1.1 Arithmethic - Form GMF R

Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual
Module 1 – Mathematics
Module 1
Mathematics
for
Basic Aircraft Maintenance
Manual No. : BCT-0011/M1 For Training Purpose Only Rev. 0: Aug 19, 2015
Airframe Powerplant Copyright by GMF Learning Services
i
Module 1 Chapters
1.1 Arithmetic
1.2 Algebra
1.3 Geometry
ii
Module 1
Mathematics
1.1 Arithmetic
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Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable
subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.
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Table of Contents
Module 1.1 Arithmetic ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 6
Fractions ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6
Types of Fractions ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 6
Working with Fractions _______________________________________________________________________________________ 7
Decimals _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 15
Working with Decimals _______________________________________________________________________________________ 15
Conversion Between Fractions and Decimals _____________________________________________________________________ 20
Convert a Decimal to a Fraction ________________________________________________________________________________ 20
Convert a Fraction to a Decimal ________________________________________________________________________________ 20
Percentages __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 24
Definition __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 24
Changing a Fraction to a Percentage ____________________________________________________________________________ 24
Changing a Percentage to a Fraction ____________________________________________________________________________ 24
Changing a Percentage to a Decimal ____________________________________________________________________________ 25
Changing a Decimal to a Percentage ____________________________________________________________________________ 25
Values of a Percentage of a Quantity ____________________________________________________________________________ 25
Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage of Another _______________________________________________________________ 26
Rounding, Significant Figures, and Decimal Places ________________________________________________________________ 26
Rounding __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 30
Significant Figures ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 30
Decimal Places ______________________________________________________________________________________________ 32
Mean, Median, Mode and Range ________________________________________________________________________________ 35
Definitions _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 35
Calculating Mean ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 35
Calculating Median __________________________________________________________________________________________ 36
Calculating Mode ____________________________________________________________________________________________ 36
Calculating Range ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 37
Angles _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 40
Definitions and Conversions ___________________________________________________________________________________ 40
Degrees and Radians: Measuring Angles _________________________________________________________________________ 41
Acute Angles _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 41
Obtuse Angles ______________________________________________________________________________________________ 42
Reflex angles _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 42
Right Angles ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 42
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Complementary Angles _______________________________________________________________________________________ 42

Supplementary Angles _______________________________________________________________________________________ 43
Perpendicular Lines __________________________________________________________________________________________ 44
Triangles ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 47
Properties of shapes __________________________________________________________________________________________ 47
Definitions _________________________________________________________________________________________________ 47
Areas and Volume of Common Shapes ___________________________________________________________________________ 50
Rectangle __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 50
Square _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 50
Triangle ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 50
Parallelogram _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 51
Rhombus __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 51
Trapezium __________________________________________________________________________________________________ 52
Kite _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 52
Circle ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 52
Other Regular Polygons _______________________________________________________________________________________ 53
Summary of Quadrilaterals ____________________________________________________________________________________ 55
Surface Area and Volume of Common Solids ______________________________________________________________________ 57
Introduction ________________________________________________________________________________________________ 57
Common Solids _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 57
Common Conversions _________________________________________________________________________________________ 64
Length ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 64
Area _______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 64
Volume ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 64
Mass ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 65
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Module 1.1 Enabling Objectives
Objective Reference Level
Arithmetic 1.1 2
Arithmetical terms and signs, methods of
multiplication and division, fractions and decimals,
factors and multiples, weights, measures and
conversion factors, ratio and proportion, averages and
percentages, areas and volumes, squares, cubes,
square and cube roots.
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Module 1.1 Arithmetic
Fractions
Types of Fractions
1. Proper Fractions. Proper fractions may be defined as fractions less than 1. For example:
1 1 2 11
, , , etc
2 3 5 17
2. Improper Fractions. These are fractions which are greater than 1. For example:
7 5 17 8
, , , etc
3 3 11 5
3. Mixed Numbers. These include whole numbers and vulgar fractions. For example:
1 3 4 6
1 ,2 ,6 , 27 etc
2 5 11 7
4. For all fractions, the number above the bar is called the numerator and the number below the bar is called the denominator.
30 1
5. Simplest Form. The simplest form of is 2. Fractions can be expressed in simplest form by dividing numerator and denominator by
60
equal numbers until they will not divide further. For example:
8 2
= in simplest form (after dividing numerator and denominator by 4).
12 3
6
Working with Fractions
6. Cancelling. The process of dividing numerator and denominator by equal values is called cancelling. For example:
27 9 3 1
= = =
81 27 9 3
7. Converting. To convert mixed numbers to improper fractions, multiply the whole number by the denominator and add to the
numerator. For example:
3 13
2 =
5 5
To convert improper fractions to mixed numbers, divide the numerator by the denominator to give a whole number - the remainder
gives a new numerator. For example:
25 1
=6
4 4
8. Cancelling. Cancelling improper fractions involves exactly the same process as cancelling vulgar fractions. For example:
28 7 45 15 1
= =7 and = =7
4 1 6 2 2
9. Multiplication
(a) Express all mixed numbers as improper fractions
(b) Cancel vertically if possible
(c) Cancel across the multiplication sign if possible
(d) Multiply numerators together, multiply denominators together
(e) If the result is an improper fraction, convert to a mixed number
(f) Check that your answer is in the simplest form
7
Examples:
2 2 4 8
(1) x4= x =
9 9 1 9
4 1 5 3 1
(2) 1 5 x 2 3 x = =2 = 12
14
10. Division
(a) Convert all mixed numbers to improper fractions
(b) Invert the fraction you are dividing by
(c) Proceed as for multiplication.
Examples:
3 5 3 12 7
(1) ÷ 17 = ÷ = = 16
4 4 7
3 3 1 3
(2) ÷7= x =
4 4 7 28
3 5 6 1
(3) ÷ = =5 = 15
8 16
11. Mixed Multiplication and Division

(a) Invert all the fractions preceded by a division sign
(b) Treat the calculations as multiplication only.
Example:
8
𝟑 𝟏 𝟓 𝟕 𝟗 𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟒 ÷ 𝟒𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟒 ÷ 𝐱
𝟐 𝟕
𝟕 𝟐 𝟏𝟐
You only turn upside down the fraction you are dividing by, i.e.
=𝟒 𝐱 𝐱
𝟗 𝟕 the fraction after the division sign.
𝟐
= =𝟑
12. Addition
(a) Express all fractions as mixed numbers in lowest terms
(b) Add the whole numbers together
(c) To add the vulgar fractions, you must convert each fraction so that their denominators are all the same. This isdone by finding the
lowest common multiple (LCM) of the denominators.
Examples:
1 1 3 6+5+9 20 2
(1) + + = = =
5 6 10 30 30 3
9 5 3 1 5 3
(2) + + 18 =24 + + 18
4 12 12
1 5 3
=3+ + +
4 12 8
6+10+9 25
=3+ =3+
24 24
1 1
= 3 + 1 24 = 4 24
Note: If your addition of fractions results in an improper fraction, you must convert this to a mixed number as shown in example (2).
9
13. Subtraction
The same basic procedure should be used for subtraction as for addition.
Examples:
𝟖 𝟐 𝟖−𝟔 𝟐
(1) − = =
𝟗 𝟑 𝟗 𝟗
𝟖 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒
(2) − 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟐𝟑 − 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟏 + −
𝟑 𝟑 𝟕
𝟏𝟒−𝟏𝟐 𝟐
=𝟏+ = 𝟏 𝟐𝟏
𝟐𝟏
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
(3) 𝟒 𝟑 − 𝟏 𝟒 = 𝟑 + −
𝟑 𝟒
𝟒−𝟗
=𝟑+ As numerator (4 – 9) give a negative value, one whole unit has to
𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟐+𝟒−𝟗 be converted to before the subtraction of fractions is
=𝟐+ 𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟐
𝟏𝟔−𝟗 carriedout.
=𝟐+ 𝟏𝟐
𝟕
=𝟐
𝟏𝟐
14. Mixed addition and subtraction can be carried out exactly as above.
Examples:
𝟏 𝟕 𝟑 𝟔−𝟕+𝟗 𝟖
(1) 𝟒 𝟐 − 𝟓 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟑 𝟒 = 𝟐 + =𝟐+
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐
𝟐
= 𝟐𝟑
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑−𝟏𝟖+𝟖
(2) 𝟐 − 𝟏 + 𝟒 =𝟓+
𝟖 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐𝟒
𝟐𝟒+𝟑−𝟏𝟖+𝟖 𝟏𝟕
=𝟒+ 𝟐𝟒
= 𝟒 𝟐𝟒
10
15. Remember that your final step in any calculation must be to simplify (cancel fractions).
Example:
𝟑 𝟗 𝟑 𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟖−𝟏𝟓
𝟑 𝟓 + 𝟏 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟐 𝟒 = 𝟐 + 𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟓 𝟑
= 𝟐 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟐 𝟒
11
Worksheet
1. Convert the following mixed numbers to improper fractions:

6 4 3 21 1
(a) 2 7 (b) 3 9 (c) 21 5 (d) 5 25 (e) 2 7
2. Convert the following improper fractions to mixed numbers:
11 21 53 210 99
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
3 5 7 4 8
3. Multiply and simplify the following:

6 14 2 1 2 2 3 10
(a) 𝑥 (b) 𝑥 22 𝑥 15 (c) 1 5 𝑥 𝑥
7 15 3 8 21
2. Divide and simplify the following:

3 9 2 1 1 1
(a) ÷ (b) 3 3 ÷ 3 7 (c) 9 3 ÷ 3 9
10 25
3. Evaluate the following:

7 5 3 2 1 1 1
(a) 𝑥 𝑥 (b) 3 3 ÷ 3 7 (c) 9 3 ÷ 3 9
10 6 14
4. Add the following fractions and mixed numbers:

2 3 3 1 2 2 3 4
(a) + (b) + + (c) + +
3 7 4 2 3 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 7
(d) + + + + (e) 3 8 +
2 3 4 5 6 16
7. Subtract the following:

1 3 3 2 2 1
(a) 1 2 − (b) 1 4 − 2 5 (c) 1 5 − 2 7
5
4 2 4 2
(d) − (e) 7 − 8
11 7 9 3
8. Evaluate the following:

1 2 5
2 5 4 1 1 5 1 + −
(a) 2 3 + 3 8 − 1 9 (b) 1 2 − 2 3 + (c) 3 7 6
3 3
42 𝑥
4 7
12
1 1 4
1 𝑥2 − 1 3 7 1 1 1 1
(d) 5 3 5
1 5 (e) ( + 1 ) ÷ (1 − ) (f) 3 ÷ (1 + 2 )
2 + 4 5 8 2 3 2 2
2 6
5 3 1
2 7 1 2 − +
(g) (2 7 𝑥 ) + (3 2 ÷ 4 3) (h) 16 4 3
2 1 1
24 + −
3 4 6
1 2 3 1
(3 + )(1 −1 )
2 3 5 3
(i) 3 1
+
7 3
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Answer
20 31 108 146 15
1. a) b) c) d) e)
7 9 5 25 7
2 1 4 1 3
2. a) 3 3 b) 4 5 c) 77 d) 52 2 e) 12 8
4 1
3. a) b) 2 c)
5 4
4 1
4. a) b) 1 6 c) 3
5
1
5. a) b) 12 c) 2
8
2 11 13 9 9
6. a) 1 21 b) 1 12 c) 2 60 d) 1 20 e) 3 16
9 13 26 6 2
7. a) b) − 20 c) − 35 d) e) −1 9
10 77
61 5 4 3 19
8. a) 4 72 b) − 7 c) 29 d) e) 1 55
5
5 5 5 11
f) g) 1 9 h) − 36 i) 1 24
6
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Decimals
Working with Decimals
1. Decimals are a very important and particular set of fractions. They are fractions whose denominators are powers of 10, i.e. 10, 100, 1000,
10000 etc (do not be concerned about the meaning of 'powers of 10', you will deal with this later in the course). Decimals are not
written in the usual fraction form, but in shorthand using a decimal point.
Examples:
1 1 1
a) = 0.1 b) = 0.01 c) = 0.001
10 100 1000
7 7
d) 5 10 = 5.7 e) 63 100 = 63.07
2. If you have difficulty in relating decimals to fractions, the following table may help.
THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS UNITS TENTHS HUNDREDTHS THOUSANDTHS
𝟏 1 1
1000 100 10 1
𝟏𝟎 100 1000
5 3 4 6 7 9 2
The number in the table is 5346.792; it consists of 5 thousands, 3 hundreds, 4 tens, 6 units, 7 tenths, 9 hundredths and 2 thousandths.
3. The number of digits after the decimal point is called decimal places.
15
Examples:
a) 27.6 has one decimal place
b) 27.16 has two decimal places
c) 27.026 has three decimal places
d) 101.2032 has four decimal places
4. In addition of decimals, particular care must be taken to ensure that decimal points are in line.
Example: Evaluate 27.3 + 0.021 + 68.3 27.3

0.021
+ 68.3
95.621
5. Similarly, in subtraction, ensure that decimal points are in line.
Example: Evaluate 27.3 - 4.36 27.3 27.3 can also

- 4.36
22.94
written as 27.30.
6. When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal point until the final answer is obtained, then count the number of decimal places in
both the numbers being multiplied. This is the number of decimal places in the answer.
Example: Evaluate 27.3 x 9.31 Note: Total of 3 decimal places.
16
273
931
245700
8190
273 Answer = 254.163 (3 dpl.)
254163
Note: It does not matter which you multiply first (i.e. the 9, the 3 or the 1) providing ‘00’ is placed before the answer when multiplying
out the 100’s (in this case the 9) and ‘0’ is placed before the answer when multiplying out the 10’s (in this case the 3) So the above
calculation could have looked like this:
273
931
273
8190
245700
254 163
The answer is the same
5. In division, it is easier to divide by a whole number than by a decimal. To make the divisor (the number you are dividing by) into a
whole number, move the decimal point a specific number of places to the right. You must then also move the decimal point in the
dividend (the number you are dividing into) to the right by the same number of decimal places.
Example: Evaluate 24.024 ÷ 4.62
We have moved the decimal

2402.4 ÷ 462
point 2 places in both the
5.2
divisor and the dividend, but
= 462)2402.4
the answer is unaltered.
2310
924
924
24.024 24
An approximate answer could be calculated as follows: ≃ ≃5
4.62 5
17
Worksheet
1. Calculate the sum of the following:
a) 0.251 + 10.298 b) 18.098 + 210.099 c) 0.025 + 10.995
2. Evaluate:
a) 21.76 - 18.51 b) 32.76 - 20.086 c) 10.75 – 19.999
3. Find the product of:
a) 5.05 x 13.8 b) 1.27 x 0.871 c) -1.01 x 0.89
4. Calculate:
a) 42.39 ÷ 0.09 b) 3.375 ÷ 1.5 c) 0.002 ÷ 0.8
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Answers
1. a) 10.549 b) 228.197 c) 11.02
2. a) 3.25 b) 12.674 c) -9.249
3. a) 69.69 b) 1.10617 c) -0.8989
4. a) 471 b) 2.25 c) 0.0025
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Conversion Between Fractions and Decimals
Convert a Decimal to a Fraction
Write the number over the appropriate power of 10 and, if possible, cancel to lowest terms.
Examples:
8 4
a) 0.8 = 10 = 5
25 1
b) 6.25 = 6 + 100 = 6 4
37
c) 0.037 = 1000
Convert a Fraction to a Decimal
Divide the numerator by the denominator.
Examples:
4
a) = 0.80
5
3
b) = 0.375
8
20
5
c) = 0.8333 the 3 will re-occur for ever
6
Here, we cut off the result to the number of decimal places required.
5
Thus 6 = 0.83 correct to 2 decimal places
5
or = 0.8333 correct to 4 decimal places
6
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Worksheet
1. Convert the following decimals to proper fractions in their simplest form:
a) 0.73 b) 0.02 c) 0.004
2. Convert the following proper fractions to decimals to 2 decimal places:
5 13 3
a) b) c)
8 15 200
3. Place in ascending order of magnitude:
1 3 2 7
a) , 0.167 and 20 b) , 0.44 and 16
6 4
22
Answers
73 1 1
1. a) b) c)
100 50 250
2. a) 0.63 0.87 0.02

3 1 2 7
3. a) , and 0.167 b) , and 0.44
20 6 5 16
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Percentages
Definition.
A percentage is a fraction whose denominator is 100.
3
Example: 3% means 100
Changing a Fraction to a Percentage
To change a fraction to a percentage, multiply by 100%.
𝟑 3
Example: as a percentage = 5 x 100% = 60%
𝟓
Changing a Percentage to a Fraction
To change a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100%.
8% 8 2
Examples: a) 8% as a fraction = 100% = =
100 25
1
12 % 25 1 25 1
b) 12 ½ % as a fraction = 100% = 2
x = =
2 100 200 8
24
Changing a Percentage to a Decimal

To convert a percentage to a decimal, firstly, convert the percentage to a fraction, then convert the fraction to a decimal.
65
Examples: a) 65% as a fraction = 100, as a decimal = 0.65
1
32
2
b) 32 ½ % as a fraction = 100, as a decimal = 0.325
Changing a Decimal to a Percentage
To convert a decimal to a percentage, firstly, convert the decimal to a fraction, then convert the fraction to a percentage.
Examples:
21 2.1
a) 0.021 as a fraction = 1000 , = , as a percentage = 2.1%
100
37 3.7
b) 0.037 as a fraction = 1000, = 100, as a percentage = 3.7%
Values of a Percentage of a Quantity
To find the value of a percentage of a quantity, express the percentage as a fraction and multiply by the quantity.
Examples:
12 2
a) 4% of 60 = = = 25
5
25
1
3 105
b) 3½ % of 1500 = 100 x 1500 =
2
= 2
= 52 ½
Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage of Another
To express one quantity as a percentage of another, make a fraction of the 2 quantities and multiply by 100.
Examples:
12
a) 12 as a percentage of 50 = 50 x 100 = 24%
4
b) 4 as a percentage of 60 = 60 x 100 = 6.67%
26
Worksheet
1. Calculate:
a) 4% of 30 b) 0.8% of 360 c) 1.5% of 60
d) 120% of 75 e) 80% of 90
2. Express:
a) 30 as a percentage of 50
b) 24 as a percentage of 16
c) 0.5 as a percentage of 12.5
d) 3.2 as a percentage of 2.4
e) 0.08 as a percentage of 0.72
3. Express as a proper fraction:
a) 0.6 b) 0.35 c) 0.48 d) 0.05
e) 0.325 f) 25% g) 13% h) 4.5%
i) 161/3%
27
4. Express as a percentage:
2
a) 0.43 b) 0.025 c) 1.25 d) 3
3 1 3
e) f) g)
7 12 8
28
Answers
1
1. a) 1 5 or 1.2 b) 2.88 c) 0.9 d) 90 e) 72
1 1
2. a) 60% b) 150% c) 4% d) 1333% e) 119%
3 7 12 1 13
3. a) b) c) d) e)
5 20 25 20 40
1 13 9 49
f) g) h) i)
4 100 200 300
2 6
4. a) 43% b) 2.5% c) 125% d) 663% e) 427%
1 1
f) 8 3% g) 373%
29
Rounding, Significant Figures, and Decimal Places
Rounding
Rounding is the process of reducing the number of significant digits in a number. The result of rounding is a "shorter" number having fewer
non-zero digits yet similar in magnitude. The result is less precise but easier to use.
For example: 73 rounded to the nearest ten is 70, because 73 is closer to 70 than to 80. Methods of Rounding
Common Method: This method is commonly used in mathematical applications, for example in accounting. It is the one generally taught in
elementary mathematics classes. This method is also known as Symmetric Arithmetic Rounding or Round-Half-Up (Symmetric
Implementation)
 Decide which is the last digit to keep.

 Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 5 or more (this is called rounding up)
 Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less (this is called rounding down)
Examples:
 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (because the next digit, 4, is less than 5).
 rounded to hundredths is 3.05 (because the next digit, 5, is 5 or more).
 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (because the next digit, 4, is less than 5).
For negative numbers the absolute value is rounded.
Examples:
 -2.1349 rounded to hundredths is -2.13
 -2.1350 rounded to hundredths is -2.14
30
Round to Even Method:This method is also known as unbiased rounding, convergent rounding, statistician's roundingor bankers'
rounding.It is identical to the common method of rounding except when the digit(s) following the rounding digit start with a five and have
no nonzero digits after it. The new algorithm is:
 Decide which is the last digit to keep.

 Increase it by 1 if the next digit is 6 or more, or a 5 followed by one or more non-zero digits.
 Leave it the same if the next digit is 4 or less
 Otherwise, all that follows the last digit is a 5 and possibly trailing zeroes; then change the last digit to the nearest evendigit. That is,
increase the rounded digit if it is currently odd; leave it if it is already even.
With all rounding schemes there are two possible outcomes: increasing the rounding digit by one or leaving it alone. With traditional
rounding, if the number has a value less than the halfway mark between the possible outcomes, it is rounded down; if the number has a
value exactly half-way or greater than half-way between the possible outcomes, it is rounded up. The round-to-even method is the same
except that numbers exactly half-way between the possible outcomes are sometimes rounded up - sometimes down.Although it is
customary to round the number 4.5 up to 5, in fact 4.5 is no nearer to 5 than it is to 4 (it is 0.5 away from both).
When dealing with large sets of scientific or statistical data, where trends are important, traditional rounding on average biases the data
upwards slightly. Over a large set of data, or when many subsequent rounding operations are performed as in digital signal processing, the
round-to-even rule tends to reduce the total rounding error, with (on average) an equal portion of numbers rounding up as rounding down.
This generally reduces the upwards skewing of the result.
Round-to-even is used rather than round-to-odd as the latter rule would prevent rounding to a result of zero.
Examples:
 3.016 rounded tohundredths is3.02(because thenext digit (6) is 6 or more)
 3.013 rounded tohundredths is3.01(because thenext digit (3) is 4 or less)
 3.015 rounded tohundredths is3.02 (because thenext digit is 5, and the hundredthsdigit (1) is odd)
 3.045 rounded to hundredths is 3.04 (because the next digit is 5, and the hundredths digit (4) is even)
31
 3.04501 roundedto hundredthsis 3.05 (because the next digit is 5, but it is followedbynon-zero digits)
Significant Figures
Rounding to n significant figures is a form of rounding. Significant figures (also called significant digits) can also refer to a crude form of error
representation based around significant figure rounding.
Rounding to n significant figures is a more general-purpose technique than rounding to n decimal places, since it handles numbers of
different scales in a uniform way.
Rules of Significant Figures
 All non-zero digits are significant. Example: '123.45' has five significant figures: 1,2,3,4 and 5.
 Zeros appearing in between two non-zero digits are significant. Example: '101.12' has five significant figures: 1,0,1,1,2.
 All zeros appearing to the right of an understood decimal point or non-zeros appearing to the right of a decimal after the decimal
point are significant. Example: '12.2300' has six significant figures: 1,2,2,3,0 and 0. The number '0.00122300' still only has six
significant figures (the zeros before the T are not significant). In addition, '12.00' has four significant figures.
 All zeros appearing in a number without a decimal point and to the right of the last nonzero digit are not significant unless indicated
by a bar. Example: '1300' has two significant figures: 1 and 3. The zeros are not considered significant because they don't have a bar.
However, 1300.0 has five significant figures.
However, this last convention is not universally used; it is often necessary to determine from context whether trailing zeros in a number
without a decimal point are intended to be significant. Digits may be important without being ’significant' in this usage. For instance, the
zeros in '1300' or '0.005' are not considered significant digits, but are still important as placeholders that establish the number's magnitude.
A number with all zero digits (e.g. ’0.000') has no significant digits, because the uncertainty is larger than the actual measurement.
32
Examples:
Rounding to 2 significant figures:
 12,300 becomes 12,000
 13 stays as 13
 0.00123 becomes 0.0012
 0.1 becomes 0.10 (the trailing zero indicates that we are rounding to 2 significant figures).
 0.02084 becomes 0.021
 0.0125 becomes 0.012 in unbiased rounding, while it is 0.013 in biased.
One issue with rounding to n significant figures is that the value of n is not always clear. This occurs when the last significant figure is a zero
to the left of the decimal point. For example, in the final example above, when 19 800 is rounded to 20 000, it is not clear from the rounded
value what n was used - n could be anything from 1 to 5. The level of rounding can be specified explicitly. The abbreviation s.f. is sometimes
used, for example "20,000 to 2 s.f."
Scientific notation could be used to reduce the ambiguity, as in (2.0 x 104). As always, the best approach is to state the uncertainty
separately and explicitly, as in 20,000 ± 1%, so that significant-figures rules do not apply.
A less common method of presenting ambiguous significant figures is underlining the last significant figure of a number, for example
"20000"
Decimal Places
The precision of a value describes the number of digits that are used to express that value. In a scientific setting this would be the total
number of digits (sometimes called the significant digits) or, less commonly, the number of fractional digits or places (the number of digits
following the point). This second definition is useful in financial and engineering applications where the number of digits in the fractional
part has particular importance.
33
In both cases, the term precision can be used to describe the position at which an inexact result will be rounded. For example, in floating-
point arithmetic, a result is rounded to a given or fixed precision, which is the length of the resulting significand. In financial calculations, a
number is often rounded to a given number of places (for example, to two places after the point for many world currencies).
As an illustration, the decimal quantity 12.345 can be expressed with various numbers of significant digits or decimal places. If insufficient
precision is available then the number is rounded in some manner to fit the available precision. The following table shows the results for
various total precisions and decimal places, with the results rounded to nearest where ties round up or to an even digit (the most common
rounding modes).
Note that it is often not appropriate to display a figure with more digits than that which can be measured. For instance, if a device measures
to the nearest gram and gives a reading of 12.345 kg, it would create false precision if you were to express this measurement as 12.34500 kg.
Rounded to ‘n’ Rounded to ‘n’

n
significant digits decimal places
Five 12.345 12.34500
Four 12.35 12.3450
Three 12.3 12.345
Two 12 12.35
One 1 X 101 12.4
Zero n/a 12
34
Mean, Median, Mode and Range
Definitions
The Mean, Median and Mode of a set of numbers are three types of “average” of the set. However, the “Mean" is the term most commonly
taken as the average.
Mean: The sum of a set of data divided by thenumber of data
Median: The middle value or the mean of themiddle two values, when the data is arranged in
numerical order.
Mode: The value (number) that appears the most.It is possible to have more than one
mode, and it is possible to have no mode.
Calculating Mean
To find the mean, you need to add up all the data, and then divide this total by the number of values in the data.
Example 1: Find the Mean of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8
Adding the numbers up gives: 2 + 2 + 3 + 5 + 5 + 7 + 8 = 32
There are 7 values, so you divide the total by 7: 32 : 7 = 4.57...
So the mean is 4.57 (2 d.p.)
Example 2: Find the Mean of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7
Adding the numbers up gives: 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 6 + 7 = 25
There are 6 values, so you divide the total by 6: 25 : 6 = 4.33...
So the mean is 4.33 (2 d.p.)
35
Calculating Median
To find the median, you need to put the values in order, then find the middle value. If there are two values in the middle then you find the
mean of these two values.
Example 1: Find the median of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8
The numbers in order: 2 , 2 , 3 , (5), 5 , 7 , 8
The middle value is marked in brackets, and it is 5.
So the median is 5
Example 2: Find the median of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7
The numbers in order: 2 , 3 , (3 , 4), 6 , 7
This time there are two values in the middle. They have been put in brackets. The median is found by calculating the mean of these two
values: (3 + 4) + 2 = 3.5
So the median is 3.5
Calculating Mode
The mode is the value which appears the most often in the data. It is possible to have more than one mode if there is more than one value
which appears the most.
Example 1: Find the mode of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7 , 8
The data values: 2,2,3,5,5,7,8
The values which appear most often are 2 and 5. They both appear more time than any of the other data values.
So the modes are 2 and 5
Example 2: Find the mode of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7
The data values: 2 , 3 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7
This time there is only one value which appears most often - the number 3. It appears more times than any of the other data values.
So the mode is 3
36
Calculating Range
To find the range, you first need to find the lowest and highest values in the data. The range is found by subtracting the lowest value from
the highest value.
Example 1: Find the range of 2, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8
The data values: 2 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 5 , 7 , 8
The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is 8. Subtracting the lowest from the highest gives:
8-2 =6
So the range is 6
Example2: Find the range of 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7 The data values: 2 , 3 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7
The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is 7. Subtracting the lowest from the highest gives:
7 -2 = 5, So the range is 5
37
Worksheet
1. A data set contains these 12 values: 3, 5,9,4,5,11,10,5,7,7,8, 10

(a) What is the mean?
(b) What is the median?
(c) What is the mode?
(d) What is the range?
2. Calculate the mean, median, mode and range for each set of data below:
(a) 3, 6, 3, 7, 4, 3, 9
(b) 11, 10, 12, 12, 9, 10, 14, 12, 9
(c) 2, 9, 7, 3, 5, 5, 6, 5, 4, 9
38
Answers
1. (a) 7 (b) 7 (c) 5 (d) 8

2. (a) Mean = 5
Median = 4
Mode = 3
Range = 6
(b) Mean = 11
Median = 11
Mode = 12
Range = 5
(c) Mean = 5.5
Median = 5
Mode = 5
Range = 7
39
Angles
Definitions and Conversions

We can specify an angle by using a point on each ray and the vertex. The angle below may be specified as angle ABC or as angle CBA; you
may also see this written as ∠ ABC or as ∠ CBA. Note how the vertex point is always given in the middle.
Example:
Many different names exist for the same angle. For the angle below, ∠ PBC, ∠ PBW, ∠ CBP, and ∠ WBA are all names for the same angle.
40
Degrees and Radians: Measuring Angles

We measure the size of an angle using degrees. We can also use radians to measure angles.
There are 2π radians in 360°

The radius of a circle fits around the circumference 6.28 (or 2π) times. 1 radian = 57.3 degrees.
n°
To convert from degrees to radians, use 360 x 2π where nº is the number of degrees.
Note: Degrees can be further subdivided into minutes and seconds.

60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 degree
Acute Angles
An acute angle is an angle measuring between 0 and 90 degrees.
Example:
The following angles are all acute angles.
41
Obtuse Angles
An obtuse angle is an angle measuring between 90 and 180 degrees.
Example:
The following angles are all obtuse.
Reflex angles
A reflex angle is an angle measuring between 180 and 360 degrees
Right Angles
A right angle is an angle measuring 90 degrees. Two lines or line segments that meet at a right angle are said to be perpendicular. Note that
any two right angles are supplementary angles (a right angle is its own angle supplement).
Complementary Angles
Two angles are called complementary angles if the sum of their degree measurements equals 90 degrees. One of the complementary
angles is said to be the complement of the other.
42
Example:
These two angles are complementary.
Note that these two angles can be "pasted" together to form a right angle!
Supplementary Angles
Two angles are called supplementary angles if the sum of their degree measurements equals 180 degrees. One of the supplementary angles
is said to be the supplement of the other.
43
Example:
These two angles are supplementary.
Note that these two angles can be "pasted" together to form a straight line!
Perpendicular Lines
Two lines that meet at a right angle are perpendicular. They are also said to be “normal" to each other.
44
Worksheet
1. Convert the following angles to radians
a) b) c)
d) e) f)
45
Answers
1. a) ¼π radians b) ¼π radians c) ½π radians
23
d) π radians e) 2/5π radians f) 2/3π radians
180
46
Triangles
Properties of shapes.
The 3 properties of shapes that we are going to look at are:
1. The number of sides
2. The interior angles (the angles inside).
3. The length of the sides.
These properties help use to remember which shapes are which and why they are so called (in some cases).
Let's start with a shape that has 3 sides: TRIANGLES (tri- means 3).
Triangles ALWAYS have 3 sides.
The interior angles of a triangle add up to 180 degrees.
Definitions
Here are the triangles you are expected to know about:
1. Equilateral Triangle
2. Isosceles Triangle
3. Right-Angled Triangle
4. Scalene Triangle
1. Congruent and Similar Triangles

Congruent and Similar are two words usually applied to triangles but can equally be applied to other shapes.Congruent triangles are two
triangles which have equal angles and are the same size (i.e. identical in every way) but may be oriented differently.
Similar triangles are two triangles which have the same angles but are of different size.
47
2. Equilateral Triangle
An equilateral triangle has got 3 sides of equal length and 3 angles that are equal.
Since ALL the angles in a triangle add up to 180° then 180 divided by 3 must be 60°.
The clue is in the name EQUILateral.
3. Isosceles Triangle
An Isosceles triangle has got two sides of equal length and 2 angles equal.
What is the value of the angle at the top of this Isosceles triangle?
The answer is 80°. All angles in a triangle add up to 180° so 180 - (50 + 50) = 80°
So an isosceles triangle has only got two sides of equal length and two angles the same.
48
4. Right- Angled Triangle

The right angled triangle contains a right angle (an angle of 90°)
The Shows a right angle

In a right angled triangle what must the other two angles add up to 90° because all the angles in a triangle add up to 180° and a Right
Angled Triangle has got one angle of 90°.
5. Scalene Triangle
A scalene triangle is the easiest of them all. The scalene triangle has got NO sides of equal length and NO angles the same.
49
Areas and Volume of Common Shapes

Rectangle
The area Aof any rectangle is equal to the product of the length I and the width w.
Formula: A = Iw
Square
The area Aof any square is equal to the square of the length s of a side.
Formula: A=s2
Triangle
The area Aof any triangle is equal to one-half the product of any base band corresponding height h.
Formula: A = ½ bh
50
Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a 4 sided shape with the 2 opposing sides parallel to each other.
The area Aof any parallelogram is equal to the product of any base band the corresponding height h.
Formula: A = b h
Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram with all 4 sides equal length. The diagonals bisect the interior angles equally and the diagonals intersect each
other at right angles.
The area Aof any rhombus is equal to one-half the product of the lengths d1and d2of its diagonals.
Formula: A =½ d1 d2
Formula: A = b h as in the parallelogram
51
Trapezium
A trapezium has only 2 sides parallel. (UK definition)
The area A of any trapezium is equal to one-half the product of the height h and the sum of the bases, b1 and b2.
Formula: A = ½ h (b1 + b2)
Kite
A Kite shape has no sides parallel. The area can be found by
Formula: A =½ d1 d2
Circle
The area A of any circle is equal to the product of nand the square of the radius r.
Formula: A = πr2
52
Sector Area Theorem

The area Aof any sector with an arc that has degree measure n and with radius ris equal to the product of the arc's measure divided by 360
multiplied by ntimes the square of the radius.
Formula: A = ( n / 360 )( π r2 )
Other Regular Polygons

Regular polygonsare any polygons that are equilateral and equiangular.
The area A of any regular polygon with perimeter P and apothem of measure a is equal to one-half the product of the perimeter and the
apothem.
This formula can be derived if you make 5 triangles inside the shape. The area of each triangle is ½Sa (1/2 base x height).
The total area is therefore 5 x ½Sa (in the case of the pentagon shown - the 5 only represent the number of sides). But 5 x S is the total
perimeter of the shape, so:
Formula: A = ½ aP
Regular Pentagon
(shape could be any regular shape)
53
P = 5Ss S could be anything, depending on no. of sides

The angle shown 0 is one equal portion of 360 degrees. In the case of the pentagon, it is 360/5 = 72°. Hence the internal angle of any
polygon can be found by calculating the supplement of the external angle.
54
Summary of Quadrilaterals
SQUARE
4 Sides equal
4 right angle
Diagonals bisect each other at right angles
Diagonals are equal
RECTANGLE
2 pairs of opposite sides equal and parallel
4 right angles
Diagonals are equal and bisect each other
RHOMBUS
4 sides equal , opposite sides parallel
Diagonals bisect each other but are not of equal length
PARALLELOGRAM
2 pairs opposite sides equal and parallel
Diagonals bisect each other but are not of equal length
TRAPEZIUM / TRAPEZOID
or 1 pair opposite sides parallel
55
KITE
2 pairs of adjacent sides equal
Longer diagonal bisects shorter at right angle
56
Surface Area and Volume of Common Solids

Introduction
There are special formulas that deal with solids, but they only deal with right prisms.Right prismsare prisms that have two special
characteristics - all lateral edges are perpendicular to the bases, and lateral faces are rectangular. The figure below depicts a right prism.
Common Solids
1. Right Prism Area

The lateral area L (area of the vertical sides only) of any right prism is equal to the perimeter of the base times the height of the prism (L = Ph).
The total area T of any right prism is equal to two times the area of the base plus the lateral area.
Formula: T = 2B + Ph
B = Iw
P = 2I + 2w
(The base's formula could change depending on the base's shape.)

(The perimeter's formula could change depending on the base's shape.)
57
2. Right Prism Volume

The volume V of any right prism is the product of B, the area of the base, and the height h of the prism.
Formula: V =Bh
B = Iw
(The base's formula could change depending on the base's shape.)
3. Pyramid Volume
A pyramid is a polyhedron with a single base and lateral faces that are all triangular. All lateral edges of a pyramid meet at a single point, or
vertex.
The volume V of any pyramid with height h and a base with area B is equal to one-third the product of the height and the area of the base.
This applies even if the prism is not a ‘right- prism’ i.e. the axis is not perpendicular to the base. The height however, is still measured
perpendicular to the base as shown below.
Formula: V= 𝟏⁄𝟑Bh
58
B – wI
(The base's formula could change depending on the base's shape
A regular pyramid is a pyramid that has a base that is a regular polygon and with lateral faces that are all congruent isosceles triangles.
4. Cylinder Volume
The volume Vof any cylinder with radius rand height h is equal to the product of the area of a base and the height.
Formula: V = πr2h
59
5. Cylinder Surface Area

For any right circular cylinder with radius rand height h, the total surface area Tis two times the area of the base (2πr2) plus the curved
surface area (2πrh).
Formula: T = 2π r h + 2 π r 2
6. Cone Volume
The volume Vof any cone with radius r and height his equal to one-third the product of the height and the area of the base.
Formula: V= 𝟏⁄𝟑πr2h
60
7. Cone Surface Area

The total surface area 7 of a cone with radius r and slant height l is equal to the area of the base ( πr2 ) plus π times the product of the radius
and the slant height.
Formula: T= πrl + π r 2
8. Sphere Volume and Surface Area

The volume V for any sphere with radius r is equal to four-thirds times the product of πand thecube of the radius. The area A of any sphere
with radius r is equal to 4π times the square of the radius.
Volume Formula: V = 𝟒⁄𝟑πr3
Surface Area Formula:A = 4 πr2
61
Worksheet
1. A grave is dug 2m x 1m x 1m deep. The earth removed is piled into a pyramid of circular base 2 m diameter. Find the height of the
pyramid (in terms ofπ).
Give the answer in m, cm and mm
2. A right prism has ends 10 cm x 10 cm and is 50 cm long. It is drilled lengthwise with an 8 cm drill through its full length. Find
a) the remaining volume of the prism material. Give the answer in terms of πand in mm3
b) the surface area of the inside of the hole. Give the answer in terms of π and in mm2
3. Find the surface area of a right cone with base radius 3 inches and perpendicular height of 4 inches. Leave the answer in terms of n and
include the base area.
4. Find the ratio of the ‘surface area to volume’ of spheres of the following diameters:
a) 2m
b) 4 m
c) 8m
62
Answers
1. 6/πm, 600/πcm, 6000/π mm
2. a) (5x106) - π(8 x 105 ) mm3
b) 4007t cm2, 40,0007t mm2
3. 24π in2
4. a) 3:1
b) 1½:1
c) ¾: 1
63
Common Conversions
Length
metric > imperial imperial > metric
1 millimetre [mm] 0.0394 in 1 inch [in] 2.54 cm
1 centimetre [cm] 10 mm 0.3937 in 1 foot [ft] 12 in 0.3048 m
1 metre [m] 100 cm 1.0936 yd 1 yard [yd] 3ft 0.9144 m
1 kilometre [km] 1000 m 0.6214 mile 1 mile 1760 yd 1.6093 km
1 nautical mile 1.15 mile 1.852 km
Area
imperial > metric metric > Imperial
1 sq inch [in2] 6.4516 cm2 1 sq cm [cm2] 100 mm2 0.1550 in2
1 sq foot [ft2] 144 in2 0.0929 m2 1 sq m [m2] 10,000 cm2 1.1960 yd2
1 sqyd [yd2] 9 ft2 0.8361 m2 1 hectare [ha] 10,000 m2 2.4711 acres
1 acre 4840 yd2 4046.9 m2 1 sq km [km2] 100 ha 0.3861 mile2
1 sq mile [mile2] 640 acres 2.59 km2
Volume
1 cu cm [cm3] 0.0610 in3 1 cu inch [in3] 16.387 cm3
1 cu decimetre [dm3] 1,000 cm3 0.0353 ft3 1 cu foot [ft3] 1,728 in3 0.0283 m3
1 cu metre [m3] 1,000 1.3080 yd3 1 fluid ounce [floz] 28.413 ml
1 litre [I] 1
dm 3 3
dm 1.76 pt 1 pint [pt] 20 floz 0.5683 I
1 hectolitre [hi] 100 I 21.997 gal 1 gallon [gal] 8 pt 4.5461 I
64
USA measure > metric

1 fluid ounce 1.0408 UK floz 29.574 ml
1 pint (16 floz) 0.8327 UK pt 0.4731 I
1 gallon 0.8327 UK gal 3.7854 I
Mass
1 milligram [mg] 0.0154 grain 1 ounce [oz] 437.5 grain 28.35 g
1 gram [g] 1,000 mg 0.0353 oz 1 pound [lb] 16 oz 0.4536 kg
1 kilogram [kg] 1,000 g 2.2046 lb 1 stone 141b 6.3503 kg
1 kilogram [kg] 1,000 g 0.068 slug 1 hundredweight [cwt] 112 lb 50.802 kg
0.9842 long ton 1 slug 14.6 kg
1 tonne [t] 1,000 kg
(UK) 1 long ton (UK) 20 cwt 1.016 t
1 short ton (US) 2,000 lb 0.9071
65

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Basic Aircraft Maintenance Training Manual

Basic Aircraft Maintenance

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Complementary Angles _______________________________________________________________________________________ 42

Module 1.1 Enabling Objectives

Objective Reference Level

Module 1.1 Arithmetic

Working with Fractions

11. Mixed Multiplication and Division

1. Convert the following mixed numbers to improper fractions:

3. Multiply and simplify the following:

2. Divide and simplify the following:

3. Evaluate the following:

4. Add the following fractions and mixed numbers:

7. Subtract the following:

8. Evaluate the following:

Working with Decimals

THOUSANDS HUNDREDS TENS UNITS TENTHS HUNDREDTHS THOUSANDTHS

a) 27.6 has one decimal place

b) 27.16 has two decimal places

c) 27.026 has three decimal places

d) 101.2032 has four decimal places

Example: Evaluate 27.3 + 0.021 + 68.3 27.3

5. Similarly, in subtraction, ensure that decimal points are in line.

Example: Evaluate 27.3 - 4.36 27.3 27.3 can also

Example: Evaluate 27.3 x 9.31 Note: Total of 3 decimal places.

We have moved the decimal

1. Calculate the sum of the following:

a) 0.251 + 10.298 b) 18.098 + 210.099 c) 0.025 + 10.995

a) 21.76 - 18.51 b) 32.76 - 20.086 c) 10.75 – 19.999

3. Find the product of:

a) 5.05 x 13.8 b) 1.27 x 0.871 c) -1.01 x 0.89

1. a) 10.549 b) 228.197 c) 11.02

2. a) 3.25 b) 12.674 c) -9.249

3. a) 69.69 b) 1.10617 c) -0.8989

4. a) 471 b) 2.25 c) 0.0025

Conversion Between Fractions and Decimals

Convert a Decimal to a Fraction

Convert a Fraction to a Decimal

Divide the numerator by the denominator.

1. Convert the following decimals to proper fractions in their simplest form:

a) 0.73 b) 0.02 c) 0.004

2. Convert the following proper fractions to decimals to 2 decimal places:

3. Place in ascending order of magnitude:

2. a) 0.63 0.87 0.02

Changing a Fraction to a Percentage

To change a fraction to a percentage, multiply by 100%.

Changing a Percentage to a Fraction

To change a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100%.

Changing a Percentage to a Decimal

Changing a Decimal to a Percentage

Values of a Percentage of a Quantity

Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage of Another

a) 4% of 30 b) 0.8% of 360 c) 1.5% of 60

c) 0.5 as a percentage of 12.5

d) 3.2 as a percentage of 2.4

e) 0.08 as a percentage of 0.72

3. Express as a proper fraction:

a) 0.6 b) 0.35 c) 0.48 d) 0.05

e) 0.325 f) 25% g) 13% h) 4.5%

Rounding, Significant Figures, and Decimal Places

 Decide which is the last digit to keep.

 Decide which is the last digit to keep.