24 22 30 CHAP TER. 2 Metal-Foil Resistance Strain Gages INTRODUCTION Experimental stress analysis is a misnomer because strain is normally measured and stress is then calculated by using stress-strain relationships. Perhaps the most common measurement is the surface deformation between two points or along a length {,, called the gage length. Any device that is used to measure surface deformation can be cl fied as a strain gage. Normally, gages are categorized by their construction into four groups: mechanical, optical, electrical, and acoustical. Among them, the most impor- tant and widely used gage is the electrical-resistance type, where small changes in dimension result in equivalent changes in resistance. This type of strain gage is used for 80% or more of the industrial experimental stress analyses performed in the United States today [1]. Therefore, the electrical-resistance strain gage is covered in detail in this and following chapters. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION The operative principle of the electrical-resistance strain gage has been known for more than a century. In 1856, Lord Kelvin [2] reported that certain metal wires exhib- ited a “change of electrical resistance with change in strain.” The total electrical resis- tance of a rectangular uniform-cross-section conductor is given by the equation 1 R=— 2.1 a (1) where R, r L, a, and b are the resistance, specific resistance, length, and lateral dimen- sions of the rectangular cross section of the conductor, respectively. Taking logarithms and differentiating Eq. 2.1 leads to2.2. Principle of Operation 31 dR_dr dL da_ db Re lath aed eB) @2) For an axial strain, ¢,=dL/L, there is a transverse strain ¢,, which is given by dL _-da _—db Sera aa te ened gan ee where 1 is Poisson’s ratio. Substituting the equation above into Eq. (2.2) gives Refer (23) ‘Assuming that the change in length and change in specific resistance are small, the higher-order terms can be neglected. Thus AR _ Ar AL Bop hte) (2.4) ‘To describe the electrical resistance change of a conductor caused by the change of its length, the term strain sensitivity is introduced. It is defined as the resistance change (AR) per unit of initial resistance (R) per unit of applied axial strain. Strain sensitivity is denoted by S,. By definition, _AR/R _ AR/R .- SUE Te @s) where ¢, is the nominal strain in the axial direction. By using Eq. (2.4), Eq. (2.5) can be rewritten as A S, = = + (1+ 2p) (2.6) From Eq. (2.6) we find that the strain sensitivity of a resistance element is produced by two factors: the term (Ar/r)/e, denoting the change in specific resistance of the conduc- tor material, and the term (1 + 2) representing the change in the dimensions of the conductor. Since Poisson’s ratio is approximately 0.3 for most metal alloys used as the resistance element, the strain sensitivity will be about 1.6 if only the dimensional changes are considered. In some cases (e.g. semiconductor gages) the specific resistance term dr/r is much more dominant than other terms, and the contribution from the term (1 + 2u)(dL/L) in Eq, (2.3) is usually small and negligible. For large strain, the resistance clement undergoes plastic deformation. Under the usual assumptions that there is no plastic volume change and that dr/r is approximately equal to dv/v for foil of copper and nickel, the commonly used gage materials, Eq. (2.3) reduces to dR dL ZG since dv/v = (1-2) dL/L. Integration of Eq, (2.7) results in (2.7)32 Chapter 2 Metal-Foil Resistance Strain Gages R L In R 2in De or AR AL mn(1+ 44) ain(1 +22) Therefore, AR _ AL (34) Pe Lo Substituting the equation above into Eq. (2.5), we obtain 2-2 ee (2.8) where €, = AL/Ly is the nominal strain. Although the assumptions used in the deriva- tions of Eq. (2.8) have yet to be verified for metal-foil gages, it is well known and widely used in practice for large strain measurements [16]. Table 2.1 shows some typical values of strain sensitivity during elastic deforma- tion for those metallic alloys commonly used in the manufacture of commercially available strain gages [3,11-13]. Note that S, varies from 2.0 to 3.6 for these common alloys. For isoelastic, the specific resistance term (Ar/r,)/e, is a significant contributor to strain sensitivity, since the term (1 + 21) is approximately equal to 1.6. Constantan or annealed Constantan [(45% Ni, 55% Cu) or (40% Ni, 60% Cu)] is the alloy commonly used for general-purpose strain gages. It has several advantages. First, its strain sensitivity is high and relatively insensitive to strain level over a very wide range of strain (up to 8%), useful to measure both elastic as well as plastic strain in many structural materials, Second, its resistivity is high, so it is possible to construct a small gage with a relatively high resistance. Third, temperature changes do not have a significant effect when used on common structural materials due to its excellent ther- mal stability. Finally, the ability to control the small temperature-induced changes in TABLE 2.1. Strain Sen: ity 5, for Common Strain Gage Alloys Manufacturer Designation a Micro- nat Material S, Meastrrements Kyowa (um) Constantan 24 A FD 0.15 (0.49) Annealed constantan 24 P FE 0.15 (0.49) Karma 20 K 0.41 (1.35) Nichrome V 24 K H 0.30 (0.98) Isoelastic 36 D 034 (1.12)