1 Differentiable structures on the real line

Let’s denote by C the canonical C 1 -differentiable structure on the real line, i.e. the structure generated by
the atlas {id : R → R}. Consider also the structure D generated by the atlas {x 7→ x3 : R → R}. This
two structures are not equal since the two atlases are not compatible, but observe, however, that they are
isomorphic, since the homeomorphism f : (R, D) → (R, C) given by f (x) = x3 provides a C 1 -diffeomorphism
between them.
Remark 1 (Orientation). Given an atlas in an n-manifold, the maximal atlas generated by it will contain pairs
of charts such that the change of coordinates between them preserves the orientation of Rn an others which
will not. An atlas which satisfies that all the coordinate changes preserve orientation is called an oriented atlas,
and a maximal oriented atlas is one which can not be enlarged to an oriented atlas by adding new charts.
A manifold is said to be orientable if it admits an oriented atlas. In the following we will always work with
oriented atlases and orientable manifolds.
Proposition 1.1. Let D be a (oriented) C 1 -differentiable structure on R. Then, there exists a C 1 -diffeomorphism
f : (R, D) → (R, C).
Proof. First of all, we claim that there exists an (oriented) atlas A = {φi : Ui → R}i∈Z for the structure D such
that:
(i) The sets Ui and their images φi (Ui ) are bounded intervals;
(ii) If Ui ∩ Uj 6= ∅ then the coordinate change φj ◦ φ−1i : φi (Ui ∩ Uj ) → φj (Ui ∩ Uj ) can be extended to a
C 1 -diffeomorphism on the closure of its domain (onto the closure of its codomain);
(iii) Ui ⊂ Uj iff i = j;
(iv) If i 6= j then Ui ∩ Uj 6= ∅ iff |i − j| = 1.
To see this take any (oriented) maximal atlas defining the structure D. For every point x ∈ R there exists a
neighbourhood U of x and a chart φ : U → R. Let Ux be a neighbourhood of x which is an interval properly
contained in U and define φx ≡ φ|Ux . Then, the set of charts {φx : Ux → R} is a sub-atlas satisfying (i) and
(ii). Then, since any covering of R has a sub-covering satisfying (iii) and (iv) we can extract from this sub-atlas
another one with the desired properties.
We will define f in an inductive fashion. So let’s start by setting
f0 : U0 → R such that f0 ≡ φ0 ,
which is clearly a homeomorphism with bounded image. We want to extend f0 to the intervals U−1 and U1 .
We may assume that the interval U1 is placed at the right of the interval U0 , see figure 1. Since the coordinate
change φ0 ◦φ−1
1 : φ1 (U0 ∩U1 ) → φ0 (U0 ∩U1 ) is a diffeomorphism between bounded intervals that can be extended
to the closure, then we can extend φ0 ◦ φ−1
1 to a diffeomorphism ϕ1 : φ1 (U1 ) → R whose image is also a bounded
interval and satisfies that ϕ1 can be extended to a C 1 -diffeomorphism on the closure of φ1 (U1 ). Analogously for
the interval which is placed at the left of U0 , we can find a diffeomorphism ϕ−1 : φ−1 (U1 ) → R which extends
the coordinate change φ0 ◦ φ−1 and satisfies that its image is a bounded interval and ϕ−1 can be extended to
the closure. Let’s define


 ϕ−1 ◦ φ−1 (x) if x ∈ U−1 ,



f1 : U−1 ∪ U0 ∪ U1 → R such that f1 (x) = f0 (x) if x ∈ U0 ,




ϕ1 ◦ φ1 (x) if x ∈ U1 .


1
 φ1

φ0 ◦ φ−1
1

f0

φ0 ◦ φ−1
−1

φ−1

U−1 U0

U0

Figure 1: We have depicted in colors the coordinate changes.

Then, the map f1 extends f0 and it is a homeomorphism onto its image. Its image is also a bounded interval.
Observe that the homeomorphism f1 itself is a chart compatible with the atlas A and satisfies that f1 ◦ φ−1
±2 can
be extended as a C 1 -diffeomorphism on the closure. This last fact will allows to proceed inductively and define
a sequence of maps
[n
fn : Ui → R, n ≥ 0,
i=−n
satisfying that fn extends fn−1 for every n, fn is a homeomorphism onto its image, its image is a bounded
interval and fn ◦ φ−1
±(n+1) is a diffeomorphism that can be extended to the closure. Define
n
[
f : R → R such that f (x) = fn (x) if x ∈ Ui .
i=−n

Then, f is a homeomorphism onto its image V = f (R) and by construction f is a diffeomorphism when
we consider the structures (R, D) and (V, C). Finally, if V is not equal to R, it suffices to compose with a
diffeomorphism V → R to get the desired result.

The set of C 1 -differentiable structures on the real line

Consider the set S+ (R; C 1 ) of all the C 1 -differentiable structures on the real line coming from oriented atlases.
To any homeomorphism h ∈ Homeo(R) we can associate a C 1 -differentiable structure by taking the pull-back

2
of the canonical structure, i.e.
h 7→ h∗ ( C).
As seen before, this maps is surjective. Observe also that h∗ ( C) = C if and only if h ∈ Diff 1 (R). As a
consequence it follows that the space S+ (R; C 1 ) can be described as the set of left cosets (or right cosets) of
Homeo(R) modulo Diff 1 (R),
Homeo(R)/Diff 1 (R) ' S+ (R; C 1 ).