OO SYSTEM aU N TO STATIC RELAYS SECOND EDITION ' SSIES ENA YORE |POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION STATIC RELAYS WITH MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS Second Edition TS MADHAVA RAO Formerly Professor and Head Department of Electrical Engincering University of Roorkee Roorkee Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoTata McGraw-Hill Copyright © 1989, 1981, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited 21st reprint 2008 RXXZCDDXRBQDC No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-460307-9 ISBN-10: 0-07-460307-8 Published by the Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, and printed at Sai Printo Pack Pvt. Ltd., A -102/4, Okhla Indl Area, Phase II, New Delhi Pec acd aeContents Preface to the Second Edition v Acknowledgements to the Second dition’ vi Preface to the First Edition vii Acknowledgement to A.R. van C. Warrington ix ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO STATIC RELAYS 1 1.1 History of Electronic Relays and their Relation to Electro- mechanical Counterparts 7 13 Reasons for the Short-live esearch into lays Using Thermionic Tubes_2 ‘ 14 Advantages of Static Relays 2 1,5 What are Static Relays? 4 1.6 Basic Construction of Static Protective Relays 6 1.7_Complete Electronic Protective Relays 9 1,8 Complete System of Protection 77 1,9 Characteristic Functions of Protective Relays 12 1.L1_Practical Non-critical Switching Circuits 17 1.12. Practical Critical Level Detectors _17 1.13 Influence of Static Protective Relays on Associated Equip- ment 20 Appendix 23 ‘TWO: COMPARATORS AND ASSOCIATED ELEMENTS 44 2.1__Introduction _44 2.2 Transfer or Replica Impedance 44 24 Phase and Amplitude Comparators _ 46 2.5 Different Types of Comparators 55 2.6 Zener Diode Phase Comparators 71 2.7_Dynamic Design of Static Comparators _73 THREE: SOLID STATE POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT 78 3.1__Introduction 78 3.2 Voltage Regulation (Voltage Stabilization) 78 3.3 Current Regulators (Constant Current Stabil jizers) 80 3.4 Power Supply and Voltage Regulator Circuits for Static Relays 82 Copyrighted materialxii Contents 3.5__ Summary of Preferred Applications 89 FOUR: TIMER RELAYS AND VOLTAGE RELAYS 1 41 Timer Relays 97 4.2 _Overvoltage and Undervoltage Relays 98 IVE: DIRECTIONAL RELAYS 4 introduction 108 5.2__ Phase Comparator Directional Units 108 5.3 Amplitude Comparator Directional Units 1/2 5.4 Inputs to Static Directional Relays for Maximum Output _//3 5.5__Polyphase Directional Relays //4 5.6 Applications 1/4 SIX: OVERCURRENT RELAYS 61 Introduction 1/6 6.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays _//7 6.3 Time-current Relays_//9 6.4 Application of Different Types of Time-current_Characteris- tics 119 6.5 Basic Principles of Time-Overcurrent Relays /2/ 6.6 Practical Circuits for Time-Overcurrent Relays /23 6.7 Examples of Directional Overcurrent/Overcurrent__Relay 6.8 69 Circuits 125 Some Examples of Commercial Static Overcurrent Relays /43 Direct Trip Devices 148 SEVEN: DIFFERENTIAL RELAYS TA 72 73 74 1S 16 77 718 Introduction 150 Operating Characteristics 15/ Restraining Characteristics /5] Types of Differential Relays /53 Analysis of Electromagnetic and Static Differential Relays /54 Static Relay Scheme 157 Requirement of Current Transformers for Differential Protec- tion (Static Schemes) 167 Transformer Protection (General Electric, U.S.A.) 168 EIGHT: DISTANCE RELAYS Introduction 17/ Standard 3-zone Protection 172 Distance Protection Requirements 173 Relay Characteristics 175 Effect of Fault Resistance 1/75 108 150 1718.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 Contents xiii Types of Distance Relays 176 Complex Characteristics (Item ‘g’ of the Types given in Section9.6) 179 Reach of the Distance Relay /8/ Selection of the Measuring Unit 182 8.10 Three Zone Protection with Different Types of Distance Relays (Classical Type) 1/85 8.11 Polarised mho Distance Relay 186 8.12 Performance Specifications of Distance Relays 203 8.13 Switched Distance Schemes 207 8.14 Polyphase Distance Relays 207 8.15 Operating Times 208 8.16 Static Distance Relay Schemes 209 Appendix 236 NINE: PILOT WIRE AND CARRIER CURRENT SCHEMES 241 91 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 TEN: 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Pilot Relaying Schemes 24/ Protective Schemes in Use 243 Practical Pilot Wire Protection Schemes 25/ Carrier Current Protection 262 Application of Microwave Channels for Protective Relaying 284 Selection of Suitable Static Relaying Scheme for Transmission Lines (Ref: Westinghouse Electric Corp. Relay Instrument Division, U.S.A.) 291 MULTI-INPUT COMPARATOR CIRCUITS AND ASSOCIATED RELAYS 301 Introduction 30] Conic Section Characteristics 302 Quadrilateral or Multilateral Characteristics 3/7 Examples of Commercial Relays 335 Polyphase Distance Schemes 34/ Polyphase Differential Relay Schemes 355 ELEVEN: OTHER TYPES OF RELAYS AND PROTECTION 359 11 11.2 11.3 114 IL.5 11.6 1L7 11.8 IL9 Introduction 359 Frequency Relays 359 Rate of Rise of Current Relays (di/dt) 373 Winding Temperature Measuring and Control Relays 378 Static Protection of 25 kV A.C. Traction Systems 379 Static Protection of Insulated Neutral Systems 389 Alarm Annunciators 392 Distance-to-fault Locators for H.V. Lines (G.E.C.) 394 Voltage Regulating Relays 396xiv Contents 11.10 Synchronous Motor Field Application Relay (English Electric) 398 11.11 Fuse Failure Relay (English Electric) 40/ 11.12 Relays for Power and Power Factor 40/ 11.13 Relays for Generator Protection 402 11.14 Protection of Motors 405 11.15 Busbar Protection 4/3 11.16 Harmonic Relaying 427 11.17 Protection for Lines with Series Capacitor Compensation 428 TWELVE: NON-CONVENTIONAL TYPES OF COMPARATORS 431 12.1 Introduction 431] 12.2 Instantaneous Comparators 43/ 12.3 A Method for the Elimination of Transient Overreach in Distance Relays 446 12.4 Phase Sequence Detectors 449 12.5 Applications of Phase Sequence Detectors 460 THIRTEEN: COMPUTER APPLICATIONS TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING 471 13.1 Introduction 47) 13.2 Analogue Computers 472 13.3 Digital Computers 479 FOURTEEN: MICROPROCESSOR APPLICATIONS TO 517 PROTECTION 14.1 ‘Number Systems 517 14.2 Microprocessors 524 14,3 Microprocessor Architecture (37) 526. 14.4 Microprocessor Memories (37) 529 14.5 Peripheral Devices in Microprocessors (38, 39) 530 14.6 Some Integrated Circuit Logic Families (35, 38, 39) 537 14.7. FLIP-FLOPS and MULTIVIBRATORS 541 14.8 Some Examples of Microprocessor Devices 550 14.9 Some Examples of Microprocessor Applications Based on Theoretical Developments 559 Appendix 578, 579 FIFTEEN: RELIABILITY, TESTING AND MAINTENANCE 584 15.1 Reliability 584 15.2. Environmental Factors 592 15.3. Test Methods for Static Relays 597 15.4 Maintenance and Field Testing of Relays 606Contents xv SIXTEEN: SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON COMMERCIAL STATIC RELAYS 16.1 Introduction 619 16.2 Distatree Relays and Protective Systems 619 16.3 Generator Protective Relaying 627 16.4 Bus-bar Protection 639 16.5 Breaker Failure Protection 64/ 16.6 Out-of-step Relays 643 16.7 Auxiliary Relays with Time Lag on Pick-up/Drop-out (Brown Boveri) 647 16.8 Power Supply for Static Protective Relays (Brown Boveri) 648 16.9 Solid State Protection of Traction Supply Systems and Cateneries (Brown Boveri) 650 16.10 Some Additional Static Relays (Mitsubishi Electric Corpora- tion) 654 16.11 EHV System Protection (General Electric, USA) 652 16.12 G.E.C. Measurements, U.K. and English Electric Co., India (New Developments) 668 16.13 ASEA, Sweden and ASEA, India (New Developments) 680 16.14 Brown Boveri Switzerland (BBC) (New Developments) 690 16.15 Thomson—CSF, France 694 16.16 Modular Construction of Relay Units 697 16.17 General Comments on Commercial Static Relays (1986) 698 References Index 619 700 715ONE General Intrnaduction to Static Relays 1.1. History of Electronic Relays and their Relation to Electromechanical Counterparts References to the design and application of eiectronic relays for power system protection can be found in the literature from the year 1928 onwards. In that year Fitzerald (205) published a scheme for pilot wire protection. Wideroe (31) in 1934 brought out a series of circuits for the common types of protective relays while Loving in 1949 published refinements to these. Macpherson, Warrington and McConnell (35) updated the developments upto 1948, and these were extended in later years by Barnes, Kennedy, Honey, Reedman, Dlouhy, Cahen and Chevallier. In all these schemes, either thyratrons or thermionic tubes have been employed. None of these types has found general application for power system protection for reasons to be discussed later. In the field of carrier current relaying, however, electronic protection with thermionic tubes has been successfully employed. Even in this field, with the heavy power supplies required for the electronic tubes, combined with the rapid development of semiconductor components, the attention has been rapidly diverted to building carrier equipment with solid state circuits. Appen- dix A. 1.1 to Chapter I discusses briefly the basic electromechanical relay elements and their relation to static devices. The discussion therein is brief and greater details can be found in later chapters. In Appendices A. 1.2, A. 1.3 and A. 1.4 at the end of Chapter 1, the following details are given: A, 1.2—Details of device numbers accepted internationally A. 1,3—List of symbols for relays and protection A. 1.4—Glossary of common relay terms 1.2. Application of Electronic Relays to Protection The adequacy or otherwise of the present methods is always one of the most important factors influencing technological research and develop- ment. Over 75% of the existing protective relay requirements are met2 Power System Protection » without undue difficulty by electromagnetic relay elements. The schemes in use depend on the characteristics of induction disc or cup, moving coil or moving armature (hinged armature) elements. However, there are bigger issues and considerations which have influenced the pace of development in static relays, such as the following: (a) Better performance and characteristics, e.g. higher speed with greater accuracy and sensitivity in distance relays. (b) Greater standardization in manufacture. (c) Easier manufacture and reduction in maintenance time. Edgeley and Hamilton (37) in 1952 claimed test and constructional advantages for their relays employing transductors (magnetic amplifiers). 1.3. Reasons for the Short-lived Research into Relays Using Thermionic Tubes As already mentioned, the research effort up to the year 1956 was predominantly towards circuits employing thermionic tubes, thyratrons etc., since till then solid state devices like transistors, were just in their infancy. None of these circuits reached the commercial stage and the research effort rapidly tapered off. However, there were certain disadvantages in thermionic tube circuits in relaying and the main ones were the following: (a) Provision of special power supplies for valve heaters—this imposes constant drain on the power supplies. (b) Provision of appreciable voltages for valve anodes and electrode bias. (c) Incorrect operation under transient conditions. In view of these disadvantages, attention has been diverted to the development of static relays using solid state components, As there is at Present no interest in relays using electronic valves and as they are of historical importance only, we shall not further discuss such relays in this book. The reader is referred to the various papers appearing in the literature mentioned under References. 1.4 Advantages of Static Relays Static relays in general possess the following advantages: (a) Low burden on current and voltage transformers, since the operating power is, in many cases, from an auxiliary d.c. supply. (b) Absence of mechanical inertia and bouncing contacts, high resis- tance to shock and vibration. (c) Very fast operation and long life. (d) Low maintenance owing to the absence of moving parts and bearing friction. (e) Quick reset action and absence of overshoot. (f) Ease of providing amplification enables greater sensitivity.General Introduction to Static Relays 3 (g) Unconventional characteristics are possible—the basic building blocks of semiconductor circuitry permit a greater degree of sophistication in the shaping of operating characteristics, enabling the practical utilization of relays with operating charac- teristics more closely approaching the ideal requirements. (h) The low energy levels required in the measuring circuits permit miniaturization of the relay modules. Table 1.1 shows the comparative VA burdens of some static and electromechanical relays, taken from certain manufacturers. Table 1.1—Comparison of Burdens of Static and Electromechanical Relays Type of relay or” Electromechanical Static protection scheme Current Voltage Current Voltage Definite time delay relay _- AC. 110V - 25VA D.C. 110 10 W Biased differential relay Operating 0.33 VA Coil atloA 0.6 VA at 1.00 VA 40% setting at 5.0 A 3.7 VA at 100% setting Bias Coil 0.4VA at 40% setting Mho distance relays: 3-step | _ 0.4 10 8.5 20VA 0.04 to 8.7/8.7 to 11.2 protection VA depend- VA depend- | VA ent on setting ent on 1A, 2A, or SA and setting Switched distance scheme | 0.410 8.5 20 VA 2103 VA 8to9VA for phaseand earth faults | VA depend- eat on setting Time-overcurrent relay | 0.75 to 1.3 VAI - 0.02 to 0.13 (IDMT) dependent on VA depend- setting ent on set- ting and cur- rent rating taneous overcurrent | 0.7 to 10 VA - 100 mVA dependent on seiting Overvoltage relay a 2.0VA - 0.2VA | Static relays with solid state components have certain limitations (as mentioned below) but these can be overcome as indicated in each case. (a) Temperature sensitivity—temperature compensation circuits have been developed (e.g. use of thermistors).4) Power System Protection (b) Ageing—this is eliminated by presoaking of components for several hours at a relatively high temperature. (c) Sensitivity to voltage spikes—this can be eliminated by filters and shielding. (d) Damage due to overloading—this is eliminated by careful circuit design. Static relays may be single, two or multi-input devices. Individual modules are now being developed to provide critical measuring as well as non-critical switching functions to be discussed in detail later. Timing and counting requirements are much better satisfied by solid state circuits than with electromagnetic elements. Availability of reed relays has made these more useful as they have very high operating speed (1-2 ms). Thyristors are coming up rapidly as tripping elements. 1.5. What Are Static Relays ? The term ‘static relay’ is generally referred to a relay incorporating solid state components like transistors, diodes, resistors, capacitors, etc. In this type of relay, the functions of comparison and measurement are performed by static circuits wherein there are no moving parts. Accord- ing to a recent decision of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which has been adopted by the Indian Standards Institution, the following are the terms relating to static relays. Static relay—A relay in which the designed response is developed by electronic, magnetic or other components without mechanical motion. Static relay with output contacts—A static relay having a contact in one or more of its output circuit(s). The term previously applied to this type of relay was semistatic relay. Static relay without output contacts—A static relay having no contact in its output circuit(s). The term previously applied to this type of relay was fully static relay. Most present-day static relays, incorporate a hinged armature or a polarized moving coil relay in miniature size as the output device to provide at a low cost a number of output contacts capable of duly trip- ping. The alternatives are reed relays or thyristors (as indicated in Section 4) which are being considered in recent designs but not yet adopted commercially. With the growth of power systems in both complexity and fault -levels, the need for more sensitive and faster, reliable protection schemes has arisen. The advent of semiconductors overcame the supply problems associated with thermionic valves. The use of transistor amplifiers, etc. deriying their power from an external source, or in some cases self- powered from the current and voltage transformers, made it possible to achieve greater sensitivity and at the same time obtain excellent mechanical stability. The individual components should be chosen care- fully and should. be used well within their designed rating. It should beGeneral Introduction to Static Relays 5 clearly understood that it is not usually economical to replace existing electromechanical relays with their static counterparts just to réduce maintenance ; source gain in technical performance should also be obtained. At present protective relays are supplied from iron-cored current transformer and hence excessive saturation should be avoided to ensure high speed and discriminative operation. The use of static relays in general reduces the burden on the current transferers. One may be surprised to find that static relays have first been com- mercially produced only in such cases as distance or differential schemes, while in the case of the much simpler overcurrent relay schemes, they have not been brought out. The reason behind this is the fact that distance and differential schemes are more amenable to mathematical analysis while the overcurrent characteristics like those given by the induction disc relays, are more empirical and less mathematical. Thus a static relay cannot compete with the electromechanical standard inverse time overcurrent relay as this characteristic is readily achieved by the saturation characteristics of the electromagnet. On the other hand, the inverse time relay required for overload protection of rectifiers has a characteristic of the form /*t=K which can be achieved with static circuits, but would be extremely difficult to achieve with an induction disc relay. In the field of distance protection, it is possible to derive many varied and complex characteristics with the use of multi-input static comparators. It is possible to accommodate a complete distance scheme in one or two conventional relay cases thus reducing panel space and the cost of interconnecting wiring. When static relays were first developed availability of components and their reliability were poor. Now these components have attained a record of reliability much better than conventional components. Many thousands of static relays have already been manufactured and used—the field experience over the last decade has proved their superiority in more than one sense. As already mentioned, static relays using thermionic valves could not meet practical requirements and never reached the commercial stage. Rectifier relays, first used in Germany, revolutionized the development of Static relays. Transductors offered the advantage of d.c. isolation between control and output circuits. They were widely employed in protective relay applications, but have been discarded due to their slow speed of operation. Hall effect relays permit instantaneous analogue multiplication of two measured values. However, because of their high cost they have not been used in practical relays. Gauss-effect relays employ semi-conductors whose resistance varies when a magnetic field is applied. They are also quite expensive. Measuring elements of static relays have been successfully and economically built up from diodes, zener diodes, avalanche diodes, unijunction transistors, p-n-p and a-p-n bijunction transistors, ficld effect6 Power System rroveuwwn transistors or their combinations. The main reason for the rapid progress of transistors into static relays is the instantaneous readiness of operation due to the absence of heaters and their substantially long working life Further, in recent years, the manufacture of components has achieved considerable advances like encapsulation, planner and epitoxial construc- tion techniques, printed circuits, etc. Integrated circuits now occupy a predominant place. These techniques have increased the reliability of the components and reduced the sizes of the modules to small chips. 1.6. Basic Construction of Static Protective Relays Basically, protective relays are analogue-binary signal converters with measuring functions. The variables such as current, voltage, phase angle or frequency and derived values obtained by differentiation, integration or other arithmetical operations, appear always as analogue signals at the input of the measuring unit. The output will always have a binary signal, i.e. either an open (or OFF) signal if the relay is not to trip or a close (or ON) signal if the relay is to trip. These output signals can therefore be easily evaluated by subscquent control elements requiring very little technical effort. Each protective relay is built up of individual elements in accordance with the basic block diagram shown in Fig. 1.1. The signals, 1. Measuring Cir- cuit 2. Measuring Signals 3. Converter Element 4, Measu- ring Element 5. Out- put Element 6. Out- Put Signal 7. Con- trolled Element 8. Feed Element —-- Binary Signals 9. Aux. Voltage fs LU] Y Lene wer eet 8 => output Flow Source 10. Measur- L—J = — analogue Signals ing Circuit Supply Fig. 1-1 Basic block diagram of protective relays which occur in analogue and therefore in the continuously variable form from the measuring circuit (C.T and/or V.T) are first fed to the converter unit in the protective relay, This converts the measured signals so that they can be easily processed by the measuring element which follows. This measuring element will be operated when the input signal reaches a certain value—providing a close signal at its output. The output element amplifies this binary but weak signal and transfers it to one or moreGeneral Introduction to Static Relays 7 controlled elements. The controlled elements carry out the final switching functions as opening of circuit breakers, etc. Power is supplied to the measuring or output element by a feed element. This power is obtained either from an auxiliary voltage source or from the measuring circuit itself. 1.6.1, Converter Element This element contains chiefly the matching transformers to obtain the re- quired signal level. The rest of the construction depends on whether one or two or more inputs are to be handled by the relay. Relays for one quantity are supplied with only one electrical quantity, e.g. current or voltage. After suitable transformation by the matching transformers, this quantity is fed to diode bridges at whose output it appears as a d.c. variable with ripple. Through setting networks consisting of fixed and variable resistors, clipping diodes, etc. the measured value of the quantity is fed into a harmonic filter (if the speed requirements are not too stringent) since the subsequent measuring element deals only with d.c, variables. Sometimes smoothing filters are used to eliminate ripples, but in high speed relays such filters cannot be used. In relays for two quantities the converter element is fed at its input with two electrical quantities. In each case the comparison can be either amplitude or phase comparison between the two signals, the signals being converted to voltage or current signals (Fig. 1.2). There is also a pulse E,.-Ea- VOLTAGE COMPARISON 1, Measuring Element 2. Feed-back Resistors CURRENT COMPARISON 1, Measuring Element 2, Resistors Fig. 1.2 Basic voltage and current comparators—two inputs type comparison in which one of the variables is converted into a pulse when passing through zero and the second is converted into a rectangular block. When the pulse and the block coincide, a close signal appears at the output of the comparator circuit. This gives extremely short response time.8 Power System Protection In relays for three or more quantities, the converter element is supplied with three or more electrical quantities. In Fig, 1.3 it will be noticed that in two of the measuring bridges the feed-back resistors are combined into one. Lj E) #8 =f VOLTAGE COMPARISON 1, Measuring Element 2. Feed-back Resistor 1.4 Analogue—binary signal conver- Fig. 1.3 Basic voltage comparison—three inputs sion—Schmitt trigger 1.6.2, Measuring Element This is an analogue-binary signal converter with measuring functions. In the simplest form it consists of the Schmitt trigger circuit shown in Fig. 1.4 as the basic circuit. The Schmitt trigger circuit (which will be discussed in detail later in Chapter 14) can be compared to an extremely fast pola- rized d.c, relay and acts as a level detector. Transistors are used in common emitter connection giving high input resistance and large current gain. The level detector gives a step output when the input voltages ex> ceed a specified level. 1.6.3 Output Element This element amplifies the output signal from the measuring element, multiplies it, may combine it with certain other signals and also introduce a delay if necessary. Since it has to process only binary signals, this need not be a precision element. It may thus take the form of auxiliary relays or contactors. These provide potential separation between controlling and controlled circuits. It may also take the form of a bistable or monostable multivibrator circuit and if required modulated by logic circuits like AND, OR, NOR or timing elements. Where large powers are involved, e, operating trip coils of circut breakers, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are used after the logic element. 1.6.4, Feed Element The function of this element is to supply the power necessary to operate the circuits and the power is obtained either from a built-in auxiliary supply (nickel cadmium rechargeable cells) or from station battery. In many cases it is derived from the measuring circuit itself. In all cases,