Definition and Brief History of Computers

Learning Outcome:
At the end of this topic, students should be able:

 To define a computer
 Briefly explain the history of computers
 To describe the various parameters for classifying computers
 To outline the characteristics of each parameter
 To distinguish between features of each parameters
 To give examples of computers under each parameter

Computing is an essential part of our daily life and also an important factor in
science and technology. A computer is a special type of machine that stores
information and can perform mathematical calculations on any information faster
than human can whilst producing the desired result. It is an electronic device used
to store, process and communicate information automatically. A computer is any
programmable electronic device that can store, retrieve and process data (Webster
Dictionary).
Classification of Computers:

The term computer encompasses different machines each of varying sizes,

functionality and cost. In other to further explain the development of computers till
date, we will explore the classification of computers.

Computers are classified into various parameters namely;

 Generation
 Types
 Size
 Degree of versatility/purpose for which they were designed

2.1 Classification of Computers by Generation

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A generation refers to a state of improvement in the development of a product. It is
also used to describe advancement within a period in the technology of computers.
Computers have been broadly categorised into 5 generations.

First Generation Computers (Mid Forties to Mid Fifties)

The FGCs were successful as they were able to perform operations previously
performed manually.

 They used Vacuum tubes for circuitry that made computers to be physically
large and expensive.
 Magnetic drums were used for memory and usually occupied large space
even as big as a room.
 The size of the internal memory was usually 1kilobyte (1000bytes) of
memory though they had the ability to retain data in their memory.
 During this period, computer programming was done mainly using machine
language.
 The computers were designed especially for Scientific and Engineering
applications.

Problems associated with the FGCs are:

 Overheating due to the use of valves

 They were too large and usually occupied space
 They consumed a lot of electricity
 They were not too reliable as electrical problems usually caused
malfunctioning.

Examples of FG Computers are; The UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)

designed in 1951, IBM 702, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer), SSEC (Selective Sequence Electrical Calculator).

Second Generation Computers (Mid Fifties to Mid Sixties)

The SGCs had the following characteristics;

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  Transistors replaced Vacuum Tubes and were developed at Bell Laboratory
by a team of Physicists led by William Shockey.
 Magnetic Cores were used for storage which replaced magnetic drums and
they were more accessible.
 Computer Programming used was basically Assembly Languages such as
COBOL (Common Business Oriented Programming) and FORTRAN
(Formula Translators).
 Applications developed during this era were majorly for commercial purposes
e.g. payroll, inventory, production planning, General Ledger, etcetera.

Advantages of the SGCs over the FGCs are:

 Reduction in size as compared to FGCs.

 Greater reliability and increased speed.
 Less expensive

Examples of SGCs are IBM 7090, IBM 7094, UNIVAC-1107, e.t.c.

Third Generation Computers (Mid Sixties to Mid Seventies)

The TGCs had the following characteristics;

 Transistors were miniaturized and placed into Silicon Chips. The SCs also
called Integrated Silicon Chips is an integration of 2 or more transistors.
 The use of integrated chips improved the processing powers of computers
consequently the physical size and cost drastically reduced.
 Programming language used were high level languages
 Multiprogramming was introduced where several programs can run
simultaneously.
 The keyboards and monitors were introduced

Advantages of the TGCs over the SGCs are:

 Further reduction in size

 Increased processing time

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  Reduced power requirements
 Reduced heat production

Examples of TGCs are IMBs 360 and 370 series

Fourth Generation Computers (1971 - 1990)

The FGCs had the following characteristics;

 The invention of microprocessors characterised this generation. Thousands

of ICs were built into a single Silicon Chip.
 Magnetic core memories became obsolete as they were replaced with
Semiconductor memory sizes of 16 megabytes.
 Floppy disk was used as a backup peripheral.
 Personal computers were developed and they were more powerful and could
be linked to form a network.
 The internet was also developed during this period.
 The Graphic User Interface, the Mouse and other handheld devices
characterised this generation.

Examples of FGCs are Microcomputers, Cyber-205, Cray X-MP.

Fifth Generation Computers (1990 - Present)

The FGCs had the following characteristics;

 This generation saw the introduction of Very Large Scale Integrated Chips
(VLSI) with high density
 The concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) which has to do with a broad range
of applications that exhibit human intelligence and behaviour is said to
announce the arrival of the FGCs.
 They use parallel processing and super conductors in helping make AI a
reliability.
 The goal of FGCs is to develop devices that respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organisation.

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Examples of FGCs are present day computers.

2.2 Classification of Computers by Types

This classification is also known as the classification based on computing

principles. This classification has 3 types namely:

 Digital Computers
 Analogue Computers
 Hybrid Computers

Digital Computers: they operate by accepting and processing data that have been
converted into binary numbers (0s and 1s). DCs recognise two pulses, one pulse is
accepted as 1 (On) while the other 0 (Off). By combining several of these, text and
instructions codes can be represented. In a digital computer, the microprocessor
indicates that most of the control functions are centralized in a single unit i.e. when
the CPU and its related control circuit are available on a single chip. A
microprocessor therefore includes the CPU, set of registers, memory and control
circuits. E.g. Calculators, Wrist watches

Analogue Computers: are used mainly for special purposes because they have
the ability to work continuously. They are used to calculate values of quantities that
change continuously e.g. Voltage, Resistance, and Speed, e.t.c. they are used in
engineering and scientific fields. E.g. are Car speedometers, thermometers.

Hybrid Computers: they are designed to process both digital and analogue
information. They are special purpose computers used mainly for scientific
purposes and are aided with analogue to digital and digital to analogue converters.

2.3 Classification of Computers by Size

This classification is based on the physical size of the computers. They are divided
into:

 Super computers
 Mainframe

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  Mini computers
 The micro computers

Super Computers (Maxi): there are the largest types of computers, very powerful
and expensive. They are used by large organisations and corporations to perform
millions of instructions per second. This functionality makes them very special types
of computers and their memories are very large. They are used for forecasting
weather and for engineering design.

Servers: They are computers designed to provide services to client machines in a

computer network. They have larger storage capacities and powerful processors.
Running on them are programs that serve client requests and allocate resources
like memory and time to client machines. Usually they are very large in size, as
they have large processors and many hard drives. They are designed to be fail-
safe and resistant to crash.

Mainframe computers (Midi): they are also very large and process with great
speed and have large data storage too though not like the maxi computers. They
also perform various functions and can be used by many operators at the same
time. They are used in in large institutions, airline companies, shipping lines,
geographic explorations and by the Government.

Mini Computers: they computers that are smaller than midi sized computers but
bigger than microcomputers. They are used by medium sized companies are also
cheaper than midi computers. . A microprocessor is a small computer processor
unit, comprising of the control unit and the Arithmetic and Logical unit fabricated
into a small chip. The size is made possible by the microprocessor technology.

Micro Computers: these are very small computers although they’re the least
expensive and least powerful; they are the most commonly and readily available
computers today. They are highly developed in both speed and memories and
convenient for single user purposes. A digital computer which uses microprocessor
as the Central Processing Unit is called a microcomputer. A microcomputer

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contains the microprocessor input and output devices, memory and other
components.

Desktops: A desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts

of a desktop computer are readily available at relatively lower costs. Power
consumption is not as critical as that in laptops. Desktops are widely popular for
daily use in the workplace and households.
Laptops: Similar in operation to desktops, laptop computers are miniaturized and
optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter
that charges the computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard,
touch pad acting as a mouse and a liquid crystal display. Their portability and
capacity to operate on battery power have proven to be of great help to mobile
users.
Notebooks: They fall in the category of laptops, but are inexpensive and relatively
smaller in size. They had a smaller feature set and lesser capacities in comparison
to regular laptops, at the time they came into the market. But with passing time,
notebooks too began featuring almost everything that notebooks had. By the end of
2008, notebooks had begun to overtake notebooks in terms of market share and
sales.
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): It is a handheld computer and popularly
known as a palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data.
PDAs can also be used as portable audio players, web browsers and smart
phones. Most of them can access the Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi
communication.

Tablet Computers: Tablets are mobile computers that are very handy to use. They
use the touch screen technology. Tablets come with an onscreen keyboard or use
a stylus or a digital pen. Apple’s iPad redefined the class of tablet computers.

2.4 Classification of Computers by versatility/purpose

This category is of two types:

 Special purpose
 General purpose computers

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Special purpose: these computers perform specific tasks. It cannot be used for
any other purpose other than the purpose for which it was designed. E.g.
computers for controlling temperature, traffic control systems, telephone exchange
systems, process control in refinery, military aircraft, and fire control etcetera.

General purpose: they are used to solve many problems as a user can program
on them. They are programmable and can accommodate different programming
languages. E.g. microcomputers.

Computers process data under the control of sets of instructions called computer
programs. These programs guide the computers through orderly sets of actions
specified by people called computer programmers.

 Data consist of raw facts and figures usually without any meaning until they
have been processed.
 Data is the prerequisite to information.
 The type and volume of data must be considered in order for an
organisation to create the necessary information.
 Data can be presented in the computer system as any of the following: (i)
Numbers, (ii) Text, (iii) Graphics (Videos, animation), (iv)Sound and
Symbols.
 E.g. of data are A,B,C; III, 26042016, Chika, e.t.c.

Information is the data that has been processed into a form that is meaningful to
the person who reads or receives it.

 Information = Data + Content + meaning

 29042016 has no meaning or context. It is an instance of a data
 If a context is given, it is a data i.e. 29th April 2016.
 It still does not convey a meaning until it is given a meaning i.e. Today’s
date
 This gives us the entire element required for it to be called information.

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Knowledge: When human understanding of a subject matter has been acquired
through proper study and experience, knowledge is gained.
Class Task: Consider the scenario: a man puts his finger into very hot water.
Data Gathered: the finger nerve sends pain data to the brain
Processing: The brain considers the data to the brain
Information: the painful finger means it is not in a good place
Action: the brain tells the finger to remove itself from hot water immediately
Knowledge: sticking the finger in hot water is a bad idea.
Knowledge is usually based on (i) Learning (ii) Thinking (iii) Proper Understanding
of the problem area.

Information Processing Lifecycle

 A computer read input (data), processes the data and produces the desired
output (information). Computers carry out processing using a set of
instructions that tell the computer how to perform a particular task.
 These set of instructions are called computer program written in a particular
language called programming language and by those skilled in writing the
instructions called computer programmers.
 A computer holds data, information and instructions in storage until the
needed time.
 The series of activities that includes input, process, output and storage is
referred to as Information Processing Lifecycle. Since most computers are
connected to other computers, communication has become an essential
element in the information cycle.

Fig 1: Information Processing Lifecycle

Elements of an Information System

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Information must be accurate, organised, timely, useful and cost effective to
produce. Information from a computer requires the following functional elements
namely:

 People
 Procedure
 Software
 Hardware and
 Data

A combination of the above elements forms an information system.

People: are end users who use the computers usually microcomputers to make
themselves productive. End users also need to work closely with IT professional in
order to achieve the desire result.
Procedures: these are rules or guidelines that people must follow when using
software, hardware and data to perform a particular task/operation. These
procedures are usually documented and written by computer specialist. These
procedures are also called manuals.
Software: a program that consist of step-by-step instruction that tells the computer
what to do. The purpose of the software is to instruct the hardware on how to
process data into information. The software must be developed and tested
thoroughly.
Hardware: the equipment that processes the data to produce information.
Examples are keyboard, mouse, monitor, and other devices. The hardware is
usually controlled by the software. The hardware must be reliable and capable of
handling the workload.
Data: this consists of unprocessed raw facts including text, images, sound, figures,
etcetera. The data must be accurate in order for processing to produce a consistent
result.
However, people are the most important part of the information system as all other
components are designed to make the lives of the end users better.
Components of a Computer System

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The components of a computer consist of the following which will be discussed in
details in subsequent chapters:

 Input Devices
 Output Devices
 The Central Processing Unit
 Storage and
 Communication Devices

Advantages of Computers:
The benefit of using computers is due to the following facts:

 Speed: the high speed of processing which takes place in the computer is far
beyond what humans can achieve within a particular time frame. When data,
instructions and information flow along electronic circuits, they do so at incredibly
fast speed. Many computers perform billions or trillions of operations within a
single second.
 Reliability: the electronic components of computers are dependable because
they rarely fail.
 Consistency: the reliability of computers in relation to producing the same result
given the same data (input) and processing provides for its consistency. The
accuracy of computer input determines its output; Garbage-in, garbage-out
(GIGO).
 Storage: a computer can transfer data quickly from storage to memory for
processing and then store the result again for future use. Many computers store
huge amount of data and make same available whenever they are needed in the
future.
 Communication: the development of computers have enhanced the means of
communication such that most computers now communicate with other
computers either wired (cables) or wirelessly. The information processing cycle
stages (input, processing, output and storage) are now shared between
computers and or users.

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Disadvantages of Computers: some of the disadvantages of using computers are:

 Health Risk: prolonged and continuous usage of computer in an improper way

can lead to injuries or disorders of the hands, wrists, elbows, eyes, neck and
even the back. Computer users should protect themselves by maintaining good
posture while working. This can be achieved by using proper workplace design
of tables and chairs, taking regular breaks while working and regular blinking of
the eyes. Two major health risk associated with prolonged usage of computers
are: i) Computer Addiction and ii) Technology Overload iii) Effect on the posture
iv) effect on the eyes v) Fatigue and strain
 Violation of Privacy: when personal and confidential information are not
protected properly, individuals have found their identities stolen and privacy
violated. When you store your details on computers, ensure that privacy is
guaranteed.
 Public Safety: protect yourself and loved ones by ensuring that email
messages are sent and received from only trusted sources which ensuring that
you always protect any information you send out to public domains. Don’t
reveal your location, identity, do not disclose your personal identification
numbers (matric Number, other PINS), passwords or other security details to
others including close family relatives as these could be used for fraudulent or
criminal activities.
 Impact on the Environment: computers manufacturing processes and
computer waste are depleting natural resources and polluting the environment.
When computers are discarded in open land, they release toxic materials such
as leads, mercury and flame retardants.

Review Questions

1. Differentiate between microcomputers and microprocessors

2. Mention 4 parameters for classifying computers
3. How many generations of computers do we have? Give examples of
computers in each generation of computers
4. Explain the types of microcomputers
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5. What is connectivity? How is it related to the wireless revolution?
6. Explain the five parts of an information system. Of what importance are
people to this system?
7. Explain other disadvantages of using computers.
8. What are the two major health risk associated with the use of computers?
9. Identify 7 areas of computer application to society and a detailed explanation
of each.

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