2.2.1 The Op-amp Symbol ‘The symbolic representation of the opamp is shown in Fig. 2.1 Ps £ a se “ST SO ac Z “ae : the ‘yp cl @ © Fig. 2.1 Symbolic representation of op-amp. ‘The symbol shown in Fig. 2.1(€) is most commonly used. Although it does not show power supply connections the use of power supply is implicit for the proper working of the op- amp. All the voltages ate measured with respect to a common ground potential. The input texminal marked "+" is called the noninverting input (NI}) terminal and the one marked ‘~' 's called the inverting inpur (ID terminal, The output voltage V, will be in phase with the = Input signal applied at the noninverting input terminal, while it will be 180* out of phase when the iat i applied to the inverting inpat terminal. The complete symbol forthe op- tmp with the reference node and both supply voltages in place is shown in Fig. 2.1(a). +V¢c denotes the #e and —ve power supplies. Most op-amps operate with a wide range of supply voltages. A dual power supply of +15 volts is quite common in practical op-amps circuits. Normally, tracking power supplies are used. In a specific situation, the two power supplies may be of different magnitudes as well. In the symbol shown in Fig. 21(b), the reference node is not shown. Both the reference node and the propee power supply connections are presumed in the symbols shown in Fig. 2.1(¢). The use of the ¢¥e and ~¥e supply voltages allows the output of the op-amp to swing in both 4ve and ~ve directions.Basic Electronics 10-4 ___ introduction to Operational Amplifiers 10.3 Ideal Op-Amp “The ideal op-amp is basically an amplifier which amplifies the diference between the two input signals. In its basic form, the op-amp is nothing but a differential amplifier, To understand the characteristics of an ideal op-amp, let us discuss the ‘operation of an ideal differential amplifier which is a basie building block of an opamp. 10.3.1 Idea! Differential Amplifier ‘The differential ampliier amplifies the difference between two input voltage “$ Sigal. Hence iis alo calle diference 345 soli. 7 ¥ Consider an ideal dierent % ampli shown inthe ig. 104 ‘and Vp are the two input signals Fig. 104 Idea! atterentia! amplifier while V, is the single ended output ach signal i measured with respect to the ground. In an ideal differential amplifier, the output voltage V, is proportional to the diflerence between the two input signals. Hence we can write, w= -%) 1 Q) 10.3.2 Differential Gain Ay From the equation (I) we can write, Va = Aa -¥) where Ay is the constant of proportionality. The A, is the gain with which differential amplifier amplifies the difference between two input signals, Hence it is called differential gain of the differential amplifier. Thus, ‘Ag = differential gain ‘The difference between the two inputs (V ~ Vs) Is generally called difference voltage and denoted as Vy ‘ os AV Hence the differential gain can be expressed as, MeAn instrumentation ampli is a device with two balanced diferential inputs. The amplifier is configured so that it accurately amplifies the diferences between the voltages applied to its two input terminals (Wins ~ Vo) without being affected by the common mode voltage on both the inputs as shown here. For many typical instrumentation amplifier is the voltage gain Ay is set between 1 and 1000. real world devices with fictional devices, this is a useful approach for providing a ‘feel’ for the targets being aimed at. We may not hit dead centre but atleast we will have a ‘good idea of where the shots are landing. So, in the ideal case, an instrumentation amplifier will have the following characteristics amongst others: a constant and perfectly linear gain independent of time, frequency, load, temperature or humidity; an infinite common mode rejection ratio and power supply rejection ratio; zero input and output offsets and offset drifts and zero output impedance for maximum signal delivered to the load from the amplifier. You will usually find an instrumentation amplifier in the first stage of a measurement or instrumentation system where accurate measurement isthe fundamental requirement for the application. In many cases, the input signal 10 fan instrumentation amplifier will be derived from a bridge network or some form of transducer which has converted a physically varying quantity into an analog electrical signal. The main problems for the design engineer, in amplifying this signal for further processing by later stages, are concerned with restricting unwanted noise and con-. trolling movements in the gain of the amplifier due to environmental changes.