri-
son (1988), 2 = Perkins and Kennedy (1998), 3 = this study, 4 = Hutton and Rienks (1997), 5 = intrusions of the Millchester
supersuite: Beasley Creek tonalite, Boatswain granodiorite, Casey Spring Creek granodiorite, Centauri granodiorite, Cres-
cent granodiorite, Dalmore granodiorite, Emu Mill granodiorite, Five Mile Mill granodiorite, Heathfield West tonalite,
Meadowale granodiorite, Merriland tonalite, Molly Darling granodiorite, Spondulix granodiorite, Tullegorim granodiorite,
Two Mile granite, Urdera granodiorite, Wellington Springs tonalite, Wharleys tonalite, Yulga tonalite; intrusions of the
Barrabas supersuite: Kedumba granodiorite, Mount Cuthbert granodiorite; unassigned intrusions: Amity aplite, Balfes Creek
granodiorite, Box Forest quartz-diorite, Kirkton tonalite, and Scoop Hills granodiorite (Hutton and Rienks, 1997).

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1596
Charters Towers,
Queensland
Examples Brilliant, Day Dawn, Queen
Principal mineralization Large, multistage qtz veins
style
Vertical continuity ~1 km, many open at
(maximum) depth1,2
Spatial distribution of Within an area of at least
mineralization 60 × 30 km (possibly up to
230 × 70 km9)
Spatially associated Older VHMS (e.g.,
deposits and occurrences Highway, Reward)3, younger
porphyry Cu-Au (e.g.,
Mount Leyshon)3
Cummulative production/ >200 t Au (33g/t Au)2,4
reserves (average grade
in brackets)
Au / Ag ratio >1, commonly 4
Principal host rocks Oxidized, metaluminous
I-type granite, granodiorite,
and tonalite of the Ravens-
wood batholith3
Host terrane Mainly greenschist facies
metamorphic grade,
dominated by igneous rocks,
contact aureoles absent or
poorly developed, basement
to intrusions dominated by
shallow marine sedimentary
rocks3
Age of host rocks and/or 426 ± 4 to 382 ± 5 Ma
associated magmatism (K-Ar, Rb-Sr, U-Pb)3
Age of gold-related 416 ± 4 to 397 ± 4 Ma
wall-rock alteration (K-Ar)5,6, 400 ± 5 to
412 ± 2 Ma (Ar-Ar)
Vein/lode mineralogy Qtz > sulfides >>
carbonates; open space-
filling textures common
Principal quartz types Subhedral to euhedral buck
qtz, comb qtz, modified
gray qtz7
Sulfide content Low to moderate (>10 vol%)
Metal association Au, Ag, As, Pb, Zn, Cu ±
Te, Sb, Hg, W8
Main ore minerals (minor Au, el, py, gn, sp, cpy
constituents in brackets) (apy, po, td-tn, tell)1,9,10
Metal zoning No evidence for lateral
zoning9, possible vertical
zoning of Zn and Pb, possible
decrease of average Au grade
with depth (55 g/t near
surface --> 14 g/t at 900 m
below surface)1
Main vein gangue Qtz, ser, cal, ank9,10
Main wall-rock alteration Ser, cal, ank, py (chl, ep)9,10
gangue (minor
constituents in brackets)
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
OLIVER P. KREUZER
TABLE 4. Properties of Auriferous Veins in the Charters Towers
Etheridge, Queensland14
Jubilee Plunger,
Cumberland, Havelock
Large, multistage qtz veins
>0.2 km, all open at depth
Within an area of at least
120 × 30 km
Coeval Au-U-F-Mo,
younger porphyry and
epithermal3
20 t Au and Ag (33 g/t Au,
includes Ag bullion)
No data
S-type granitoid of the
Forsayth batholith and
I-type granitoid of the
White Springs batholith
Greenschist to granulite
facies metamorphic grade,
dominated by metasedi-
mentary and metaigneous
rocks
424 ± 11 to 404 ± 11 Ma
(Rb-Sr, U-Pb)
426 ± 5 to 398 ± 3 Ma
(K-Ar), 407 ± 6 (Rb-Sr)
Qtz > sulfides >>
carbonates; open space-
filling textures common
Euhedral buck qtz,
comb qtz
Low to moderate (>10 vol%)
Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, Cu
El, py, gn, sp, cpy
No evidence
Qtz, cal
Chl, clays, ser
1596
Major’s Creek,
New South Wales15
Dargue’s reef
Disseminations
<0.2 km, some open at
depth
Within an area of at least
3 × 1 km
No data
>0.06 t Au (>4 g/t),
alluvial: >40t Au
No data
Oxidized, metaluminous
I-type granodiorite of the
Bega batholith
Mainly greenschist facies
metamorphic grade,
dominated by igneous rocks
415 ± 4 to 399 ± 6 Ma
(K-Ar, Rb-Sr)
411 ± 5 to 406 ± 4 Ma
(K-Ar)
Sulfides and ser >>
carbonates and qtz; open
space-filling textures rare
Rare comb qtz
Moderate (>15-30 vol%)
Au, Cu, As, Bi, Mo, Pb, Te
Py (Au, cpy, gn, Bi-sfs, Bi,
tell, td, po)
No evidence
Qtz, ser, cal
Ser, py, chl, carbonates,
clays, ep, rt, qtz, hm (K-fs)
Jiadong, China16
Linglong, Sanshanado
Large, multistage qtz veins
and disseminations
>1 km
Within two areas of at least
150 × 60 km and 60 × 30 km
No data
>900 t Au (3-30 g/t Au,
mainly 10 g/t Au)
No data
Granite and granodiorite of
the Linglong and Guojialing
suites
Greenschist to granulite facies
metamorphic grade, basement
to intrusions dominated by
metavolcanic and meta-
sedimentary rocks
Intrusions: 165 to 125 Ma
(U-Pb), mafic to intermediate
dikes: 124 to 120 Ma (K-Ar)
123 to 121 Ma (Ar-Ar, Rb-Sr),
130 to 100 Ma (K-Ar, Rb-Sr)
Qtz > sulfides >> carbonates(?);
open space-filling textures rare
Buck, qtz, rare comb qtz,
modified grey qtz
Low to moderate (>10 vol%?)
Au, As, Pb, Zn, Cu
Au, el, py, gn, sp, cpy, apy, hm
(mt, po, sch, tell, mo)
No evidence
Qtz, cal, ank, ser, K-fs, sd, chl
Qtz, ser, plag, K-fs, chl, cal
(sd, dol, bar)
 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
Goldfield Compared with Veins in Similar Gold Provinces Worldwide
Grass Valley, California17
Empire, North Star, Dromedary
Large, multistage qtz veins
>1 km
Within an area of at least 6 × 4 km
No data
>230 t Au (8 to 16 g/t Au)
No data
Granodiorite and metamorphic
basement rocks
Greenschist to amphibolite facies
metamorphic grade, basement to
intrusions dominated by meta-
volcanic and metasedimentary
rocks
127 ± 3 Ma (K-Ar)
Mother Lode district: 110 to
125 Ma (K-Ar, Rb-Sr)
Qtz >> carbonates > sulfides;
open space-filling textures common
Buck qtz, comb qtz, modified
grey qtz
Low (<10 vol %?)
Au, Ag, As, Pb, Zn, Cu, W
Au, el, py, apy, gn, sp, cpy, hm
(mo, As, pot, sch, td, tell)
No evidence
Qtz, ser, cal, ank, chl
Ank, ser, py, chl, ep
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Parcoy-Pataz, Peru18
La Lima, El Gigante
Large, multistage qtz veins
>1 km, many are open at depth
well developed
No data
~200 t Au (<20 g/t Au)
≥1
Oxidized I-type monzogranite and
granodiorite of the Pataz batholith
Greenschist to lower amphibolite
facies metamorphic grade
329 ± 1 Ma (U-Pb)
314 to 312 Ma (Ar-Ar)
Qtz > sulfides >> carbonates;
open space-filling textures common
Buck qtz, comb qtz, modified
grey qtz
Low to moderate (>10 vol %)
Au, Ag, As, Fe, Zn ± Cu, Sb,
Bi, Te, W
Au, py, apy, gn, sp
(el, cpy, po, wf, td-tn)
No evidence
Qtz, ser, chl, fuch, ank, dol, cal
Ser, chl, fuch, ank, dol, cal
1597
Intrusion-related gold deposits19
Dublin Gulch, Brewery Creek,
Timbarra
Sheeted qzt veins, disseminations,
skarn, breccia pipes, replacements,
greisen
<0.5 km
Generally centered on causative
intrusion
W ± Sn, Mo, Bi
Most <20 t Au (most between
0.8 and 3 g/t Au)
≤1 to ~1
Mostly metaluminous to weakly
peraluminous intrusions of felsic
to intermediate composition,
intrusions span the boundary
between reduced ilmenite and
oxidized magnetite series
Mainly greenschist facies
metamorphic grade, contact
aureoles up to 4 km wide
Host rocks generally of same age
as gold deposits
Not applicable
Qtz > fs >> sulfides; open
space-filling textures common
Buck qtz, comb qtz, modified
grey qtz, crustiform qtz
Generally low (<5 vol%)
Proximal to intrusions: Au, Bi, W ±
Te, Mo, As; distal to intrusions:
Au, As, Sb ± Hg; Au, Ag, Pb, Zn ±
Cu associations typical for most distal
deposits (up to several kilometers
away from the causative intrusions)
Au, Bi, apy, py, po
Strong district-scale zoning:
Au-W → Sn-Ag → Pb → Zn
Qtz, carbonates, K-fs, plag
Silicates (K-fs, ser), carbonates
1597
Phanerozoic orogenic gold deposits20
Mother Lode, Bendigo, Macraes,
Dolgellau
Large, multistage qtz veins
>1 km
Generally within large areas of at
least 30 × 10 km
Older VHMS
Many >50 t (most between
5 and 30 g/t Au)
>1, commonly 10
Marine sedimentary sequences
Mainly lower to medium greenschist
facies metamorphic grade, dominated
by marine sediments
Host rocks generally much older than
gold deposits, gold mineralization
often bracketed by magmatic activity
Not applicable
Qtz > carbonates >> sulfides; open
space-filling textures not common
Buck qtz, modified grey qtz
Generally low (<5 vol%)
Au, As, B, Bi, Hg, Sb, Te, W
Au, apy, py, po
Cryptic with little change in
mineralogy or Au grade
Qtz, carbonates, K-fs, chl, ser
Carbonates (ank, dol, cal) and sulfides
(py, po, apy)
1598
Charters Towers,
Queensland
Wall-rock alteration (less Sericitization, propylitization
common types in brackets) (chloritization, silicification)9
Lateral zoning of wall- Well-developed9
rock alteration
Elements involved in As, K, Na, Pb, S, Si, Sr, Zn10
fluid/wall-rock reactions
Fluid parameters Neutral to weakly acidic,
CO2-poor fluids of low (0.2-
11 wt % NaCl equiv)9,10,11 to
moderate (18.9-28.3 wt %
NaCl equiv)10 salinity, Tt =
240° to 310°C10
Stable isotope data δ18O = 12.3 to 15.7‰9,11,12,
δD = -57 to -42‰9,11,
δ13C = -4.7 to 3.6‰9,11,
δ34S = -1.1 to 4.2‰9,11,
δ15N = 7.9 to 17.2‰
Inferred depositional Fluid mixing and
mechanism chemisorption10
Inferred fluid source Ore stage I: fluids that were
in equilibrium with meta-
morphic rocks, ore stage II:
mixing of deep-seated
magmatic and significantly
modified meteoric fluids
Depositional environment ~1 to 4 kbars, ~5 to 10 km,
low mean stress
Strain field Shortening9,13
Controls on ore zones Regional-scale: major fault
zones, district-scale: second-
and third-order faults close
to regional-scale faults and
preexisting discontinuities
(e.g., geological/rheological
contacts, deposit-scale: jogs/
bends in gently to moderately
dipping segments of reverse
faults, splay faults, hydraulic
extension fractures1,9,10
Regional/district
association Partial crustal melting, crustal
heating, regional-scale grani-
toid emplacement, uplift of
thickened crust3, regional
shortening9,10 reactivation
of preexisting structures,
possible temporal link with
W-directed Pacific plate
subduction10
Inferred tectonic setting Well inboard of inferred or
recognized collisional plate
boundaries, potential con-
tinetal magmatic arc setting3,10
Current classifications Mesothermal, intrusion-
related, plutonic, orogenic
Sources: 1 = Reid (1917), 2 = Levingston (1972), 3 = Hutton and Rienks (1997), 4 = Blatchford (1953), 5 = Morrison (1988), 6 = Perkins and Kennedy
(1998), 7 = Dowling and Morrison (1989), 8 = G.W. Morrison (writ. commun., 2003), 9 = Peters (1987), 10 = Kreuzer (2003, 2006), 11 = Peters and
Golding (1989), 12 = Golding and Wilson (1981), Golding et al. (1987), 13 = Kreuzer (2004), 14 = Bain et al. (1998), 15 = McQueen and Perkins (1995),
Ho et al. (1995), 16 = Qui et al. (2002), Fan et al. (2003), 17 = Johnston (1940), Böhlke and Kistler (1986), 18 = Schreiber et al. (1990a,b), Haeberlin
(2002), Haeberlin et al. (2004), 19 = Thompson et al. (1999), Lang et al. (2000), Thompson and Newberry (2000), Lang and Baker (2001), Mustard (2001),
20 = Bierlein and Crowe (2000), Goldfarb et al. (2001), Groves et al. (2003), Jia et al. (2001)
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
OLIVER P. KREUZER
Etheridge, Queensland14
Propylitization, chloritization
(sericitization)
Well-developed
Not specified
CO2-bearing fluids of low
(6-10 wt % NaCl equiv)
salinity, Tt = 250° to
300°C (possibly up to
350°C)
δ18O = 8.4 to 15.7‰
Not specified
Primary magmatic fluids
or extremely modified
meteoric fluids
>5 kbars, >3 km
Not specified
District-scale: faults and
fault abundance, hetereo-
geneities around geologic
contacts
Partial crustal melting,
granitoid emplacement,
retrograde greenschist facies
metamorphism, uplift of
thickened crust, possible
temporal link with
W-directed Pacific plate
subduction
Well inboard of inferred or
recognized collisional plate
boundaries, potential con-
tinetal magmatic arc setting?
Mesothermal, plutonic
1598
Major’s Creek,
New South Wales15
Propylitization, sericitization
(silicification)
Well-developed
Not specified
Neutral to weakly alkaline,
CO2-bearing fluids of low
(4-11 wt% NaCl equiv)
salinity, Tt < 350°C
δ18O = 6.5 to 10.9‰,
δ13C = -3.8 to -1.7‰,
δ34S = -1.5 to -0.4‰
Desulfidation and
chemisorption
Late-stage
orthomagmatic fluids
Not specified
Not specified
Deposit-scale: granitoid
roof zone, fractures
Late-stage magmatic-
hydrothermal activity in the
crystallized roof zone of the
host intrusion
Well inboard of inferred or
recognized collisional plate
boundaries, potential con-
tinetal magmatic arc setting?
Mesothermal, epithermal,
granitoid-associated
TABLE 4.
Jiadong, China16
Silification, sericitization,
potassic alteration (chloritization)
Well-developed
Ag, Al, As, Au, Ba, Bi, Ca, Cu,
Fe, K, Mg, Na, Sb, Si, Sr, W, Zn
CO2-rich fluids of low (6-14
wt% NaCl equiv) salinity, rare
moderate salinity inclusions
(≤32 wt% NaCl equiv), Tt =
250° to 350°C
δ18O = 7.0 to 13.1‰,
δD = -91 to -63‰,
δ13C = -5.9 to -3.4‰,
δ34S = 3.0 to 14.0‰
Fluid-wall rock interaction,
fluid immiscibility,
chemisorption
Magmatic fluids (degassing
from magma parental to mafic
and intermediate dikes)
1 to ≥3 kbars, 4 to 8 km
Shortening?
Regional-scale: major fault
zones, district-scale: major
fault zones and subsidiary
faults (especially where they
juxtapose geological contacts),
deposit-scale: fault jogs/bends,
tension gashes, en echelon
fractures
Partial crustal melting,
granitoid emplacement, uplift
of thickened crust, reactivation
of preexisting structures,
possible temporal link with
orogenesis and/or Pacific
plate subduction
Craton margin position
significantly landward relative
to subduction zone of Pacific
plate, potential magmatic arc
setting
Orogenic, intrusion-related
 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES 1599

(Cont.)

Grass Valley, California17 Parcoy-Pataz, Peru18 Intrusion-related gold deposits19 Phanerozoic orogenic gold deposits20

Sericitization, propylitization, Sericitization (chloritization, Restricted, commonly weak Carbonitization, (de)silicification,

chloritization, silicification silicification, carbonatization) (also described as cryptic) sericitization, albitization, sulfidation
Well developed Well developed Not/poorly developed Well developed

Al, C, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, Si As, C, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, S Not specified As, Au, C, K, Na, S, Si,

Mother Lode district: CO2-rich
fluids, Tt = 300° to 350°C
Of low (5-15 wt% NaCl equiv)
to high (20-38wt% NaCl equiv)
salinity, Tt = 150° to 330°C
Low salinity (<12 wt% NaCl equiv)
H2O-CO2 ± CH4 fluids, moderate
to high (10-65 wt% NaCl equiv)
salinity inclusions are present in
some deposits, Tt = 250° to 350°C
Low salinity (<10 wt% NaCl equiv),
near neutral H2O-CO2 ± CH4 fluids,
Tt = 300° to 400°C

δ18O = 11.4‰, δD = -39‰ δ18O = 10.9 to 14.2‰, δ18O = 5 to 10‰, δ18O = 12 to 19‰, δD = -80 to -20‰,
δD = -60 to -39‰, δD = -90 to -40‰, δ13C = -10 to ±0‰,
δ13C = -6.5 to -3.4‰, δ13C = -3 to 7‰ and -22 to 0‰, δ34S = -7.4 to 8.1‰,
δ34S = -2.1 to 3.7‰ δ34S = -5 to 5‰ δ15N = 2.84 to 4.49‰

Not specified Fluid mixing Various mechanisms Various mechanisms

Deep-seated fluids of unknown
origin, no obvious genetic link to
exposed intrusions
>3 km
Shortening
District-scale: faults, fractures,
preexisting discontinuities (e.g.,
granitoid-basement contact,
deposit-scale: splay faults
Magmatic or metamorphic fluids,
possible meteoric fluid input
0.5 to 2.6 kbars, 7 km
Shortening
Regional-scale: major fault zones,
district-scale: major fault zones,
subsidiary faults, preexisting
discontinuities, deposit-scale:
fault jogs/bends, splay faults,
vein/fault intersections
Magmatic fluids
<1 to 7 km, moderate fluid flux
Not specified
Deposit-scale: fault/fracture
networks and specific igneous
textural facies within the roof
zones of host plutons
Fluids derived from crustal-scale
reservoirs and sourced from
metamorphic devolatilization
reactions at depth, modified
magmatic and meteoric sources
cannot be ruled out
0.75 to 3 kbarS, 2 to 6 km, low
mean stress, high fluid flux
Shortening
Second-order faults close to
regional-scale faults (commonly
terrane boundaries), deposits mainly
hosted in steeply dipping reverse
faults

Granitoid emplacement, uplift of
thickened crust, reactivation of
preexisting structures, spatial link
with Cordilleran-type continental
margin and post-Nevadan
subduction
Granitoid emplacement, uplift of
thickened crust, reactivation of
preexisting structures, link with
Cordilleran-type continental
margin and plate subduction
Regional extension, granitoid Collisional and subduction-related
emplacement regimes, regional crustal heating
induced by metamorphism or
granitoid emplacement

Convergent margin?
Mesothermal, mother lode-type
Convergent margin
Intrusion-related, orogenic
Well inboard of inferred or
recognized collisional plate
boundaries, typically sited within
old, cratonic continental crust
Not applicable
Situated at inferred collisional plate
boundaries, typically fore-arc and
continental magmatic arc settings,
less commonly sited between the
magmatic arc and backarc
Not applicable

Abbreviations: ank = ankerite, apy = arsenopyrite, As = native arsenic, Au = native gold, bar = barite, Bi = native bismuth, Bi-sfs = Bismuth sulfosalts,
cal = calcite, chl = chlorite, cpy = chalcopyrite, dol = dolomite, el = electrum, ep = epidote, fs = feldspar group minerals, fuch = fuchsite, gn = galena, hm
= hematite, K-fs = potassium-feldspar, mo = molybdenite, mm = montmorillonite, mt = magnetite, plag = plagioclase, po = pyrrhotite, py = pyrite, qtz =
quartz, rt = rutile, sch = scheelite, sd = siderite, ser = hydrothermal muscovite (sericite group minerals), sp = sphalerite, td-tn = tetrahedrite-tennantite,
tell = telluride group minerals, to = tourmaline, Tt = trapping temperature, wf = wolframite

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1599

1600 OLIVER P. KREUZER
Fig. 14. Conceptual diagram showing the relationship between composi-
tions of granitoids from eastern Australia (field shown encloses approximately
3,500 analyses), oxidation and fractionation state, and main metal assem-
blages of related mineralization from Blevin et al. (1996). The diagram illus-
trates that mineralization associated with the mainly oxidized, unfractionated
Ravenswood batholith melts should be dominated by Cu-Au or W. Whole-
rock geochemistry data from Hutton and Crouch (1993) and the OZCHEM
database (http://www.ga.gov.au/oracle/#geochem).
illustrates that the unfractionated and dominantly oxidized in-
trusions that host the veins are more similar to intrusions as-
sociated with copper-gold and tungsten deposits rather than
gold-only deposits. Veins of the Charters Towers goldfield
are significantly enriched in tellurium (100 to >1,000 ×)
compared to average granitoid values (G.W. Morrison, writ.
commun., 2003), suggesting a magmatic contribution to the
ore-forming fluids (e.g., Cooke and McPhail, 2001). A mag-
matic contribution also is consistent with the results of pub-
lished isotope studies, although the Pb isotope data rule out
lead derivation from any exposed granitoids of the
Ravenswood batholith (Black et al., 1997). Sulfur isotope
data are consistent with either mantle or metamorphic ori-
gins of the ore-forming fluids (Peters and Golding, 1989).
Nitrogen contents and δ15N values of hydrothermal mus-
covite from zones of gold-related wall-rock alteration overlap
with those measured from orogenic lode gold deposits (cf. Jia
and Kerrich, 2000), indicating either a metamorphic origin
for the fluid or equilibration with metamorphic rocks. How-
ever, the lack of CO2-rich inclusions suggests that the fluids
that formed the veins of the Charters Towers goldfield are
different from those of most orogenic gold deposits (cf. Rid-
ley and Diamond, 2000; Table 4). Moreover, the new fluid
inclusion data suggest trapping of aqueous saline fluids (~23
wt % NaCl equiv) as well as a cooler, more dilute fluid at the
time of gold deposition (Figs. 8–10, Table 2). The origin and
time of trapping of saline fluid inclusions in lode gold de-
posits is often ambiguous (e.g., McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998;
Ridley and Diamond, 2000), although significant salinity
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1600
variations in hydrothermal systems are commonly attributed
to fluid mixing (e.g., Parry, 1998; Wilkinson, 2001). Mixing
between hotter saline fluids of potential deep-seated mag-
matic origin and cooler, more dilute solutions of potential
meteoric origin has been reported from lode gold deposits of
the Peruvian Parcoy-Pataz (Schreiber et al., 1990a, b; Hae-
berlin, 2002) and Indian Kolar districts (Mishra and Pani-
grahi, 1999). In this model, Late Silurian to Early Devonian
uplift of the thickened crust and denudation at the surface of
the Lolworth-Ravenswood terrane could have been coinci-
dent with metamorphic devolatilization (e.g., Kerrich and
Wyman, 1990; Phillips and Powell, 1993) at deeper crustal
levels during peak metamorphism (D1-D2) ~30 m.y. later
than the uppermost crust (Stüwe, 1998). Release of meta-
morphic fluid into the uppermost crust may have been pre-
vented by the low permeability and porosity of the thick mass
of freshly accumulated intrusions of the Ravenswood
batholith. Cyclic fracturing during an episode of regional
shortening (D4) would then have focused fluid flow into di-
latant structures (cf. Cox et al. 2001; Sibson 2001). Cooling
and reaction of the metamorphic fluids with the granitic wall
rocks could have triggered wall-rock alteration and quartz,
pyrite, and arsenopyrite deposition of the paragenetic stages
I and II (Fig. 2). This model would account for the meta-
morphic δ15N values measured from hydrothermal mus-
covite and the origin of type 1 and 2a fluid inclusions. The
lack of CO2-rich inclusions may be linked to CO2 fixation re-
actions through fluid-wall rock interaction or CO2 loss due to
cyclical fluid pressure fluctuations (e.g., Parry, 1998; Mishra
and Panigrahi, 1999). Saline fluids may have been released
from deep-seated zones of crustal melting, possibly associ-
ated with a new pulse of magmatic activity and the emplace-
ment of Late Silurian to Early Devonian intrusions, such as
the Deane, Carse-O-Gowrie, Chippendale, and Broughton
River granodiorites (Figs. 1A, 13). This addition of heat into
the crust also may have promoted regional-scale hydrother-
mal circulation. Such deep-seated magmatic fluids, focused
into structures previously affected by stages I and II, are pos-
sible sources of gold, and mineralization may have been
caused by mixing with cooler, more dilute fluids circulating
in the upper crust. Mishra and Panigrahi (1999) and Hae-
berlin (2002) have previously suggested the influx of signifi-
cantly modified, heated meteoric waters in orogenic lode
gold systems, and this could also have occurred during rapid
uplift of the Ravenswood batholith.
Veins of the Charters Towers goldfield have many features
in common with intrusion-related gold deposits (e.g., spatial
and temporal association with magmatism, types of host in-
trusions, depositional environment, fluid parameters, and
quartz textures; Ho et al., 1995; McQueen and Perkins, 1995;
Lang et al., 2000; Thompson and Newberry, 2000). However,
a detailed comparison (Table 4) illustrates that the veins have
more in common with orogenic gold deposits (e.g., Bierlein
and Crowe, 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001; Groves et al., 2003),
and particularly a group of granitoid-hosted vein systems
commonly classified as orogenic (e.g., the lode gold deposits
of the Etheridge, Parcoy-Pataz, Grass Valley, and Jiaodong
districts). Thus, further exploration in the Charters Towers
goldfield should target features common to this group of
granitoid-hosted deposits.
 CHARTERS TOWERS GOLDFIELD, NORTH QUEENSLAND, FLUID INCLUSIONS AND STABLE ISOTOPES
Conclusions
The results of limited new age dating and fluid inclusion and
N isotope analyses have been compared from the main mining
area at Charters Towers and from the Hadleigh Castle mine,
approximately 40 km to the east. The new geochronological
data from Hadleigh Castle are indistinguishable within error
from those obtained at Charters Towers, suggesting broadly
synchronous auriferous vein formation between 410 and 404
Ma within a significant segment of the Ravenswood batholith
and part of a much larger system of energy and mass flux (cf.
Wyborn et al., 1994; Hronsky, 2004). Veins of the Charters
Towers goldfield contain three different fluid inclusion types
that are distinguishable by petrography, microthermometry,
and, as previously reported by Peters and Golding (1989), by
laser Raman spectroscopy. This study is the first to report
saline type 2b inclusions in sphalerite (18.9–28.3 wt % NaCl
equiv) and quartz (20.9–24.7 wt % NaCl equiv) having been
trapped during the paragenetic stage of gold deposition. The
sphalerite fluid inclusion data suggest that mixing between
hot, saline waters and cooler, more dilute fluids may have been
the mechanism of gold deposition. Although few samples were
analyzed, estimated fluid trapping pressures in combination
with geological and structural constraints indicate vein forma-
tion at pressures ranging from 0.9 to 3.8 kbars and depths be-
tween ~3.5 and 12 km.
Most samples had very low nitrogen concentrations, but the
nitrogen isotope data may be evidence of the reaction of wall
rocks of the veins with metamorphic fluids or fluids that were
in equilibrium with metamorphic rocks. This process may
have caused sericite formation, quartz deposition, and pyrite
and arsenopyrite precipitation of the paragenetic stages I and
II. These results are considered consistent with a genetic
model in which gold is sourced from deep-seated saline fluids
that mix with cooler, more diluted fluids higher in the crust.
In this model, the local intrusions are mainly passive hosts for
the gold deposits.
Acknowledgments
This study was carried out at and funded by James Cook
University (International Postgraduate Research and School
of Earth Sciences scholarships). Funding of sample prepara-
tion and analytical work by James Cook University (DMR
Scheme) and the Society of Economic Geologists (McKinstry
Award) is greatly acknowledged. Jo Wartho (Curtin Univer-
sity) and Myles Stocki (University of Saskatchewan) are
thanked for their assistance with Ar-Ar and N isotope analy-
ses, respectively. Simon Dominy and Matthew Raine (James
Cook University) are thanked for supplying trace element
data from the B lode, Hadleigh Castle mine. Jim Morrison
and Nigel Storey (Citigold Corporation Ltd.), Ian Hodkinson,
Harry Mustard, and Stuart Hampton (SMC Gold Ltd.), and
Tony Alston (Glengarry Resources Ltd.) are thanked for their
support. Gregg Morrison (Klondike Exploration Services) is
thanked for discussions and supplying invaluable unpublished
data. Tim Baker (James Cook University), Mike Etheridge
(Macquarie University), and Stephen Peters (USGS), Eco-
nomic Geology reviewers Frank Bierlein (Monash Univer-
sity), David Cooke (University of Tasmania), and Terry Mer-
nagh (Geoscience Australia), and the editor of Economic
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1601
1601
Geology, Mark Hannington (University of Ottawa) are
thanked for having helped to significantly improve the quality
of the original manuscript.
November 13, 2003; December 2, 2005
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