HSC PHYSICS

Brian Shadwick
© Science Press 2007
First published 2007
Reprinted 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010
All rights reserved. No part of this publication
Science Press may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
Private Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 Australia or transmitted in any form or by any means,
Tel: (02) 9516 1122 Fax: (02) 9550 1915 electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
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www.sciencepress.com.au Science Press. ABN 98 000 073 861
 Contents

Introduction v
Verbs to Watch vi

Dot Points

Space vii
Motors and Generators ix
From Ideas to Implementation xi
From Quanta to Quarks xiii

Questions

Space 1
Motors and Generators 39
From Ideas to Implementation 81
From Quanta to Quarks 121

Summaries

Space 161
Motors and Generators 181
From Ideas to Implementation 201
From Quanta to Quarks 219

Answers

Space 237
Motors and Generators 247
From Ideas to Implementation 259
From Quanta to Quarks 271

Appendix

Data Sheet 282

Formula Sheet 283
Periodic Table 284

Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics iii Contents

Notes
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Contents iv Dot Point HSC Physics

 Introduction
What the book includes

,QWKLVERRN\RXZLOO¿QGW\SLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQTXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVDVZHOODVVXPPDULHVIRUHDFKGRWSRLQWLQ
the Board of Studies syllabus for the following topics in the Year 12 Physics course:
‡ 6SDFH
‡ 0RWRUVDQG*HQHUDWRUV
‡ )URP,GHDVWR,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ
‡ )URP4XDQWDWR4XDUNV
Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates
WKDWVWXGHQWVVKRXOGFDUU\RXWµ¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQV¶

Format of the book

The book has been formatted in the following way:

1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus)

1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3.

1RWHWKDWWKHQXPEHULQJRIWKHVHUHTXLUHPHQWVLVWKHDXWKRU¶VFKRLFHDQGKDVEHHQXVHGWRPDNHUHIHUHQFLQJ
TXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVFOHDUHU7KHLQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWQXPEHUHGLQWKHV\OODEXVWKH\DUHVLPSO\
EXOOHWHG±KHQFHRXUXVHRIµGRWSRLQWV¶ZKHQZHUHIHUWRWKHP

1.1.1 )LUVWW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV
 UHTXLUHPHQW
1.1.2 6HFRQGW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV
 UHTXLUHPHQWHWF
7KHQXPEHURIOLQHVSURYLGHGIRUHDFKDQVZHUJLYHVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIKRZPDQ\PDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQPLJKWEH
worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in many
DQVZHUVWKUHHOLQHVKDYHEHHQSURYLGHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIZULWLQJUHTXLUHGH[FHHGVWZROLQHVEXWWKHSK\VLFV
involved is worth only one mark.

How to use the book

&RPSOHWLQJDOOTXHVWLRQVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDVXPPDU\RIDOOWKHZRUN\RXQHHGWRNQRZIURPWKHV\OODEXV
You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered,
but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams.

:KHQZRUNLQJWKURXJKWKHTXHVWLRQVZULWHWKHDQVZHUV\RXKDYHWRORRNXSLQDGLIIHUHQWFRORXUWRWKRVH\RX
NQRZZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRUHVHDUFKWKHZRUN7KLVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDTXLFNUHIHUHQFHWRZRUN\RXVKRXOG
spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively.

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Dot Point HSC Physics v Introduction

 Verbs to Watch
account/account for distinguish
State reasons for, report on, give an account of, Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or
narrate a series of events or transactions. different from, note difference between things.
analyse evaluate
Identify components and the relationships among Make a judgement based on criteria.
them, draw out and relate implications.
examine
apply ,QTXLUHLQWR
Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation.
explain
appreciate Relate cause and effect, make the relationship
Make a judgement about the value of something. between things evident, provide why and/or how.

assess extract
0DNHDMXGJHPHQWRIYDOXHTXDOLW\RXWFRPHV Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.
results or size. extrapolate
calculate Infer from what is known.
'HWHUPLQHIURPJLYHQIDFWV¿JXUHVRULQIRUPDWLRQ identify
clarify Recognise and name.
Make clear or plain. interpret
classify Draw meaning from.
Arrange into classes, groups or categories. investigate
compare 3ODQLQTXLUHLQWRDQGGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXW
Show how things are similar and different. justify
construct Support an argument or conclusion.
Make, build, put together items or arguments. outline
contrast Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features.
Show how things are different or opposite. predict
critically (analyse/evaluate) Suggest what may happen based on available data.
Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge propose
DQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJORJLFTXHVWLRQLQJUHÀHFWLRQDQG Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument,
TXDOLW\WRDQDQDO\VLVRUHYDOXDWLRQ suggestion etc) for consideration or action.
deduce recall
Draw conclusions. Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.
GH¿QH recommend
6WDWHWKHPHDQLQJRIDQGLGHQWLI\HVVHQWLDOTXDOLWLHV Provide reasons in favour.
demonstrate recount
Show by example. Retell a series of events.
describe summarise
Provide characteristics and features. Express concisely the relevant details.
discuss synthesise
Identify issues and provide points for and against. Put together various elements to make a whole.

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Verbs to Watch vi Dot Point HSC Physics

 Space

Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

1. *UDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOG 2 2.10 Analyse forces involved in uniform

 'H¿QHZHLJKWDVWKHIRUFHDFWLQJRQ
 DQREMHFWGXHWRDJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOG
1.2 Use F = mg to determine the weight
force of bodies on Earth and other
planets.
1.3. Predict the acceleration due to gravity
on other planets.
1.4 Perform an experiment to determine
the acceleration due to gravity and
identify reasons for possible variations
from 9.8 m s–2.
1.5 Explain that a change in gravitational
potential energy is related to work done.
 'H¿QHGPE as the work done to move
 DQREMHFWIURPLQ¿QLW\WRDSRLQWLQD
 JUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOG
2. Rocket launches and gravity
2.1 Describe the trajectory of a projectile
 ZLWKLQWKH(DUWK¶VJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOG
 'HVFULEH*DOLOHR¶VDQDO\VLVRISURMHFWLOH
motion.
2.3 Solve projectile motion problems using
horizontal and vertical components
 DQG1HZWRQ¶VHTXDWLRQVRIPRWLRQ 
2.4 Explain escape velocity in terms of
the gravitational constant, and the
mass and radius of the planet. 11
 2XWOLQH1HZWRQ¶VFRQFHSWRIHVFDSH
velocity. 12
 ,GHQWLI\ZK\WKHWHUPµJIRUFHV¶LV
used to explain the forces on an
astronaut. 12
2.7 Perform an experiment to calculate
 WKHLQLWLDODQG¿QDOYHORFLWLHVUDQJH
 DQGWLPHRIÀLJKWRIDSURMHFWLOH 
2.8 Analyse the changing acceleration of
a rocket during launch in terms of the
Law of Conservation of Momentum
and the forces experienced by astronauts. 14
 'LVFXVVWKHHIIHFWRIWKH(DUWK¶VRUELWDO
and rotational motion on rocket launches. 16
circular motion for a range of objects,
 including satellites orbiting Earth. 17
2.11 Solve problems about the centripetal
force on a satellite in Earth orbit using:
2 17
 &RPSDUHTXDOLWDWLYHO\ORZ(DUWKDQG
3 geostationary orbits. 18
2.13 Outline the contribution to space of
one of: Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, Goddard,
 (VQDXOW3HOWHULH2¶1HLOORUYRQ%UDXQ 
4  'H¿QHRUELWDOYHORFLW\DQGLWV
relationship with G, the mass of the
6 planet and satellite, and the radius
 RIWKHRUELWTXDOLWDWLYHO\DQG
 TXDQWLWDWLYHO\ 
  6ROYHSUREOHPVXVLQJ.HSOHU¶V/DZ
of Periods. 21
9
2.16 Account for the orbital decay of satellites
in LEO. 23

2.17 Discuss issues associated with safe
 UHHQWU\LQWRWKH(DUWK¶VDWPRVSKHUH
9
and landing on the surface. 23
2.18 Identify that there is an optimum angle
 IRUUHHQWU\LQWRWKH(DUWK¶VDWPRVSKHUH
 DQGWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIIDLOLQJWR
achieve this. 24
3. The Solar System and gravity 25
 'HVFULEHDJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOGQHDUD
massive object in terms of its effects
on other masses. 25
 'H¿QH1HZWRQ¶V/DZRI8QLYHUVDO
Gravitation. 25
3.3 Solve problems and analyse information
using:
25
3.4 Discuss factors affecting the strength
of the gravitational force. 27
 'LVFXVVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI1HZWRQ¶V
Law of Universal Gravitation in
understanding and calculating the
motion of satellites. 28

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Dot Point HSC Physics vii Space

 Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

3.6 Identify that a slingshot effect can be 4.12 Discuss the relationship between
provided by planets for space probes. 28 theory and the evidence supporting
4. Understanding time and space 29  LWXVLQJ(LQVWHLQ¶VSUHGLFWLRQVEDVHG
on relativity that were made many
4.1 Outline the features of the aether
years before evidence was available
model for the transmission of light. 29
to support it. 33
4.2 Describe and evaluate the
 ([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
 0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW 
of special relativity in relation to the
4.3 Interpret the results of the relativity of simultaneity. 34
 0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW 
 ([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
4.4 Discuss the role of the  RIVSHFLDOUHODWLYLW\WRWKHHTXLYDOHQFH
 0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQWLQ of mass and energy. 34
making determinations about
4.15 Solve problems using: 34
competing theories. 30
 ([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
4.5 Outline the nature of inertial frames
of special relativity in relation to mass. 35
of reference. 30
4.17 Solve problems using the relativistic
4.6 Perform an investigation to distinguish
 PDVVHTXDWLRQ 
 EHWZHHQQRQLQHUWLDODQGLQHUWLDO
frames of reference. 31  ([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
of special relativity in relation to
4.7 Discuss the principle of relativity. 32
length contraction. 36
 'HVFULEHWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKH
4.19 Solve problems using the relativistic
 DVVXPSWLRQRI(LQVWHLQ¶VDVVXPSWLRQ
 OHQJWKHTXDWLRQ 
of the constancy of the speed of light. 32
 ([SODLQTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHFRQVHTXHQFH
 $QDO\VHDQGLQWHUSUHWVRPHRI(LQVWHLQ¶V
of special relativity in relation to time
thought experiments about mirrors
dilation. 37
and trains and discuss the relationship
between thought and reality. 32 4.21 Solve problems using the time
 GLODWLRQHTXDWLRQ 
4.10 Identify that if c is constant, then
space and time become relative. 33 4.22 Discuss implications of mass increase,
time dilation, length contraction for
4.11 Discuss the concept that length standards
space travel. 38
 DUHGH¿QHGLQWHUPVRIWLPHLQFRQWUDVW
to the original metre standard. 33 Answers to Space 237

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Space viii Dot Point HSC Physics

 Motors and Generators

Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

1. Current-carrying conductors 40  ,GHQWLI\WKDWWKHPDJQHWLF¿HOGLQ

1.1 Discuss the effect, on the force on a  '&PRWRUVFDQEHSURGXFHGE\FXUUHQW
 FXUUHQWFDUU\LQJFRQGXFWRURI carrying coils or permanent magnets. 50
variations in: 2. Generating electricity 51
 ‡WKHPDJQHWLF¿HOGLQZKLFKLWLVORFDWHG  2XWOLQH)DUDGD\¶VGLVFRYHU\RIWKH
 ‡WKHFXUUHQWLQWKHFRQGXFWRU generation of electricity by a moving
 ‡WKHOHQJWKRIWKHFRQGXFWRULQWKH¿HOG magnet. 51
 ‡WKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHPDJQHWLF¿HOG
2.2 Perform an investigation to model
and conductor. 40
the generation of an electric current
1.2 Solve problems and analyse by moving a magnet in a coil or a
information about the force on coil near a magnet. 52
 FXUUHQWFDUU\LQJFRQGXFWRUVLQ
2.3 Plan and perform an experiment to
 PDJQHWLF¿HOGVXVLQJ
predict and verify the effect on a
40 generated current of the distance
 'HVFULEHTXDOLWDWLYHO\DQGTXDQWLWDWLYHO\ between the coil and the magnet,
the force between long, parallel the strength of the magnet, and the
current–carrying conductors using: relative motion between the coil and
the magnet. 52
41  'H¿QHPDJQHWLF¿HOGVWUHQJWKB as
1.4 Solve problems using:  PDJQHWLFÀX[GHQVLW\ 

42  'HVFULEHPDJQHWLFÀX[LQWHUPVRI
 PDJQHWLFÀX[GHQVLW\DQGVXUIDFHDUHD 
1.5 Describe the forces experienced by a
 FXUUHQWFDUU\LQJORRSLQDPDJQHWLF 2.6 Describe generated potential difference
 ¿HOGDQGGHVFULEHWKHQHWUHVXOWRI  DVWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHRIPDJQHWLFÀX[ 
the forces. 43  $FFRXQWIRU/HQ]¶V/DZLQWHUPVRI
1.6 Perform an experiment to demonstrate conservation of energy. 54
the motor effect. 44  5HODWH/HQ]¶V/DZWRWKHSURGXFWLRQ
 'H¿QHWRUTXHDVWKHWXUQLQJPRPHQW of back emf in motors and that this
of a force using: T 45 opposes the supply emf. 55

1.8 Solve problems and analyse information 2.9 Explain production of eddy currents
about simple motors using:  LQWHUPVRI/HQ]¶V/DZ 
T 46 2.10 Explain how induction is used in
1.9 Identify the motor effect is due to the cooktops. 62
 IRUFHDFWLQJRQDFXUUHQWFDUU\LQJ 2.11 Explain how eddy currents are used
 FRQGXFWRULQDPDJQHWLF¿HOG  in electromagnetic braking. 62
1.10 Describe the application of the motor 3. Generators 63
effect in a galvanometer. 47 3.1 Describe the main components of a
1.11 Describe the application of the motor generator. 63
effect in a loudspeaker. 48 3.2 Describe the differences between DC
1.12 Describe the main features of a DC and AC generators. 63
electric motor and the role of each feature. 49

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Dot Point HSC Physics ix Motors and Generators

 Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

3.3 Compare the structure and function 4.4 Solve problems using:
of a motor and a generator. 65
3.4 Discuss advantages and disadvantages 72
of AC and DC generators and relate 4.5 Discuss how the heating effects of
these to their use. 66 eddy currents are minimised in
3.5 Perform an experiment to demonstrate transformers. 74
the production of an alternating current. 66 4.6 Perform an experiment to model the
3.6 Discuss energy losses that occur in structure and working of a transformer. 74
transmission lines. 66 4.7 Discuss the need for transformers in
3.7 Assess the effects of the development electricity transmission from source
of AC generators on society. 67 to point of use. 75
3.8 Assess the effects of the development 4.8 Explain why voltage transformations
of AC generators on the environment. 67 are related to conservation of energy. 75
3.9 Analyse the competition between 4.9 Discuss why some electrical appliances
Edison and Westinghouse to supply in the home use transformers. 76
electricity to cities. 67 4.10 Discuss the impact of the development
3.10 Identify how transmission lines are of transformers on society. 76
insulated from supporting structures 5. Motors and energy changes 77
and protected from lightning. 69 5.1 Describe the main features of an AC
4. Transformers 71 electric motor. 77
4.1 Describe the purpose of transformers 5.2 Perform an investigation to demonstrate
in electrical circuits. 71 the principle of an AC induction motor. 78
 &RPSDUHVWHSXSDQGVWHSGRZQ 5.3 Identify some of the energy
transformers. 71 transformations involving the
4.3 Identify the relationship between the conversion of electrical energy that
ratio of the number of turns in the occur in homes and industry. 79
primary and secondary coils and the Answers to Motors and Generators 247
ratio of the primary to secondary
voltage. 72

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Motors and Generators x Dot Point HSC Physics

 From Ideas to Implementation

Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

1. Cathode rays 82 1.11 For cathode ray tubes, outline the role of:
1.1 Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed  ‡WKHHOHFWURGHVLQWKHHOHFWURQJXQ
the manipulation of charged particles. 82  ‡WKHGHÀHFWLRQSODWHVRUFRLOV
 ‡WKHÀXRUHVFHQWVFUHHQ 
1.2 Explain why the apparent behaviour
of cathode rays caused debate as to 2. The photoelectric effect and black
whether they were charged particles body radiation 93
or electromagnetic waves. 82  2XWOLQH+HUW]¶VH[SHULPHQWLQ
1.3 Perform an investigation to identify measuring the speed of radio waves
properties of cathode rays using and how they relate to light waves. 93
discharge tubes containing:  'HVFULEH+HUW]¶VREVHUYDWLRQRIWKH
 ‡D0DOWHVHFURVV effect of a radio wave on a receiver
 ‡HOHFWULFSODWHV and the photoelectric effect he
 ‡DÀXRUHVFHQWVFUHHQ produced but failed to investigate. 94
 ‡DJODVVZKHHO
2.3 Perform an experiment to show the
and analyse the information to production and reception of radio waves. 94
determine the sign of the charge on
 ,GHQWLI\3ODQFN¶VK\SRWKHVLVWKDW
cathode rays. 83
radiation emitted and absorbed by the
1.4 Perform an investigation to observe  ZDOOVRIDEODFNERG\LVTXDQWLVHG 
the different patterns of striations in
 ,GHQWLI\(LQVWHLQ¶VFRQWULEXWLRQWR
cathode ray tubes at different pressures. 84
 TXDQWXPWKHRU\DQGLWVUHODWLRQWR
1.5 Identify that moving charged particles black body radiation. 96
 LQDPDJQHWLF¿HOGH[SHULHQFHDIRUFH 
 $VVHVV(LQVWHLQ¶VFRQWULEXWLRQWR
 'LVFXVVTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHHOHFWULF¿HOG  TXDQWXPWKHRU\DQGLWVUHODWLRQWR
strength due to point, positive and black body radiation. 98
negative charges. 85
2.7 Explain the particle model of light in
1.7 Identify that charged plates produce terms of photons with particular energy
 DQHOHFWULF¿HOG   DQGIUHTXHQF\ 
 'LVFXVVTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHHOHFWULF¿HOG 2.8 Identify the relationships between
strength due to oppositely charged  SKRWRQHQHUJ\IUHTXHQF\VSHHGRI
parallel plates. 87 light and wavelength using:
 'HVFULEHTXDQWLWDWLYHO\WKHIRUFHRQ and 99
a moving charged particle in a
2.9 Solve problems using:
 PDJQHWLF¿HOGDQGVROYHSUREOHPV
and 99
using:
F = qE 2.10 Summarise the use of the photoelectric
effect in solar cells and photocells. 101
 'LVFXVV(LQVWHLQDQG3ODQFN¶V
F = qvBsin ș 87
 GLIIHULQJYLHZVDERXWZKHWKHUVFLHQWL¿F
1.10 Outline the experiment by Thomson research is removed from social and
to measure the charge/mass ratio of political forces. 102
an electron. 90

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 Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

3. Transistors 103 4. Superconductors 115

3.1 Identify that some electrons in solids are 4.1 Outline the methods used by the
shared between atoms and move freely. 103 Braggs to determine crystal structure. 115
3.2 Describe, in terms of band structures 4.2 Identify that metals possess a crystal
and relative electrical resistance, lattice structure. 115
the differences in conductors, 4.3 Describe conduction in metals as a
insulators, semiconductors. 103 movement of free electrons
3.3 Identify absences of electrons in unimpeded by the lattice. 115
nearly full bands as positive holes, 4.4 Identify that resistance in metals is
and recognise that electrons and holes increased by the presence of impurities
help to carry current. 105 and scattering of electrons by lattice
 &RPSDUHTXDOLWDWLYHO\WKHUHODWLYH vibrations. 115
number of free electrons in conductors, 4.5 Describe the occurrence in superconductors
semiconductors and insulators. 107 below their critical temperature of a
3.5 Perform an experiment to model the population of electron pairs unaffected
behaviour of semiconductors. 107 by electrical resistance. 116
3.6 Identify that the use of germanium in 4.6 Identify some of the metals, alloys
early transistors was related to the  DQGFRPSRXQGVLGHQWL¿HGDVH[KLELWLQJ
inability to produce other materials superconductivity and their critical
of suitable purity. 108 temperatures. 116
3.7 Describe how doping a semiconductor 4.7 Discuss the BCS theory. 116
can change its electrical properties. 108 4.8 Discuss the advantages of using
 ,GHQWLI\GLIIHUHQFHVLQSDQGQW\SH superconductors and identify
semiconductors in terms of their limitations to their use. 117
relative numbers of negative charge 4.9 Explain why a magnet is able to hover
carriers and positive holes. 109 above a superconducting material
3.9 Describe differences between solid below its critical temperature. 118
state and thermionic devices and why 4.10 Perform an investigation to
solid state replaced thermionic devices. 109 demonstrate magnetic levitation. 119
3.10 Discuss how shortcomings in 4.11 Describe how superconductors and
communications technology led to  WKHHIIHFWVRIPDJQHWLF¿HOGVKDYH
an increased knowledge of the properties been applied to develop a maglev train. 119
of materials with reference to the 4.12 Discuss possible applications of
invention of transistors. 110 superconductivity and the effects of
3.11 Assess the impact of transistors on those applications on computers,
society with particular reference to their generators, motors and the transmission
use in microchips and microprocessors. 110 of electricity through transmission grids. 120
3.12 Identify data sources, gather, process Answers to From Ideas to Implementation 259
and present information to summarise
the effect of light on semiconductors
in solar cells. 110

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From Ideas to Implementation xii Dot Point HSC Physics

 From Quanta to Quarks

Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

1. Models of the atom 122 2.5 Explain the stability of the electron
1.1 Discuss the Rutherford model of the atom. 122 orbits in the Bohr atom using
 GH%URJOLH¶VK\SRWKHVLV 
 $QDO\VHWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKH
hydrogen spectrum in the 2.6 Assess the contribution made by
development of the Bohr model. 122 Heisenberg and Pauli to atomic theory. 134
1.3 Perform an experiment to observe 3. Development of nuclear physics 135
the visible components of the  'H¿QHWKHFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHQXFOHXV
hydrogen spectrum. 123 and contrast their properties. 135
 'LVFXVV3ODQFN¶VFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKH 3.2 Discuss the importance of the
 FRQFHSWRITXDQWLVHGHQHUJ\   FRQVHUYDWLRQODZVWR&KDGZLFN¶V
 'H¿QH%RKU¶VSRVWXODWHV  discovery of the neutron. 135
 'HVFULEHKRZ%RKU¶VSRVWXODWHVOHG  'H¿QHWKHWHUPQXFOHDUWUDQVPXWDWLRQ 
to a mathematical model to account 3.4 Describe nuclear transmutations due
for the hydrogen spectrum. 125 to natural radioactivity. 137
1.7 Solve problems and analyse  'HVFULEH)HUPL¶VLQLWLDOH[SHULPHQWDO
information using:  REVHUYDWLRQRIQXFOHDU¿VVLRQ 
3.6 Perform an experiment to observe
125 radiation emitted from a nucleus
using a Wilson cloud chamber or
1.8 Process and present diagrams to show
similar device. 139
 %RKU¶VH[SODQDWLRQRIWKH%DOPHUVHULHV 
 'LVFXVV3DXOL¶VLGHDRIWKHWKH
1.9 Discuss the limitations of the Bohr
neutrino and the need to account for
model of the hydrogen atom. 130
 WKHHQHUJ\HOHFWURQVHPLWWHGLQȕGHFD\ 
 ,GHQWLI\GLI¿FXOWLHVZLWKWKH%RKU
3.8 Evaluate the relative contribution of
model, including its inability to
electrostatic and gravitational forces
explain spectra of larger atoms,
between nucleons. 141
 LQWHQVLW\RIDQGK\SHU¿QHVSHFWUDO
lines and the Zeeman effect. 130 3.9 Account for the need for the strong
nuclear force and describe its properties. 141
2. Development of quantum physics 131
3.10 Explain the concept of mass defect
 'HVFULEHWKHLPSDFWRIGH%URJOLH¶V
 XVLQJ(LQVWHLQ¶VHTXLYDOHQFHEHWZHHQ
proposal that any kind of particle has
mass and energy. 142
both wave and particle properties. 131
3.11 Solve problems to calculate the mass
2.2 Solve problems and analyse
defect and energy released in natural
information using:
 WUDQVPXWDWLRQDQG¿VVLRQUHDFWLRQV 
131  'HVFULEH)HUPL¶VGHPRQVWUDWLRQVRI
 'H¿QHGLIIUDFWLRQDQGLGHQWLI\WKDW a nuclear chain reaction in 1942. 146
interference occurs between waves  &RPSDUHUHTXLUHPHQWVIRUFRQWUROOHG
that have been diffracted. 132 and uncontrolled chain reactions. 147
 'HVFULEHWKHFRQ¿UPDWLRQRIGH%URJOLH¶V
proposal by Davisson and Germer. 133

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Dot Point HSC Physics xiii From Quanta to Quarks

 Dot Point Page Dot Point Page

4. Applications of nuclear physics 151 4.6 Identify ways by which physicists

4.1 Explain the basic principles of a continue to develop their
 ¿VVLRQUHDFWRU  understanding of matter using
accelerators as a probe to investigate
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the structure of matter. 155
Manhattan Project to society. 153
4.7 Discuss the key features and
4.3 Describe some medical and industrial
components of the standard model
applications of radioisotopes. 153
 RIPDWWHULQFOXGLQJTXDUNVDQGOHSWRQV 
4.4 Describe the use of a named isotope
Answers to From Quanta to Quarks 271
in medicine, agriculture, and
engineering. 154
4.5 Describe how neutron scattering is
used as a probe by referring to the
properties of neutrons. 155

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From Quanta to Quarks xiv Dot Point HSC Physics

 DOT POINT
Space

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Dot Point HSC Physics 1 Space

 1. The Earth has a gravitational field that exerts a force on objects both on it and around it.

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1.1.1 Predict the weight of a 5 kg object on Earth compared to its weight on Jupiter, and explain the
reasoning behind your prediction. The gravitational acceleration on Jupiter is about 24.8 m s–2.

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1.1.2 Complete the table to compare mass and weight.

Mass Weight

1.2 Use F = mg to determine the weight force of bodies on Earth and other planets.
1.2.1 Determine the weight of an object of mass 3.0 kg on Earth and on Mars which has a
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1.2.2 An object has a mass of 12 kg on Earth and a weight of 135.24 N on Saturn. Calculate the
YDOXHRIWKHDFFHOHUDWLRQGXHWRJUDYLW\RQ6DWXUQDQGWKHREMHFW¶VZHLJKWRQ(DUWK

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Space 2 Dot Point HSC Physics

 1.2.3 A mass is placed on a set of bathroom scales on Earth and the scales read 10 kg. The same
scales and the mass are taken to the Moon to show that the mass of an object is constant
regardless of where it is in the Universe. When placed on the scales on the Moon however,
the scales read 1.67 kg. Account for this reading.

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1.3 Predict the acceleration due to gravity on other planets.

1.3.1 The table shows masses and diameters of the Sun, our Moon and the planets in the Solar
System.
(a) Complete the fourth column of the table by ranking the gravitational force on each object
from smallest (1) to largest (11) given the values for the Sun, the Earth and Pluto.
E  RPSOHWHWKH¿IWKFROXPQRIWKHWDEOHE\SUHGLFWLQJWKHUHODWLYHVL]HRIWKHJUDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFH
&
on each object given the three values for the Moon, Earth and the Sun.
Gravitational force Gravitational
Diameter of object
Object Mass of object (kg) (smallest (1) to acceleration
(km)
largest (12)) (m s–2 )
The Sun 1.99 × 1030 1 392 530 11 275.4
23
Mercury 3.58 × 10 4878
24
Venus 4.90× 10 12 104
24
Earth 5.974 × 10 12 756 7 9.8
The Moon 7.35 × 1022 3467 1.6
Mars 6.43 × 1023 6794
27
Jupiter 1.90 × 10 142 984
26
Saturn 5.69 × 10 120 000
25
Uranus 8.68 × 10 51 800
Neptune 1.03 × 1026 49 250
22
Pluto 1.27 × 10 2320 1

1.3.2 An object has a mass of 60 kg on Mars where the gravitational acceleration is 0.38
that of Earth.

(a) What will be the mass of the object on Mars?

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(b) What will be the weight of the object on Earth?

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Dot Point HSC Physics 3 Space

 (c) What will be the weight of the object on Mars?

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(d) What will be the mass of the object on a planet where the acceleration due to gravity
is 2.5 times larger than that on Earth?

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(e) What will be the weight of the object on this planet?

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1.4 Perform an experiment to determine the value of the acceleration due to gravity and identify
reasons for possible variations from 9.8 m s–2.
1.4.1 Outline an experiment you have done to determine the acceleration due to gravity.

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1.4.2 A group of students set up a pendulum and recorded the measurements shown in the table.
Length of pendulum
Time for 20 swings (s) Period of swing (s) (Period of swing)2 (s2)
string (m)

0.25 20.0
0.50 28.2
0.75 38.6
1.00 40.0
1.25 44.9
1.50 49.9
2.00 56.5

(a) Identify two factors which would have been kept constant if this experiment had been done correctly.

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(b) Complete the results table.

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Space 4 Dot Point HSC Physics

 (c) What are these results telling us?

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(d) Draw a graph of the period of swing (T) against

the length of the pendulum (l).
(e) What conclusion can we draw from this graph?
Explain your answer.

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I , QGUDZLQJ\RXUOLQHRIEHVW¿W\RXVKRXOGKDYHLJQRUHGRQHSORWSRLQW,GHQWLI\ZKLFKSORW
point and explain why it should be ignored.

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l
T = 2π
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8
graph which does show the relationship between the period of a pendulum and its length.
(i) Use your graph to determine a value for the
acceleration due to gravity as found by this
experiment.

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Dot Point HSC Physics 5 Space

 1.4.3 Recall three reasons why the acceleration due to gravity at different places on the surface of
the Earth varies slightly from the 9.8 m s–2 value we usually use.

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1.5 Explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to work done.
1.5.1 Explain the relationship between the work done on an object which changes its position in a
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1.5.2 Identify the source of the work done when a satellite moves:
(a) to a higher altitude orbit

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(b) to a lower altitude orbit

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1.5.3 A satellite has 4000 J of work done on it. Does it move to a higher or lower altitude orbit?
Explain your answer.

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Space 6 Dot Point HSC Physics

 1.5.4 A comet approaches the Sun and swings around it to +
travel back into the outer Solar System for years. The KE
graphs show how the gravitational potential and kinetic
energies of this comet change as it moves away from the
Sun. Explain the shape of the two graphs.
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'
LQ¿QLW\WRDSRLQWLQDJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOG
1.6.1 Calculate the gravitational potential energy of a 2000 kg satellite which
orbits the Earth at an altitude of 35 000 km. The radius of Earth is 6378 km.

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1.6.2 A satellite of mass 500 kg is boosted from an orbit of altitude 10 000 km to one of altitude
20 000 km. Given the diameter of Earth as 12 756 km, its mass as 5.97 × 1024 kg, calculate
the change in the gravitational potential energy of the satellite.

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Dot Point HSC Physics 7 Space

 1.6.3 Explain, in terms of the principles of physics involved, why gravitational potential energy is a
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1.6.4 Satellite X has its orbit around Earth changed from an altitude of 10 000 km to an altitude of
20 000 km. Satellite Y has its orbit around Earth changed from an altitude of 20 000 km to an
altitude of 30 000 km. Both satellites have a mass of 500 kg.
(a) Predict the amount of work done on X compared to the amount done on Y and explain your
reasoning.

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(b) Calculate the amount of work done on each satellite to see if your prediction was correct.

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1.6.5
(a) Three spacecraft having masses m1 > m2 > m3 are in the same stable orbit around planet X.
Compare their gravitational potential energies and justify your answer.

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(b) The three spacecraft are now moved to an orbit with twice the radius relative to the centre of
the planet. Compare the work which needs to be done on each. Justify your answer.

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(c) The three spacecraft each undergo orbital decay and fall to identical lower altitude orbits.
Compare the changes in their kinetic energies. Justify your answer.

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Space 8 Dot Point HSC Physics

 2. Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful rocket launch, to
maintain a stable orbit and to return to Earth.

2.1 Describe the trajectory of an object undergoing projectile motion within the Earth’s
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2.1.1 Outline the characteristics of the motion of a projectile.

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2.1.2 A projectile is launched at 40 m s–1 at 75º to the horizontal. Calculate the components of its
launch velocity.

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2.2 Describe Galileo’s analysis of projectile motion.

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2.2.2 The table shows the results of an experiment where a ball was rolled along a smooth,
horizontal surface at 15 m s–1 and then over the edge of a 150 m drop. The ball left the surface
and started to fall at time zero.
Time (s) Speed of ball (m s–1)
1 17.92
2 24.68
3 33.01
4 41.97

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Dot Point HSC Physics 9 Space

 'HPRQVWUDWHWKDWWKHVHUHVXOWVDUHFRQVLVWHQWZLWK*DOLOHR¶VDQDO\VLVRISURMHFWLOHPRWLRQ

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2.3 Solve projectile motion problems using horizontal and vertical components and Newton’s
equations of motion.
2.3.1 $SURMHFWLOHLV¿UHGKRUL]RQWDOO\DWPV–1 from the top of a 196 m high cliff. Calculate:
D LWVWLPHRIÀLJKW

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(b) its range

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(c) its velocity on hitting the ground

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2.3.2 $SURMHFWLOHKDVDWLPHRIÀLJKWRIVDQGDUDQJHRIP&DOFXODWH
(a) its horizontal velocity

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Space 10 Dot Point HSC Physics

 (b) its maximum height

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(c) the velocity with which it is projected

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2.3.3  FDQQRQEDOOLV¿UHGDWPV–1 at an angle of 45° to the horizontal. Calculate the height at

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which the ball hits a vertical cliff 150 m away.

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2.4 Explain the concept of escape velocity in terms of the gravitational constant, and the mass and
radius of the planet.
2.4.1 .QRZLQJWKDWWKHZRUNGRQHRQDQREMHFWGLVSODFHGLQDJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOGLVHTXDOWRLWV
FKDQJHLQJUDYLWDWLRQDOSRWHQWLDOHQHUJ\DQGWKDWWKLVDOVRHTXDOVLWVFKDQJHLQNLQHWLFHQHUJ\
show that escape velocity is independent of the mass of the object being put into orbit.

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Dot Point HSC Physics 11 Space

 2.4.2 The escape velocity of Earth is 11.2 kps. That for Neptune is 23.6 kps. Give possible reasons
to account for this difference.

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2.4.3 Mercury has a mass of 3.58 × 1023 kg and a diameter of 4880 km. Venus has a mass of
4.92 × 1024 kg and a diameter of 12 104 km. Predict which has the greater escape velocity and
explain your reasoning.

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2.5 Outline Newton’s concept of escape velocity.

2.5.1 2XWOLQH1HZWRQ¶VLGHDRIHVFDSHYHORFLW\

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2.6 Identify why the term ‘g-forces’ is used to explain the forces acting on an astronaut.
2.6.1 ([SODLQWKHWZRPDLQUHDVRQVZHXVHDJIRUFHVFDOH

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2.6.2 A rocket is accelerating from the launch pad at 26.95 m s–2.

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E 3UHGLFWWKHJIRUFHDFWLQJRQDQNJDVWURQDXW ..................................................................................................

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Space 12 Dot Point HSC Physics

 2.6.3 A rocket is accelerating from between Mars and Jupiter at 26.95 m s–2&DOFXODWHWKHJIRUFH
on a 60 kg astronaut.

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  HUIRUPD¿UVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFDOFXODWHWKHLQLWLDODQG¿QDOYHORFLWLHVUDQJHDQGWLPHRI
3
ÀLJKWRIDSURMHFWLOH
2.7.1 The diagram shows a stroboscopic photograph of a projectile which was released from
SRLQW3UROOHGGRZQWKHFXUYHGWUDFNDQGZDVSURMHFWHGLQWRWKHDLU7KHIUHTXHQF\RIWKH
VWURERVFRSHZDV+]DQGHDFKJULGVTXDUHRQWKHGLDJUDPUHSUHVHQWVFPîFP
(a) Calculate the horizontal component of the projectile as it left the track.

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0

(b) Calculate the vertical component of the

projectile as it left the track.

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(c) Calculate the velocity of the projectile as it

left the track.

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(d) Determine the maximum height of the

projectile above the end of the track.

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Dot Point HSC Physics 13 Space

 H ,IWKHSURMHFWLOHKLWWKHÀRRUPEHORZWKHODVWSRVLWLRQVKRZQGHWHUPLQHLWVWLPHRIÀLJKW

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(f) Calculate the range of the projectile.

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2.8 Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of the Law of
Conservation of Momentum and the forces experienced by astronauts.
2.8.1 A rocket has a mass of 400 kg, 75% being fuel. It develops a thrust of 8000 N.
(a) Calculate its initial acceleration.

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(b) Calculate its acceleration when half its fuel has been consumed.

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&
FRQVXPHG$VVXPHWKHURFNHWLVVWLOOZLWKLQ(DUWK¶VJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOG

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Space 14 Dot Point HSC Physics

 2.8.2  UDZDW\SLFDOJIRUFHJUDSKIRUDWZRVWDJHURFNHWDQGXVHLWWRH[SODLQZK\VWDJHGURFNHWV
'
are used to put astronauts into space.

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2.8.4 A rocket has a mass of 30 000 kg, including 25 000 kg of fuel. It develops 360 000 N of
thrust. Calculate:
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(b) the theoretical maximum acceleration of the rocket

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 15 Space

 2.8.5 Explain, in terms of the Law of Conservation of Momentum, how a rocket takes off.

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2.9 Discuss the effect of the Earth’s orbital and rotational motion on the launch of a rocket.
2.9.1 Recall the optimum position on Earth and orientation of a launch in order to place a satellite
in orbit around the Earth.

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2.9.2 Justify your answer to 2.9.1 above.

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2.9.3  URFNHWLVWREHODXQFKHGWR0DUV([SODLQZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKH(DUWK¶VRUELWDOPRWLRQDURXQG
$
WKH6XQDQGZLWKWKHDLGRIDGLDJUDPWKHFRQFHSWRIDµODXQFKZLQGRZ¶IRUWKLVURFNHW

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Space 16 Dot Point HSC Physics

 2.10 Analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of objects, including
satellites orbiting Earth.
2.10.1 Choose an object which undergoes uniform circular motion (do not choose a satellite in
orbit). With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the forces acting on this object.

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2.10.2 State the forces acting on a satellite in a stable orbit around Earth.

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2.10.2 $QDVWURQDXWLQDFLUFXODURUELWDURXQG(DUWKIHHOVµZHLJKWOHVV¶$FFRXQWIRUWKLVIHHOLQJ

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2.11 Solve problems to calculate the centripetal force acting on a satellite in orbit about Earth using:

2.11.1 A 3000 kg satellite is orbiting Earth at an altitude of 250 km. Its orbital speed is 27 800 kph.
and the diameter of Earth is 12 756 km. Calculate:
(a) the centripetal force acting on it

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(b) its centripetal acceleration

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 17 Space

 2.11.2 A 150 kg satellite is orbiting Earth at an altitude of 272 km. Its orbital period is 90 minutes.
Given that the diameter of Earth is 12576 km, and its mass is 5.974 × 1024 kg, calculate the
centripetal force on the satellite.

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2.12 Compare qualitatively, low Earth and geostationary orbits.

2.12.1 Recall a use for low Earth orbit and geostationary satellites.

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2.12.2 Explain why each type of satellite is ideal for the use you have given in 2.12.1 above.

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2.12.3 Complete the table to compare low Earth and geostationary satellites.
Low Earth satellites Geostationary satellites

Science Press

Space 18 Dot Point HSC Physics

 2.13 Outline the contribution of one of the following to the development of space exploration:
Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, Goddard, Esnault-Pelterie, O’Neill or von Braun.

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 '
 H¿QHRUELWDOYHORFLW\DQGWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQRUELWDOYHORFLW\WKHJUDYLWDWLRQDOFRQVWDQW
the mass of the planet, the mass of the satellite and the radius of the orbit qualitatively and
quantitatively.
2.14.1 'H¿QHRUELWDOYHORFLW\

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2.14.2 Imagine satellites orbiting Earth and Jupiter, both at altitudes of 2000 km. Compare their
RUELWDOYHORFLWLHVTXDOLWDWLYHO\RQO\DQGDFFRXQWIRUWKHGLIIHUHQFH

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2.14.3 Three moons around planet X have masses M, 9 M and 16 M.

D , IDOOPRRQVDUHWKHVDPHGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSODQHW¶VFHQWUHFDOFXODWHWKHUDWLRRIWKHLURUELWDO
speeds.

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 19 Space

 E , IWKHGLVWDQFHVRIWKHVHPRRQVIURPWKHSODQHW¶VFHQWUHDUHR, 9 R and 16 R respectively,
calculate the ratio of their orbital speeds.

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2.14.4 Three identical moons are in orbit around planets of masses M, 9 M and 16 M. The planets
have the same radii.
D ,IWKHPRRQVKDYHWKHVDPHRUELWDOVSHHGV¿QGWKHUDWLRRIWKHLURUELWDOUDGLL

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E ,IWKHRUELWDOUDGLLRIWKHPRRQVDUHWKHVDPH¿QGWKHUDWLRRIWKHLURUELWDOVSHHGV

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2.14.5 Calculate the orbital speed of the Earth around the Sun given the mass of the Sun is
1.99 × 1030 kg, and its diameter is 1 392 530 km. The mass of the Earth is 5.974 × 1024 kg, its
diameter is 12 756 km, and the distance between the Sun and Earth is 150 000 000 km.

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Science Press

Space 20 Dot Point HSC Physics

 2.15 Solve problems using Kepler’s Law of Periods:

2.15.1 Calculate the orbital period of Deimos, one of the two moons of Mars. Its average distance
from Mars is 23 400 km and its irregular shape averages about 13 km across. The mass of
Mars is 6.42 × 1023 kg, and its diameter is 6794 km.

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2.15.2 Calculate the altitude of an Earth satellite with a period of 12 hours. The mass of the Earth is
5.974 × 1024 kg.

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2.15.3 7
 KHWDEOHJLYHVLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWIRXURIWKHPRRQVRIWKHSODQHW8UDQXV8VH.HSOHU¶V/DZ
of Periods to calculate the missing data in the following table:
Moon Radius of orbit (km) Orbital period (Earth days)
Miranda A 1.41
Ariel 190 900 B
Titania C 8.71
Oberon 583 400 13.46

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Dot Point HSC Physics 21 Space

 2.15.4 *HRVWDWLRQDU\VDWHOOLWHVRUELWZLWKDUDGLXVRINP8VHWKLVLQIRUPDWLRQWR¿QG
(a) the period of a satellite which orbits with a radius of 15 000 km

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(b) the orbital radius of a satellite which has an orbital period of 4.0 hours

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2.15.5 Io, closest to the planet, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, furthest from the planet, are the four
moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo in 1610. There is an interesting relationship between
the orbital period (TRIWKH¿UVWWKUHHPRRQVHDFKEHLQJKDOIWKDWRIWKHQH[WPRRQIXUWKHU
from the planet. In other words:
TIo = 0.5 × TEuropa
TEuropa = 0.5 × TGanymede
Given the mass of Jupiter as 1.90 × 1027 kg and the orbital radius of Ganymede as
1.1 × 106 km, calculate:
(a) the orbital radius of Io

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E ,R¶VRUELWDOVSHHG

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Science Press

Space 22 Dot Point HSC Physics

 2.16 Account for the orbital decay of satellites in LEO.
2.16.1 Explain, in terms of the principle of physics involved why satellites in low Earth orbits will
eventually fall to Earth.

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2.16.2 Two students are discussing orbital decay. Maria says that frictional forces between the
spacecraft and the atmosphere are responsible. Edward says that this is incorrect and that
WKHUHDOUHDVRQLVWKDWJUDYLWDWLRQDOIRUFHVSXOOWKHVSDFHFUDIWGRZQ(YDOXDWHWKHVWXGHQWV¶
statements.

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2.17 Discuss issues associated with safe re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere and landing on the
Earth’s surface.
2.17.1 6XPPDULVHKRZKHDWEXLOGXSZDVLVPLQLPLVHGLQVSDFHFUDIWUHHQWU\
D LQWKHHDUO\GD\VRIVSDFHÀLJKW

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(b) on the space shuttle

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 23 Space

 2.17.2 Explain the concept of VDFUL¿FLDOOD\HUVRQUHHQWU\VSDFHFUDIW

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2.17.3 ,GHQWLI\DQGMXVWLI\WKHGLUHFWLRQDVWURQDXWVVKRXOGIDFHGXULQJWDNHRIIDQGUHHQWU\

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2.18 Identify that there is an optimum angle for re-entry of a spacecraft into the Earth’s atmosphere
and the consequences of failing to achieve this.
2.18.1 5
 HFDOOWKHUDQJHRIWKHVDIHUHHQWU\DQJOHIRUWKH$SROORPLVVLRQUHHQWU\FUDIWUHHQWHULQJ
(DUWK¶VDWPRVSKHUH

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2.18.2 ,GHQWLI\WKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIIDLOLQJWRDFKLHYHDUHHQWU\DQJOHZLWKLQWKLVUDQJH

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2.18.3 7
 KHUHHQWU\DQJOHYDULHVIRUGLIIHUHQWUHHQWU\FUDIW3UHGLFWWKHWZRPDLQSURSHUWLHVRIWKH
UHHQWU\FUDIWZKLFKGHWHUPLQHVLW

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Science Press

Space 24 Dot Point HSC Physics

 3. The Solar System is held together by gravity.

 'HVFULEHDJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOGQHDUDPDVVLYHREMHFWLQWHUPVRILWVHIIHFWVRQRWKHUPDVVHV
3.1.1 'H¿QHLQJHQHUDOWKHFRQFHSWRIµD¿HOG¶LQSK\VLFV

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3.1.2 'H¿QHWKHFRQFHSWRIDJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOG

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 'H¿QH1HZWRQ¶V/DZRI8QLYHUVDO*UDYLWDWLRQ
3.2.1 1HZWRQ¶V/DZRI8QLYHUVDO*UDYLWDWLRQLVPDGHXSRIWKUHHVWDWHPHQWV5HFDOOWKHP

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3.2.2  HWHUPLQHWKHXQLWVRI1HZWRQ¶VXQLYHUVDOJUDYLWDWLRQDOFRQVWDQWDQGXVHNQRZQYDOXHVWR
'
calculate its magnitude.

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3.3 Solve problems and analyse information using:

3.3.1 Calculate the gravitational force between the Moon and the Earth. The mass of the Moon is
7.35 × 1022 kg, that of the Earth is 5.974 × 1024 kg, the diameter of the Moon is 3467 km, that
of the Earth is 12 756 km and the distance between them is about 406 676 km.

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 25 Space

 3.3.2 The mass of Jupiter is 1.9 × 1027 kg. Its diameter is 142 984 km. Calculate:
(a) the weight of a 10 kg object on its surface

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(b) the value of its acceleration due to gravity at its surface

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3.3.3 The radius of the Earth is 6378 km and its mass is 5.974 × 1024 kg. Calculate the acceleration
at an altitude of 15 000 m.

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3.3.4 Two moons have masses M and 4 M and radii R and 4 R respectively. Compare their
accelerations due to gravity.

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3.3.5 The mass of Mercury is 3.58 × 1023 kg. Its diameter is 4880 km. Compare its gravitational
acceleration with that of Pluto, mass 1.27 × 1022 kg, diameter 2320 km.

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Science Press

Space 26 Dot Point HSC Physics

 3.3.6 Calculate the gravitational force between two 60 kg students two metres apart.

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3.4 Discuss factors affecting the strength of the gravitational force.

3.4.1 Predict the effect on the gravitational force between two objects of:
(a) halving the distance between them ................................................................................................................................
(b) doubling both masses ............................................................................................................................................................

(c) doubling one mass and halving the distance between them

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3.4.2 Calculate how far an astronaut would need to be away above the Earth in order for his weight
WREHKLVZHLJKWRQWKH(DUWK¶VVXUIDFH

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3.4.3
(a) An astronaut is in a satellite orbiting the Earth at an altitude of one Earth radius.
What is the gravitational force acting on him compared to his weight on the surface of the
Earth? Justify your answer.

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(b) The satellite is boosted to double this altitude. What is the new gravitational force acting on
the astronaut?

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(c) Calculate the orbital velocity of the astronaut in this higher orbit.

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 27 Space

 3.5 Discuss the importance of Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation in understanding and
calculating the motion of satellites.
3.5.1 Given that the gravitational force holding an orbiting satellite in a stable orbit is also the
centripetal force acting on it due to its orbital speed, determine the relationship between the
orbital speed and the mass of the satellite.

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3.5.2 A satellite has an orbital period of T and an orbital radius of R8VLQJWKHHTXDWLRQ\RX

GHULYHGLQWKHODVWTXHVWLRQDQGWKHIRUPXODIRUWKHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\RIDQREMHFWIURP
<HDUDYHUDJHYHORFLW\ WRWDOGLVWDQFHWUDYHOOHG·WRWDOWLPHWDNHQGHULYH.HSOHU¶V
formula.

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3.6 Identify that a slingshot effect can be provided by planets for space probes.
3.6.1 Explain the slingshot effect.

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3.6.2 Explain the role of gravitational attraction between a spacecraft and a planet as the spacecraft
moves around the planet and accelerated due to the slingshot effect.

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Science Press

Space 28 Dot Point HSC Physics

 4. Current and emerging understanding about time and space has been dependent upon
earlier models of the transmission of light.

4.1 Outline the features of the aether model for the transmission of light.
4.1.1 List the properties of the aether as predicted by scientists in the 1800s, and justify their
perception of the need for each property.
Property of the aether Justification

4.2 Describe and evaluate the Michelson-Morley experiment.

4.2.1 'HVFULEHWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW

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4.2.2 :KDWZHUH0LFKHOVRQDQG0RUOH\DWWHPSWLQJWR¿QGLQWKHLUH[SHULPHQW"

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4.2.3 'HVFULEHKRZWKLV\RXUDQVZHUWRWKHTXHVWLRQDERYHZRXOGLQGLFDWHWKHSUHVHQFHRIDQDHWKHU

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 29 Space

 4.2.4 (YDOXDWHWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW

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4.3 Interpret the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment.

4.3.1 ,GHQWLI\ZKDWZDVNQRZQDERXWWKHDHWKHUEHIRUHWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW

...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

4.3.2 'HVFULEHWKHUHVXOWVRIWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW

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4.3.3 ([SODLQZKDWFRQFOXVLRQFRXOGEHGUDZQIURPWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQW

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4.4 Discuss the role of the Michelson-Morley experiment in making determinations about
competing theories.
4.4.1  XWOLQHWKHHIIHFWRIWKH0LFKHOVRQ0RUOH\H[SHULPHQWRQVFLHQWLVWV¶LGHDVDERXWWKHDHWKHUDW
2
that time.

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4.5 Outline the nature of inertial frames of reference.

4.5.1 'H¿QHJLYLQJDSSURSULDWHH[DPSOHVDQLQHUWLDOIUDPHDQGDQRQLQHUWLDOIUDPHRIUHIHUHQFH

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Science Press

Space 30 Dot Point HSC Physics

 4.5.2 An astronaut tied her mascot to a string and hung it from the ceiling. One day she noticed that
instead of hanging straight down, it hung at an angle.
(a) Account for this.

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(b) Identify the frame of reference when it hangs straight down. Justify your answer.

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4.5.3 Identify the frame of reference of the spaceship when the mascot hangs at an angle. Justify
your answer.

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4.6 Perform an investigation to distinguish between non-inertial and inertial frames of reference.
4.6.1  XWOLQHDQH[SHULPHQW\RXKDYHGRQHWRGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQQRQLQHUWLDODQGLQHUWLDOIUDPHV
2
of reference.

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4.6.2 If you are in an inertial frame of reference you cannot tell if you are moving at a constant
velocity or if you are stationary. Why not?

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 31 Space

 4.7 Discuss the principle of relativity.
4.7.1 Explain the principle of relativity.

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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................

  HVFULEHWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKHDVVXPSWLRQRI(LQVWHLQ¶VDVVXPSWLRQRIWKHFRQVWDQF\RIWKH
'
speed of light.
4.8.1 Outline the essential problem with light, the aether and the principle of relativity.

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4.9 Analyse and interpret some of Einstein’s thought experiments involving mirrors and trains and
discuss the relationship between thought and reality.
4.9.1 2XWOLQH(LQVWHLQ¶V¿UVWWKRXJKWH[SHULPHQW

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4.9.2 ,GHQWLI\WKHFRQFOXVLRQWR(LQVWHLQ¶V¿UVWWKRXJKWH[SHULPHQW

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Science Press

Space 32 Dot Point HSC Physics

 4.10 Identify that if c is constant, then space and time become relative.
4.10.1 ,GHQWLI\WKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRI(LQVWHLQ¶VVSHFLDOWKHRU\RIUHODWLYLW\

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 '
 LVFXVVWKHFRQFHSWWKDWOHQJWKVWDQGDUGVDUHGH¿QHGLQWHUPVRIWLPHLQFRQWUDVWWRWKHRULJLQDO
metre standard.
4.11.1 Explain why the standard of length changed from being the distance between two lines on a
SODWLQXPLULGLXPDOOR\EDUWRWKHGLVWDQFHOLJKWWUDYHOVLQWKRIDVHFRQG

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4.12 Analyse information to discuss the relationship between theory and the evidence supporting it
using Einstein’s predictions based on relativity that were made many years before evidence was
available to support it.
4.12.1 , WZDVRYHU\HDUVEHIRUHH[SHULPHQWDOHYLGHQFHZDVDYDLODEOHWRVXSSRUW(LQVWHLQ¶VVSHFLDO
theory of relativity. Outline one piece of evidence in support of his theory.

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4.12.2 &RPPHQWRQWKHVWDWHPHQWµDWKHRU\LVXVHOHVVXQOHVVLWKDVVXSSRUWLQJHYLGHQFH¶

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Dot Point HSC Physics 33 Space

 4.13 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to the relativity of
simultaneity.
4.13.1 &ODULI\WKHWHUPµUHODWLYLW\RIVLPXOWDQHLW\¶

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4.13.2 ([SODLQJLYLQJDQDSSURSULDWHH[DPSOHWKHFRQFHSWRIµVLPXOWDQHLW\¶

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4.14 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to the equivalence between
mass and energy.

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4.15 Solve problems using:

4.15.1 ([SODLQWKHFRQFHSWRIµUHVWPDVV¶

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4.15.2 Explain why the concept of rest mass is needed.

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Space 34 Dot Point HSC Physics

 4.15.3 A proton has a rest mass of 1.673 × 10–27 kg. Calculate its rest energy.

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4.15.4 (
 LQVWHLQ¶VPDVVHQHUJ\HTXLYDOHQFHKROGVLQDOOVLWXDWLRQVQRWMXVWQXFOHDUSURFHVVHV
That is, in all exothermic or endothermic chemical processes, the energy involved is
actually a result of mass to energy or from energy to mass.
(a) This would seem to contradict the law of conservation of energy and the law of conservation
of mass. Comment on this statement.

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E *LYHQ(LQVWHLQ¶VZRUNLWLVPRUHVHQVLEOHWRWDONDERXWDODZRIPDVVDQGHQHUJ\
Comment on this idea.

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(c) Which way would the energy/mass conversion work for:

(i) an endothermic process?

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(ii) an exothermic process?

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4.16 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to mass.

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Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 35 Space

 4.17 Solve problems using:

4.17.1 The mass of an electron at rest is 9.11 × 10–31 kg. Calculate its mass in a TV tube when it is
moving at 0.15 c.

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4.17.2 Calculate the mass of a proton, rest mass 1.673 × 10–27 kg in a linear accelerator when it is
moving at 0.8 c.

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4.18 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to length contraction.

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4.19 Solve problems using:

4.19.1 $
 PORQJVSDFHVKLSÀLHVSDVWWKH(DUWKDWc. Calculate the apparent length of the
spacecraft as seen from Earth.

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4.19.2 $
 VSDFHFUDIWÀ\LQJSDVW(DUWKDWFRQVWDQWVSHHGDSSHDUVWRKDYHDOHQJWKZKLFKLVRILWV
stationary length. Calculate how fast it is travelling.

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Space 36 Dot Point HSC Physics

 4.19.3 $
 VSDFHVKLSLQWKHVKDSHRIDPFXEHÀLHVKRUL]RQWDOO\SDVW(DUWKDWc. Describe its
shape as seen by an observer on Earth.

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4.20 Explain qualitatively the consequence of special relativity in relation to time dilation.

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4.21 Solve problems using:

4.21.1 An astronaut travelling at 0.5 c takes 10 hours ship time to reach his destination. Calculate
how much time has passed on Earth.

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4.21.2 $
 VSDFHVKLSÀLHVSDVWDSODQHWDWc. The pilot and his girlfriend on the planet each wave at
the other for 4.0 seconds.
(a) Calculate how long the pilot sees his girlfriend waving.

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(b) Calculate how long the girlfriend sees the pilot waving.

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(c) Account for these answers being the same value.

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Dot Point HSC Physics 37 Space

 4.21.3 0
 HVRQVKDYHDOLIHRIȝV+RZHYHUPHVRQVIRUPHGLQWKHXSSHUDWPRVSKHUHDVDLUSDUWLFOHV
DUHKLWE\FRVPLFUD\VWDNHȝVWRUHDFKWKH(DUWK¶VVXUIDFH&DOFXODWHKRZIDVWWKH\WUDYHO

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4.21.4 Star X is 8.0 ly from Earth. A spaceship travels at 0.5 c to reach the star.
(a) Calculate how long the trip takes as measured by an observer on Earth.

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(b) Calculate how long the trip takes as measured by the astronauts in the ship.

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(c) Calculate the distance travelled as measured by the astronauts.

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(d) Calculate the speed of the ship as measured by the astronauts.

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4.22 Discuss the implications of mass increase, time dilation, and length contraction for space travel.

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Science Press

Space 38 Dot Point HSC Physics

 DOT POINT
Answers

Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 235 Answers

 Notes

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Science Press

Answers 236 Dot Point HSC Physics

 Space

1.1.1 Weight on Jupiter will be 2.53 times greater than its weight on Earth (124 N compared to 49 N).
1.1.2
Mass Weight
Amount of matter in an object Measure of gravitational force on an object
Measured in kilograms Measured in newtons
Does not vary Varies as gravitational acceleration varies
Cannot be zero Can be zero
Is a scalar quantity Is a vector quantity

1.2.1 29.4 N, 11.17 N

1.2.2 11.27 m s–2, 117.6 N
1.2.3 The bathroom scales are calibrated in kilograms, but actually measure weight because they work by the mass on them
FRPSUHVVLQJDVSULQJ7KHFDOLEUDWLRQWKHUHIRUHWDNHVLQWRDFFRXQW(DUWK¶VJUDYLWDWLRQDOSXOO2QWKH0RRQWKHJUDYLWDWLRQDO
force is only about one sixth that of Earth, so the spring will only compress about one sixth as much. The scales therefore read
1.6 kg instead of 10 kg.
1.3.1 Correct values for (a) and (b) given in table. Your estimates may be different, but see how close you were. Gravitational
DFFHOHUDWLRQLVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHPDVVRIWKHSODQHWEXWLQYHUVHO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRLWVUDGLXVVTXDUHG

Rank of gravitational force

Gravitational acceleration
Object Mass of object (kg) Diameter of object (km) (smallest (=1) to largest
(m s–2 )
(=12))
The Sun 1.99 × 1030 1 392 530 11 275.4
Mercury 3.58 × 1023 4878 4 4.01
24
Venus 4.90× 10 12 104 6 8.92
Earth 5.974 × 1024 12 756 7 9.8
The Moon 7.35 × 1022 3467 2 1.6
23
Mars 6.43 × 10 6794 2 3.72
Jupiter 1.90 × 1027 142 984 10 24.8
26
Saturn 5.69 × 10 120 000 8 10.54
Uranus 8.68 × 1025 51 800 5 8.63
Neptune 1.03 × 1026 49 250 9 11.33
Pluto 1.27 × 1022 2320 1 0.63

1.3.2 (a) 60 kg
(b) 588 N
(c) 223.4 N
(d) 60 kg
(e) 1470 N
1.4.1 Answers will vary – check with your teacher if unsure.

Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 237 Space

1.4.2 A group of students set up a pendulum and recorded the measurements shown in the table.

Length of pendulum string (m) Time for 20 swings (s) Period of swing (s) (Period of swing)2 (s2)
0.25 20.0 1.00 1.00
0.50 28.2 1.41 1.99
0.75 34.8 1.74 3.72
1.00 40.0 2.00 4.00
1.25 44.9 2.25 5.06
1.50 49.9 2.49 6.20
2.00 56.5 2.83 8.00

(a) The mass of the pendulum bob (although this

would not affect the results), the angle of swing, 
the person doing the timing, the timer used. 


0ERIODS
(b) See above.

(c) As the length of the pendulum increases, the 
period of swing increases. 

(d) See graph (right).
     
(e) Only that as length increases, period of
,ENGTHM
swing increases – we cannot express this as a
µSURSRUWLRQDO¶UHODWLRQVKLSEHFDXVHWKHJUDSKLV
not a straight line.
10

Period squared (s2)

(f) The period for pendulum length 0.75 m seems 8
to be incorrect. It should be treated as an
6
µRXWOLHU¶DQGQRWLQFOXGHGLQWKHWUHQGOLQH
4
(g) g ʌ 2l/T 2 2
(h) You should graph length of the pendulum 0
versus period2. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

L  URPWKHHTXDWLRQJ ʌ2/gradient of this

) Length (m)
graph = 9.49 m s–2.
1.4.3 Value for acceleration due to gravity will vary as altitude varies, because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, so at sea level at
WKHHTXDWRUDPDVVFDQEHIXUWKHUIURPWKHFHQWUHRI(DUWKWKDQDWDQ\RWKHUSRVLWLRQGHFUHDVHVWRDPLQLPXPGLVWDQFHDWWKH
poles), type of, and amount of rock in the crust underneath the object could cause very slight variations.
1.5.1 Work is done on an object whenever an applied force causes a change in energy of the object. When a gravitational force (or
DQH[WHUQDOIRUFHFDXVHVDQREMHFWWRFKDQJHLWVSRVLWLRQLQDJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOGWKHQWKHZRUNGRQHE\WKDWIRUFHLVHTXDOWR
the gravitational potential energy the object loses (or gains).
1.5.2 (a) external force (thrust from engines)
(b) gravity
1.5.3  HDUHXQDEOHWRVD\:HZRXOGQHHGWRNQRZWKHVRXUFHRIWKHZRUNEHIRUHWKLVTXHVWLRQFDQEHDQVZHUHG,IWKHVRXUFHLV
:
gravity, then it moves to a lower orbit. If the source is its engines and these are providing an impulse away from the Earth,
then it moves to a higher orbit.
1.5.4  VWKHFRPHWOHDYHVWKH6XQDQGDSSURDFKHVLQ¿QLW\LWVJUDYLWDWLRQDOSRWHQWLDOHQHUJ\ZKLFKLVDOZD\VQHJDWLYHZLOOGHFUHDVH
$
WR]HURDWLQ¿QLW\7KHFRPHWZLOOEHPRYLQJDWLWVIDVWHVWDIWHULWPRYHVDURXQGWKH6XQDQGZLOOEHVORZHGGRZQE\WKH6XQ¶V
gravitational force as it travels away from the Sun, so its kinetic energy decreases and will also become zero if it reaches
LQ¿QLW\
1.6.1 –1.93 × 1010 J
1.6.2 +4.61 × 109 J
1.6.3 7KHJUDYLWDWLRQDOSRWHQWLDOHQHUJ\RIDQREMHFWFDQRQO\EH]HURZKHQLWVGLVWDQFHIURPDSODQHWLVLQ¿QLWH$VWKHREMHFWWKHQ
falls towards the planet, its gravitational potential energy will decrease (its kinetic energy increases). If GPE decreases from
zero, it must become negative in value.
1.6.4 (a) Your prediction could be anything – less for X, less for Y, same for each. The most logical is the same for each based
on the fact that they both have their orbit increased by the same amount.

Science Press

Space 238 Dot Point HSC Physics

 (b) Calculations show that the initial EP of X is –3.119 × 1010-DQG¿QDOLV±î10 J for an increase of 5 × 107 J.
The initial EP of Y is –3.114 × 1010-DQG¿QDOLV±î10 J also for an increase of 5 × 107 J.
1.6.5 (a) The gravitational potential energy of m1 > m2 > m3VLQFHIURPWKHHTXDWLRQJUDYLWDWLRQDOSRWHQWLDOHQHUJ\LVGLUHFWO\
proportional to the masses of the objects.
(b) The work needed to put the three spacecraft into a higher, identical orbit is directly proportional to their masses also
(W = Fs = mgs. Note that g is the value of the acceleration due to gravity of planet X at the altitude of the orbit). This
makes the work done on m1 > m2 > m3.
(c) As the objects fall to a lower orbit they lose gravitational potential energy and gain kinetic energy. If they all end up
at the same altitude, then the loss of EP and gain in KE for each will be the same, but EP loss will depends on their
masses, so KE gain will also. Therefore, KE of m1 > m2 > m3.
2.1.1 Horizontal component of its motion is constant velocity (zero acceleration), while the vertical component is accelerated by
gravity.
2.1.2 Horizontal component is 10.35 m s–1, vertical component is 38.64 m s–1.
2.2.1 Horizontal and vertical components of the motion of a projectile are independent of each other.
Horizontal component of its motion is constant velocity (zero acceleration).
Vertical component is constantly accelerated (by gravity).
2.2.2 Using Pythagoras,
at t = 1, 17.92 = vector sum of vy + 15
so vy2 = 17.922 – 152
therefore vy = 9.8 m s–1
at t = 2, 24.68 = vector sum of vy + 15
so vy2 = 24.682 – 152
therefore vy = 19.6 m s–1
at t = 3, 33.01 = vector sum of vy + 15
so vy2 = 33.012 – 152
therefore vy = 29.4 m s–1
at t = 4, 41.97 = vector sum of vy + 15
so vy2 = 41.972 – 152
therefore vy = 39.2 m s–1
So, change in velocity each second = 9.8 m s–1, so acceleration is constant at 9.8 m s–2ZKLFKLVFRQVLVWHQWZLWK*DOLOHR¶VDQDO\VLV
2.3.1 (a) 6.32 s
(b) 948.7 m
(c) 162 m s–1 at 22.5º down from the horizontal
2.3.2 (a) 160 m s–1
(b) 68.9 m
(c) up at 164.2 m s–1 at 12.9º to the horizontal
2.3.3 115.5 m
2.4.1 Given EP = Gm1m2/r = ½m1v2 (m2 = mass planet, m1 = mass satellite)
v2 = 2Gm1m2/m1r
i.e. v ¥Gm2/r
i.e. escape velocity is independent of the mass of the satellite.
2.4.2 Either the mass of Neptune is larger than the mass of Earth, or its radius is smaller, or the combination mass/radius is larger
for Neptune than for Earth.
2.4.3 For Mercury, mass/radius = 1.475 × 1020, for Venus this ratio is 8.13 × 1020, therefore this would indicate escape velocity for
9HQXVLVKLJKHUWKDQHVFDSHYHORFLW\RI0HUFXU\)URPWKHHTXDWLRQHVFDSHYHORFLWLHVIRU0HUFXU\LVPV–1, for Venus it
is 10 393 m s–1.)
2.5.1 1
 HZWRQDUJXHGWKDWWKHIDVWHUDSURMHFWLOHZDV¿UHGWKHIXUWKHULWZRXOGJRDQGWKDWWKHUHZRXOGHYHQWXDOO\EHDVSHHGZKLFK
ZRXOGFDXVHLWWRRUELWWKH(DUWKUDWKHUWKDQIDOOLQJEDFNWRWKHJURXQG+HIXUWKHUUHDVRQHGWKDWLILWZDV¿UHGIDVWHUWKDQWKLV
YDOXHLWZRXOGHVFDSH(DUWK¶VJUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOG
Science Press

Dot Point HSC Physics 239 Space

2.6.1 It is simpler to use than an absolute force scale, and communicates the same relative forces acting on astronauts of different
masses.
2.6.2 (a) 3.75
(b) 3.75
2.6.3 2.75
2.7.1 (a) 0.625 m s–1
(b) 2.352 m s–1
(c) 2.43 m s–1 at 75.1º up from horizontal
(d) 0.28 m
(e) 0.84 s
(f) 0.525 m
2.8.1 (a) 10.2 m s–2
(b) 22.2 m s–2
(c) 3.265
2.8.2 6WDJHGURFNHWVDUHXVHGIRUWZRUHDVRQV±¿UVWO\LWHQDEOHVWKHH[WUDPDVVRIHPSW\IXHOWDQNVDQGKXJHURFNHWHQJLQHVWREH
discarded, lessening the mass for the second stage engines and so making their thrust more effective and it also reduces the
PD[LPXPJIRUFHH[SHULHQFHGE\DVWURQDXWV

3
g-force

0
0 t
Time after lift-off

2.8.3 As fuel is used the mass of the rocket decreases and because the thrust is constant, the force on the rocket stays the same, so
the acceleration (as per F = ma) must increase.
2.8.4 (a) 2.2 m s–2
(b) 62.2 m s–2
(c) 7.35
2.8.5  KHPRPHQWXPRIWKHH[KDXVWJDVHVGRZQZDUGVSURYLGHVDQHTXDOEXWXSZDUGVLPSXOVHRQWKHURFNHW7KLVLVWKHWKUXVW
7
which causes the upwards acceleration of the rocket.
2.9.1 )URPWKHHTXDWRUWRZDUGVWKHHDVW
2.9.2  RZDUGVWKHHDVWVRWKDWWKHURFNHWWDNHVDGYDQWDJHRIWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKH(DUWK¶VURWDWLRQDOPRWLRQDERXWLWVD[LVNSK
7
DQGVDYHVRQIXHOZKLFKZRXOGRWKHUZLVHEHQHHGHGWRJDLQWKLVLQLWLDOVSHHG$WWKHHTXDWRUEHFDXVHLWLVKHUHWKDWWKH(DUWK¶V
rotational speed is greatest.

Science Press

Space 240 Dot Point HSC Physics

2.9.3 If the rocket is launched too early, or in the wrong direction, it will reach its destination before Mars gets to the same position.
If launched too late, Mars will have passed the intercept point before the rocket gets there.

0OSITIONOF-ARSATLAUNCH
,AUNCHLATE-ARSGONE
0OSITIONOF-ARSAFTERFLIGHT 0OSITIONOF%ARTHATLAUNCH

,AUNCHEARLY-ARSNOTTHERE

2.10.1 For example: An electron in orbit about a nucleus is moving with uniform circular motion. The centripetal force is provided
by the electrostatic force of attraction between the positive charge on the protons in the nucleus and the negative charge on the
electrons.
.EGATIVEELECTRON
#ENTRIPETALFORCEELECTROSTATICATTRACTION

0OSITIVENUCLEUS

#IRCULARORBIT

2.10.2 Gravitational attraction towards the Earth (= centripetal force).

2.10.2 7
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2.11.1 (a) 26 991.3 N towards the centre of the Earth
(b) 8.98 m s–2 towards the centre of the Earth
2.11.2 1350.8 N towards the centre of the Earth
2.12.1 LEO – spy satellites, geostationary – communications
2.12.2 LEO satellites cover the entire surface of the Earth at least once per day and, being much lower, can see more detail in the
things they observe (reading car number plates, identifying faces, seeing a golf ball on a golf green). They are therefore useful
for spy activities.
 *HRVWDWLRQDU\VDWHOOLWHVFRYHUDPXFKODUJHUSURSRUWLRQRIWKH(DUWK¶VVXUIDFHDQGGRQRWKDYHWREHµWUDFNHG¶VRDUH
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therefore able to be used to predict weather in other places.
2.12.3

Low Earth satellites Geostationary satellites

Altitude 250 - 1000 km Altitude 35 800 km
Period 90 minutes to 4 or 5 hours Period 23 hours 65 min 4 sec
Usually polar orbit Equatorial orbit
Not fixed relative to Earth’s surface Stay over same position on Earth’s surface
Used for spying Used for communications and weather forecasting

2.13 Answers will vary according to the scientist chosen – check your text for details.

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Dot Point HSC Physics 241 Space

2.14.1  UELWDOYHORFLW\LVDPHDVXUHRIWKHVSHHGDWZKLFKDVDWHOOLWHPRYHVDURXQGLWVSULPDU\$µSULPDU\¶LVWKHKHDYHQO\REMHFWD
2
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2.14.2 The orbital speed of the satellite around Jupiter would have to be greater than that of the satellite around Earth if both are to be
in stable orbits because the gravitational pull of Jupiter is greater than that of Earth.
2.14.3 (a) 1 : 1 : 1 (orbital speed is independent of the mass of the satellite)
(b) 12 : 4 : 3
2.14.4 (a) 1 : 9 : 16
(b) 1:3:4
2.14.5 2.968 m s–1 = 106 839 kph
2.15.1 133240.6 s = 37 hours
2.15.2 20 229.2 km
2.15.3 A = 129 643 km
B = 2.51 days
C = 436 464 km
2.15.4 (a) 5.075 hours
(b) 12 798.6 km
2.15.5 (a) 4.37 × 105 km
(b) 17 009 m s–1 = 4750 kph
2.16.1 Friction between the satellite and the atmosphere reduces the speed of the satellite, so gravitational forces can attract it closer
to Earth where the denser atmosphere will provide greater frictional forces which will slow it even more and allow gravity to
pull it even closer to Earth, and so on.
2.16.2 Both students are correct in that each factor contributes to orbital decay, but both are incorrect in assuming that their factor is
the only one involved. Both frictional forces to slow the craft and gravity are needed before orbital decay can occur. Without
the slowing of the craft due to friction, gravity will simply keep it in a stable orbit, and without gravity, the craft would not be
pulled to Earth.
2.17.1 (a) Because air is one of the best heat insulators, the most effective heat protection is the cushion of air that builds up in
IURQWRIWKHEOXQWQRVHRUEHOO\RIWKHUHHQWU\FUDIW2WKHUVWUDWHJLHVXVHGWRPLQLPLVHKHDWEXLOGXSLQVLGHUHHQWU\
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that absorb much of the heat energy as they vaporise.
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shuttles. These are 90% air (an excellent insulator) and are painted with a waterproof silicon sealant between each
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6
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*
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EDFNZDUGVLQWRWKHLUFRQWRXUHGVHDWVDQGEDFNZDUGVGXULQJUHHQWU\IRUWKHVDPHUHDVRQ
2.18.1 ž
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survival of the astronauts or the craft.
2.18.3 7KHVSHHGVRIUHHQWU\DQGWKHVKDSHRIWKHFUDIW
3.1.1 $¿HOGLVDUHJLRQLQZKLFKVRPHWKLQJH[SHULHQFHVDIRUFH
3.1.2 $JUDYLWDWLRQDO¿HOGLVDUHJLRQLQZKLFKDPDVVH[SHULHQFHVDIRUFH
3.2.1 Every object in the Universe attracts every other object with a gravitational force.
The force is directly proportional to the masses of the objects.
 7KHIRUFHLVLQYHUVHO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHVTXDUHRIWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHP

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Space 242 Dot Point HSC Physics

3.2.2 Units for G are N m2 kg–2 or kg–1 m3 s–2.
Using weight force = mg = GMm/r2
We get G = gr2/M, and substituting values for the mass of Earth and its radius, and 9.8 for g, we get 6.673 × 10–11.
3.3.1 1.702 × 1020 N
3.3.2 (a) 247.95 N
(b) 24.795 m s–2
3.3.3 9.75 m s–2
3.3.4 gM : g4M = 4 : 1
3.3.5 gM : gP = 4.01 : 0.63 = 6.37 : 1
3.3.6 6 × 10–8 N attraction
3.4.1 (a) multiplies the force by 4
(b) multiplies the force by 4
(c) multiplies the force by 8
3.4.2 1.93 × 105 km
3.4.3 D WLPHVKLVZHLJKWDWWKHVXUIDFHIRUFHLVLQGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRGLVWDQFHIURP(DUWK¶VFHQWUHVTXDUHG
(b) 0.11 times his surface weight force.
(c) If you do this calculation using weight force = centripetal force, you should get 4564 m s–1 which is 1268 kph.
  ,I\RXXVHWKHRUELWDOYHORFLW\HTXDWLRQ\RXZLOOJHWPV–1 which is 1215 kph.
The difference can be accounted for in rounding off errors and approximations of values used.
3.5.1 %
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satellite.
GM 2πR
3.5.2 From v = = we get
R T
GM 4π 2 R 2
v2 = =
R T2
R 3 GM
Which, on rearranging, gives 2 = 2
T 4π
3.6.1 $
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rotational kinetic energy from the planet to linear kinetic energy of the spacecraft.
3.6.2 Gravitational forces draw the spacecraft close enough to the planet so that the slingshot collision can occur, but gravitational
forces are not responsible for the increase in speed that results. Gravitational forces which increase the speed of the spacecraft
as it approaches the planet (and decrease its speed for a shorter time as it recedes from the planet) do contribute to a small
amount of speed increase, but this is in addition to the slingshot effect.
4.1.1 List the properties of the aether as predicted by scientists in the 1800s, and justify their perception of the need for each
property.

Property of the aether Justification

Fill space Light travelled everywhere.
Be transparent We cannot see it.
Permeate all matter Light travels everywhere.
Have an extremely low density It cannot be detected.
Have great elasticity Transfer of energy over long distances requires the medium transmitting the wave to be highly
elastic otherwise significant amounts of energy will be ‘lost’ to the particles of the medium.

4.2.1 7
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vibrations from external sources as these would blur the light pattern results. Floating the apparatus on mercury enabled them
to rotate it to try to detect the expected interference patterns from different directions. The interferometer used by Michelson
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existed, then the light rays travelling with and against the aether should interfere with each other more than the rays travelling
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Dot Point HSC Physics 243 Space

4.2.2 They were looking for a difference in the speed of light relative to the Earth depending on the direction of its travel through
the aether.
4.2.3 If the aether existed, then the light rays travelling with the aether and against the Earth should interfere with each other more
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4.3.1 Nothing – only predicted properties.
4.3.2 7KH\DFKLHYHGDQXOOUHVXOW±WKDWLVWKH\GLGQRW¿QGDQ\LQWHUIHUHQFHSDWWHUQV
4.3.3 No conclusion could be drawn as no results were obtained.
4.4.1 Many accepted the experimental null result as evidence that the aether did not exist, others still search for the aether, blaming
WKHQXOOUHVXOWRQHTXLSPHQWWKDWZDVQRWDFFXUDWHHQRXJK
4.5.1 A frame of reference that is not accelerating is known as an inertial frame of reference. A spaceship at constant velocity in
deep space would be an inertial frame of reference. Motion cannot be detected in an inertial frame of reference. Motion is
GHWHFWDEOHLQDQRQLQHUWLDOIUDPHRIUHIHUHQFH±RQHZKLFKLVDFFHOHUDWLQJIRUH[DPSOHDSODQHWDNLQJRII
4.5.2 (a) Craft was no longer an inertial frame of reference. Craft was accelerating in the opposite direction to the angle of
hang.
(b) Inertial frame of reference. If the craft was accelerating, inertial forces would be noticeable (the mascot would not
hang vertically down).
4.5.3 1RQLQHUWLDO±PRWLRQLVREYLRXVEHFDXVHRIWKHLQHUWLDOIRUFHVDFWLQJRQWKHPDVFRWDQGFDXVLQJLWWRKDQJDWDQDQJOH
4.6.1 Answers will vary – check with your teacher if unsure.
4.6.2 7KHUHDUHQRLQHUWLDOIRUFHVDFWLQJLQDQLQHUWLDOIUDPHRIUHIHUHQFHWKHUHFDQEHQRQLQHUWLDOIUDPHVRIUHIHUHQFHwithin the
inertial frame of reference, but we are not talking about these here), so there will be no effects by which movement of the
frame of reference can be judged.
4.7.1 $OOPRWLRQLVUHODWLYHEXWFRQVWDQWPRWLRQFDQQRWEHGHWHFWHGZLWKRXWUHIHUHQFHWRD¿[HGSRVLWLRQRXWVLGHWKHIUDPHRI
reference. Motion may appear different from different frames of reference.
4.8.1 If the aether permeated all matter, then measurements of the speed of light made from an object moving with constant velocity
would give different values, depending on which way the object was moving relative to the aether. These measurements
would enable the observer to determine that they were in an inertial frame of reference. This would violate the principle of
relativity.
4.9.1 Einstein wondered: ‘Suppose I am sitting in a train travelling at the speed of light. If I hold a mirror in front of me, will I see
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1
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to an outside point. This violates the principle of relativity.
Yes. This means that light would travel at its normal speed relative to the train. This does not violate the principle of relativity.
However, it also means that, relative to a stationary observer outside the train, light would have to travel at twice its usual
speed!
4.9.2 Einstein concluded that, if we accept that the principle of relativity can never be violated, then:
1. The aether model must be wrong.
  +HZRXOGVHHKLVUHÀHFWLRQ
3. The speed of light is constant regardless of the motion of the observer.
4.10.1 The length of an object and the time taken to do something depends on the motion of the observer. Length and time can no
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time continuum – three dimensions of space and time.
4.11.1 :LWKWKHUHDOLVDWLRQWKDWWKHOHQJWKRIDQREMHFWFKDQJHVDVLWVVSHHGFKDQJHVDQHZXQFKDQJLQJGH¿QLWLRQZDVQHHGHG
4.12.1  LWKWKHWHFKQRORJ\RIDWRPLFFORFNVDEOHWRNHHSWLPHWRDQXQSUHFHGHQWHGDFFXUDF\RQHFORFNÀRZQDURXQGWKHZRUOGZDV
:
found to record less time passing than an identical clock kept stationary at the airport.

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Space 244 Dot Point HSC Physics

4.12.2 Answers will vary – you may support the statement as long as you give supporting evidence, or you may disagree, but must
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HYLGHQFHEXWLWVWLPXODWHGRWKHUVFLHQWLVWVWRWKLQNDERXWWKHFRQFHSWDQGHYHQWXDOO\ZDVSURYHQWUXHDQGOHGWRVLJQL¿FDQW
DGYDQFHVLQLGHDVDERXWWKHVWUXFWXUHRIPDWWHU,QDVLPLODUZD\(LQVWHLQ¶VLGHDVLQLWLDOO\KDGQRVXSSRUWLQJH[SHULPHQWDO
evidence, but because of the strength of the mathematics describing them were accepted and eventually proven correct
as technology advanced to catch up with them. In addition, the existence of a theory will provide a direction for further
VFLHQWL¿FVWXG\DQGIRFXVVFLHQWL¿FZRUN±LWZLOOJLYHGLUHFWLRQWRZKDWVFLHQWLVWVGRDQGWKHUHIRUHZLOOEHYDOXDEOHZKHWKHU
experimental evidence for it exists or not.
4.13.1 µ6LPXOWDQHLW\¶UHIHUVWRRXULGHDWKDWGLIIHUHQWWKLQJVKDSSHQDWWKHVDPHWLPH(LQVWHLQ¶VUHODWLYLW\FRPSOLFDWHVWKLVVLPSOH
idea. At speeds approaching that of light, events that are simultaneous in one frame of reference, may not be simultaneous in
another frame of reference.
4.13.2 An astronomer sees two supernova explosions appear in his telescope at exactly the same time. However, when he checks his
VWDUFKDUWVKH¿QGVWKDWRQHVWDUZDVWHQWLPHVWKHGLVWDQFHIURP(DUWKRIWKHRWKHU7KHPRUHGLVWDQWVWDUPXVWKDYHH[SORGHG
a long time before the closer one.
4.14 (LQVWHLQ¶VWKHRUHWLFDOH[SODQDWLRQRIWKLVLVWKDWZKHQDQREMHFWLVPRYLQJDWDQ\VSHHGWKHHQHUJ\XVHGWRDFFHOHUDWHWKH
mass also changes its mass. At high speeds, while the energy still changes the mass of the object, not all of it results in an
increase in speed. He put forward a new concept for the energy of an object: E = KE + m0c2
4.15.1 Rest mass is the mass of an object when it is at rest.
4.15.2 Because the mass of an object increases as its speed increases.
4.15.3 1.506 × 10–10 J
4.15.4 (a) The mass changes in normal chemical reactions are so small that they are not detected by any instruments normally
used. If we consider mass and energy to be independent substances then both conservation laws would be broken by
(LQVWHLQ¶VSURSRVDOE = mc2). Because the amounts of mass involved are so small however, we do not detect any
change and therefore do not consider either law broken.
 E *LYHQWKHHTXLYDOHQFHRIPDVVDQGHQHUJ\LWLVRQO\E\FRQVLGHULQJWKHPERWKDWWKHVDPHWLPHWKDWDVHQVLEOH
conservation law can be considered.
(c) In an endothermic process, energy put into the system would be converted into mass. In an exothermic process, mass
is converted into energy and this is the source of the energy released.
4.16 7
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4.17.1 9.214 × 10–31 kg
4.17.2 2.788 × 10–27 kg
4.18 Moving objects always appear to be shorter when measured from a different frame of reference. To generalise, observers from
outside a moving system will always see the system as shorter than its real length. This effect is known as length contraction.
6ROHQJWKFDQQRWEHUHJDUGHGDVDIXQGDPHQWDOTXDQWLW\±LWFKDQJHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHIUDPHRIUHIHUHQFHRIWKHREVHUYHU
4.19.1 120 m
4.19.2 0.8 c
4.19.3 The spaceship will appear to be 12 m wide but will retain its 20 m height and thickness because there in no relative motion in
those two directions.
4.20 Time in a moving frame of reference always passes more slowly than time in any other frame of reference. This effect
LVNQRZQDVWLPHGLODWLRQ6RWLPHFDQQRWEHUHJDUGHGDVDIXQGDPHQWDOTXDQWLW\±LWFKDQJHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHIUDPHRI
reference of the observer.
4.21.1 11.5 hours
4.21.2 (a) 5.0 s
(b) 5.0 s
(c) Because both the pilot and the girlfriend are in inertial frames of reference, special relativity works for the
REVHUYDWLRQVWKH\HDFKPDNH%RWKZLOOVHHWLPHUXQQLQJPRUHVORZO\LQWKHRWKHU¶VIUDPHRIUHIHUHQFHVRWKH\ZLOO
both think a longer time has passed in their frame of reference.

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Dot Point HSC Physics 245 Space

4.21.3 0.99 c
4.21.4 Star X is 8.0 ly from Earth. A spaceship travels at 0.5 c to reach the star.
(a) 16 years
(b) 13.86 years
(c) 6.93 ly
(d) 0.5 c
4.22 Note7KHDQVZHUJLYHQLVLQPXFKPRUHGHWDLOWKDQQHHGHGWRJLYH\RXDEURDGSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHFRQVHTXHQFHV
The nearest galaxy to us, Andromeda galaxy, is about 2 million light years away. If we could travel at the speed of light it
would take us 2 million years to get there. The fastest any space probe has gone is about 150 000 kph following a slingshot
around the Sun. This would involve temperatures humans could not survive. The fastest space probes following slingshots
around Mars, Jupiter and Saturn have travelled at about 100 000 kph. At this speed it would take us about 21 600 000 000
years to get to Andromeda.
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2
travel, and it would take less time to get there than we think – well, less time as far as the astronauts are concerned, but still a
long time from an Earth perspective.
Unfortunately, while the time and length contractions work in our favour, relativistic mass increases mean that we would need
DQLQ¿QLWHDPRXQWRIIXHOWRSURGXFHDQLQ¿QLWHO\ODUJHIRUFHWRDFFHOHUDWHRXUVSDFHFUDIWZKLFKLVDSSURDFKLQJDQLQ¿QLWH
mass as it approaches the speed of light. None of this is possible. So, with current technology, space travel outside the Solar
System is not feasible.
Within the Solar System, where distances are much smaller (say 5900 000 000 km to Pluto – the furthest planet), travelling at
100 000 kph would take us 6.7351598 years. The time dilation effect would make this seem like 6.7351597 years – a saving
RIDERXWVHFRQGV6RFRQVHTXHQFHVIRU6RODU6\VWHPWUDYHODWWKHVSHHGVZHFDQUHDFKDUHKDUGO\VLJQL¿FDQW

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Space 246 Dot Point HSC Physics

4.7.2 Quarks are fundamental particles within the nucleus. They combine to make larger particles such as the proton and neutron.
7KHVL[NQRZQTXDUNVDUHXSGRZQFKDUPVWUDQJHWRSDQGERWWRP
4.7.3 (a) proton = up, up, down
(b) neutron = up, down, down
4.7.4 Leptons are fundamental particles which include the electron, and various neutrinos.
4.7.5 (a) Fundamental particles are those which cannot be broken down into component parts – they exist as an integral whole
DQGDUHGH¿QHGLQWKHLURZQULJKW
(b) Quarks and leptons (including the electron).
 F 7ZRRIWKHRULJLQDOIXQGDPHQWDOSDUWLFOHVSURWRQVDQGQHXWURQVZHUHIRXQGWREHFRPSRVHGRITXDUNVDQGZHUH
therefore not fundamental.

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Dot Point HSC Physics 281 From Quanta to Quarks