Frequency Response Analysis

Sinusoidal Forcing of a First-Order Process

For a first-order transfer function with gain K and time constant τ ,
the response to a general sinusoidal input, x ( t ) = A sin ωt is:
Chapter 13

y (t ) =
KA
2 2
ω τ +1
( ωτe −t / τ − ωτ cos ωt + sin ωt ) (5-25)

Note that y(t) and x(t) are in deviation form. The long-time
response, yl(t), can be written as:
KA
yl ( t ) = sin ( ωt + φ ) for t → ∞ (13-1)
ω2 τ 2 + 1
where: φ = − tan −1 ( ωτ )
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 1
Chapter 13

Output (in green colour) has the same frequency

but different magnitude and phase
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 2
Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 Attenuation and time shift between input and output
sine waves (K= 1). The phase angle φ of the output signal is given
by φ = −Time shift / P × 360o , where Δt is the (period) shift and P
is the period of oscillation.

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 3

 Frequency Response Characteristics of
a First-Order Process
For x(t ) = A sin ωt , yl ( t ) = Aˆ sin ( ωt + φ ) as t → ∞ where :
KA
Aˆ = and φ = − tan −1 ( ωτ )
Chapter 13

ω2 τ 2 + 1
1. The output signal is a sinusoid that has the same frequency, ω,
as the input.signal, x(t) =Asinωt.
2. The amplitude of the output signal, Â , is a function of the
frequency ω and the input amplitude, A:
KA
Aˆ = (13-2)
ω2 τ 2 + 1

3. The output has a phase shift, φ, relative to the input. The

amount of phase shift depends on ω.
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 4
 Dividing both sides of (13-2) by the input signal amplitude A
yields the amplitude ratio (AR)

Aˆ K
AR = = (13-3a)
Chapter 13

A ω2 τ 2 + 1
which can, in turn, be divided by the process gain to yield the
normalized amplitude ratio (ARN)
1
AR N = (13-3b)
ω2 τ 2 + 1

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 5

 Shortcut Method for Finding
the Frequency Response
The shortcut method consists of the following steps:
Step 1. Set s=jω in G(s) to obtain G ( jω ) .
Chapter 13

Step 2. Rationalize G(jω); We want to express it in the form.

G(jω)=R + jI
where R and I are functions of ω. Simplify G(jω) by
multiplying the numerator and denominator by the
complex conjugate of the denominator.
Step 3. The amplitude ratio and phase angle of G(s) are given
by:
AR = R 2 + I 2
Memorize ⇒
ϕ = tan −1 ( I / R)
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 6
 Example 13.1
Find the frequency response of a first-order system, with
1
G (s) = (13-16)
τs + 1
Solution
Chapter 13

First, substitute s = jω in the transfer function

1 1
G ( jω ) = = (13-17)
τjω + 1 jωτ + 1
Then multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex
conjugate of the denominator, that is, − jωτ + 1
− jωτ + 1 − jωτ + 1
G ( jω ) = = 2 2
( jωτ + 1)( − jωτ + 1) ω τ + 1
1 ( −ωτ )
= 2 2
+j 2 2
= R + jI (13-18)
ω Dr.τ M.+A.1A. Shoukat +1
ω τChoudhury 7
 1
where: R= 2 2
(13-19a)
ω τ +1
−ωτ
I= 2 2
(13-19b)
ω τ +1
From Step 3 of the Shortcut Method,
Chapter 13

2 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ −ωτ ⎞
AR = R 2 + I 2 = ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎝ ω τ +1 ⎠ ⎝ ω τ +1 ⎠
or

AR =
( )=
1 + ω2 τ 2 1
(13-20a)
( ω τ + 1)
2
2 2 ω2 τ 2 + 1
Also,
−1 ⎛
I⎞
φ = tan ⎜ ⎟ = tan −1 ( −ωτ ) = − tan −1 ( ωτ ) (13-20b)
⎝R⎠
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 8
 Complex Transfer Functions
Consider a complex transfer G(s),
Ga ( s ) Gb ( s ) Gc ( s )L
G (s) = (13-22)
G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )L
Substitute s=jω,
Chapter 13

Ga ( jω ) Gb ( jω ) Gc ( jω )L
G ( jω ) = (13-23)
G1 ( jω ) G2 ( jω ) G3 ( jω )L

From complex variable theory, we can express the magnitude and

angle of G ( jω ) as follows:
Ga ( jω ) Gb ( jω ) Gc ( jω ) L
G ( jω ) = (13-24a)
G1 ( jω ) G2 ( jω ) G3 ( jω ) L

∠G ( jω ) = ∠Ga ( jω ) + ∠Gb ( jω ) + ∠Gc ( jω ) + L

− [∠G1 ( jω ) + ∠G2 ( jω ) + ∠G3 ( jω ) + L] (13-24b)
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 9
 Bode Diagrams
• A special graph, called the Bode diagram or Bode plot,
provides a convenient display of the frequency response
characteristics of a transfer function model. It consists of
plots of AR and φ as a function of ω.
Chapter 13

• Ordinarily, ω is expressed in units of radians/time.

Bode Plot of A First-order System
Recall:
1
AR N = and φ = − tan −1 ( ωτ )
ω2 τ 2 + 1
• At low frequencies (ω → 0 and ωτ 1) :
AR N = 1 and ϕ = 0

• At high frequencies ( ω → ∞ and ωτ 1) :

AR N = 1/ ωτ and ϕ = −90o
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 10
Chapter 13

Figure 13.2 Bode diagram for a first-order process.

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 11
 • Note that the asymptotes intersect at ω = ωb = 1/ τ, known as the
break frequency or corner frequency. Here the value of ARN
from (13-21) is:
Chapter 13

1
AR N ( ω = ωb ) = = 0.707 (13-30)
1+1

• Some books and software defined AR differently, in terms of

decibels. The amplitude ratio in decibels ARd is defined as
AR d = 20 log AR (13-33)

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 12

 Integrating Elements
The transfer function for an integrating element was given in
Chapter 5:
Y (s) K
G (s) = = (5-34)
U (s) s
Chapter 13

K K
AR = G ( jω ) = = (13-34)
jω ω

φ = ∠G ( jω ) = ∠K − ∠ ( ∞ ) = −90o (13-35)

Second-Order Process
A general transfer function that describes any underdamped,
critically damped, or overdamped second-order system is
K
G (s) = 2 2 (13-40)
τ s + 2ζτs + 1
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 13
 Substituting s = jω and rearranging yields:
K
AR = (13-41a)
( )
2
+ ( 2ωτζ )
2 2 2
1− ω τ

⎡ −2ωτζ ⎤
φ = tan −1 ⎢ ⎥ (13-41b)
⎣1 − ω 2 τ 2 ⎦
Chapter 13

Figure 13.3 Bode diagrams for second-order processes.

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 14
 Time Delay
Its frequency response characteristics can be obtained by
substituting s = jω ,
G ( jω ) = e− jωθ (13-53)
Chapter 13

which can be written in rational form by substitution of the

Euler identity,
G ( jω ) = e− jωθ = cos ωθ − j sin ωθ (13-54)
From (13-54)

AR = G ( jω ) = cos 2 ωθ + sin 2 ωθ = 1 (13-55)

−1 ⎛
sin ωθ ⎞
φ = ∠G ( jω ) = tan ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ cos ωθ ⎠
or
φ = −ωθ (13-56)
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 15
Chapter 13

Figure 13.6 Bode diagram for a time delay, e−θs.

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 16
Chapter 13

Figure 13.7 Phase angle plots for e−θs and for the 1/1 and 2/2
Padé approximations (G1 is 1/1; G2 is 2/2).

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 17

 Process Zeros

Consider a process zero term,

G ( s ) = K ( sτ + 1)
Chapter 13

Substituting s=jω gives

G ( jω ) = K ( jωτ + 1)
Thus:
AR = G ( jω ) = K ω2 τ 2 + 1
φ = ∠G ( jω ) = + tan −1 ( ωτ )

Note: In general, a multiplicative constant (e.g., K) changes

the AR by a factor of K without affecting φ .

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 18

 Frequency Response Characteristics of
Feedback Controllers
Proportional Controller. Consider a proportional controller with
Chapter 13

positive gain
Gc ( s ) = K c (13-57)

In this case Gc ( jω ) = K c , which is independent of ω.

Therefore,

AR c = K c (13-58)
and
φc = 0o (13-59)

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 19

 Proportional-Integral Controller. A proportional-integral (PI)
controller has the transfer function (cf. Eq. 8-9),

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ τI s +1 ⎞
Gc ( s ) = K c ⎜1 + ⎟ = Kc ⎜ ⎟ (13-60)
⎝ τ I ⎠
s τ
⎝ I ⎠ s
Chapter 13

Substitute s=jω:

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ j ωτ I + 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Gc ( jω) = K c ⎜1 + ⎟ = Kc ⎜ ⎟ = K c ⎜1 − j⎟
⎝ τ I jω ⎠ ⎝ j ωτ I ⎠ ⎝ τI ω ⎠
Thus, the amplitude ratio and phase angle are:

1 ( ωτ I ) 2
+1
AR c = Gc ( jω ) = K c 1 + = Kc (13-62)
( ωτ I ) 2 ωτ I

φc = ∠Gc ( jω ) = tan −1 ( −1/ ωτ I ) = tan −1 ( ωτ I ) − 90o (13-63)

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 20
Chapter 13

⎛ 10 s + 1 ⎞
Figure 13.9 Bode plot of a PI controller, Gc ( s ) = 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 s ⎠
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 21
 Ideal Proportional-Derivative Controller. For the ideal
proportional-derivative (PD) controller (cf. Eq. 8-11)
Gc ( s ) = K c (1 + τ D s ) (13-64)

The frequency response characteristics are similar to those of a

LHP zero:
Chapter 13

AR c = K c ( ωτ D ) 2
+1 (13-65)

φ = tan −1 ( ωτ D ) (13-66)

Proportional-Derivative Controller with Filter. The PD

controller is most often realized by the transfer function

⎛ τDs +1 ⎞
Gc ( s ) = K c ⎜ ⎟ (13-67)
ατ
⎝ D s + 1 ⎠
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 22
 Figure 13.10 Bode
plots of an ideal PD
controller and a PD
Chapter 13

controller with
derivative filter.
Idea: Gc ( s ) = 2 ( 4 s + 1)
With Derivative
Filter:
⎛ 4s + 1 ⎞
Gc ( s ) = 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0.4 s + 1 ⎠

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 23

 PID Controller Forms
Parallel PID Controller. The simplest form in Ch. 8 is
⎛ 1 ⎞
Gc ( s ) = K c ⎜1 + + τDs ⎟
⎝ τ1s ⎠
Chapter 13

Series PID Controller. The simplest version of the series PID

controller is
⎛ τ1s + 1 ⎞
Gc ( s ) = K c ⎜ ⎟ ( τ D s + 1) (13-73)
⎝ τ1s ⎠

Series PID Controller with a Derivative Filter.

⎛ τ1s + 1 ⎞⎛ τ D s + 1 ⎞
Gc ( s ) = Kc ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ τ1s ⎠⎝ α τ D s + 1 ⎠
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 24
 Figure 13.11 Bode
plots of ideal parallel
PID controller and
series PID controller
Chapter 13

with derivative filter

(α = 1).
Idea parallel:
⎛ 1 ⎞
Gc ( s ) = 2 ⎜1 + + 4s ⎟
⎝ 10 s ⎠

Series with
Derivative Filter:
⎛ 10 s + 1 ⎞⎛ 4 s + 1 ⎞
Gc ( s ) = 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 s ⎠⎝ 0.4 s + 1 ⎠
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 25
 Nyquist Diagrams
Consider the transfer function

1
G (s) = (13-76)
2s + 1
Chapter 13

with
1
AR = G ( jω ) = (13-77a)
( 2ω ) + 1
2

and
φ = ∠G ( jω ) = − tan −1 ( 2ω ) (13-77b)

Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 26

Chapter 13

Figure 13.12 The Nyquist diagram for G(s) = 1/(2s + 1)

plotting Re ( G ( jω ) ) and Im ( G ( jω ) ) .
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 27
Chapter 13

Figure 13.13 The Nyquist diagram for the transfer

function in Example 13.5:
5(8s + 1)e −6 s
G (s) =
(20 s + 1)(4 s + 1)
Dr. M. A. A. Shoukat Choudhury 28