EDL 221 Second Language Teaching METHODS AND APPROACHES

Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected recognition of changes in the kind of
proficiency learners need.

MATRIX A: COMPARISON BETWEEN METHOD, APPROACH and TECHNIQUE

METHOD APPROACH TECHNIQUE

o Overall plan for the orderly
presentation of language
CHARACTERISTICS material (all of which is
based upon the selected
approach)
o Procedural
o Within one approach there
can be several methods
(Anthony, 1963)
o Level at which theory is put
into practice and at which
LEVELS choices are made about the
particular skills and content
to be taught, order in which
content will be presented
(Anthony, 1963)
o Set of correlative
assumptions dealing with
the nature of language
teaching and learning
o Axiomatic
o Describes the nature of the
subject matter to be taught
(Anthony, 1963)
o Level at which assumption
and beliefs about language
and language learning are
specified (Anthony, 1963)
o Implementational
(actually takes place in
the classroom)
o Stratagem used to
accomplish an immediate
objective
o Must be consistent with
method and therefore in
harmony with an
approach as well
(Anthony, 1963)
o Level at which classroom
procedure is described
(Anthony, 1963)

MATRIX B: LINGUISTIC AND PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF APPROACH

APPROACH
THEORY OF o Structural view (language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning)
LANGUAGE  Audiolingual Method
 TPR
 Silent Way
o Functional view (language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning; emphasizes the
semantic and communicative dimension rather than the merely grammatical characteristics of
language)
o Interactional view(language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the
performance of social transactions between individuals)
 “Students achieve facility in using a language when their attention is focused on conveying
and receiving authentic messages” (Rivers, 1987)
 Task-Based Language Teaching
 Content-Based Instruction
 Cooperative Language Learning
THEORY OF  Responds to 2 questions:
LANGUAGE o What are the psychologlinguistic & cognitive processes involved in language learning?
LEARNING o What are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning process to be
activated?
 Process Oriented Theories (built on learning processes such as habit formation, induction,
inference, hypothesis testing & generalization)
 Condition Oriented Theories (emphasize the nature of human & physical context in which
language learning takes place)
 Monitor Model (Dr. Krashen)
o Addresses both the process and the condition dimension of learning
o “Monitor is the repository of conscious grammatical knowledge about a language that is
learned through formal instruction & that is called upon in the editing of utterances
produced through the acquired system”
o Acquisition- natural assimilation of language rules through using language for
communication
o Learning- formal study of language rules and is a conscious process
 Natural Approach (Tracy D. Terrell)
o method derived primarily from a learning theory rather than a particular view of language
 Counseling Learning ( Charles A. Curran)
o Focuses primarily on the conditions necessary for successful learning
 o believes the atmosphere of the classroom is crucial factor
o seeks to ameliorate the feelings of intimidation and in securing the many learners
experience
 Total Physical Response (James Asher)
o derives primarily form a learning theory rather than from a theory of the nature of
language
o addresses both the process and condition aspects of learning
o based on the belief that child language learning is based on motor activity, on coordinating
language with action, and that this should form the basis of adult foreign language teaching
 Silent Way (Caleb Gattegno)
o built around a theory of the conditions necessary for successful learning to be realized
DESIGN  Level of method analysis in which we consider:
o Objectives of the method
o Selection and organization of language content
o Types of learning tasks and teaching activities advocated
o Roles of learners
o Roles of teachers
o Role of instructional materials
OBJECTIVES  Product of design, not of approach
CONTENT CHOICE  Involves the use of the target language
& ORGANIZATION  Involves overt or covert decisions concerning the selection of language items that are to be
used within a course or method
 Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject matter and linguistic
matter
TYPES OF  Differences among methods at the level of approach manifest themselves on the choice of
LEARNING & different kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom
TEACHING
ACTIVITIES
LEARNER ROLES  Instructional system will be considerably influenced by how learners are regarded
TEACHER ROLES  Similarly related ultimately both to assumptions about language and language learning at the
level of approach
ROLE OF INST.  Specified with respect to objectives, content, learning activities, and learner and teacher roles
MATERIALS for materials within the system
 Reflect decisions concerning the primary goal of materials, the form of materials, the relation of
materials to other sources of input, and the abilities of teachers

MATRIX C: METHODS AND APPROACHES

METHOD ORAL APPROACH & SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

TEACHING
BACKGROUND o Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby- leaders in
this movement
o Systematic study of the principles &
procedures that could be applied to the
selection & organization of the content of a
language course (Palmer, 1917)
o ASPECTS:
 Vocabulary control
 Vocabulary was seen as an essential
component of reading proficiency
 Frequency counts showed that a core of
2000 or so words occurred frequently in
written text and that a knowledge of
these words would greatly assist in
reading a foreign language
 Grammar Control
 Palmer had emphasized the problems of
grammar for the foreign learner
 Palmer viewed grammar as the
underlying sentence patterns of the
spoken language
o Leonard Bloomfield
o “Informant Method” or “Army Method”
o Innovative mainly in terms of the procedures
used & the intensity of teaching rather than
in terms of its underlying theory
o Language was taught by the systematic
attention to pronunciation and by intensive
oral drilling of its basic sentence patterns
o A lesson began with work on pronunciation,
morphology, grammar; followed by drills and
exercise
o Pattern Practice- basic classroom technique
o Commonsense application of the idea:
Practice makes perfect
o Combination of structural linguistic theory,
contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures
and behaviorist psychology
o Provided methodological foundation for
materials for the teaching of foreign
languages at the college and university level
in the US and Canada

APPROACH o Involved systematic principles of selection,
gradiation and presentation
o MAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
 Language teaching begins with the spoken
language. Material is taught orally before it
is presented in written form
 Target language is the language of the
classroom
 New language points are introduced and
practiced situationally
 Vocabulary selection procedures are
followed to ensure that an essential general 
service vocabulary is covered (key feature)
 Items of grammar are graded following the
principle that simple forms should be
taught before complex ones
 Reading & writing are introduced once a
sufficient lexical & grammatical basis is
established
THEORY OF  Speech was regarded as the basis of language 
LANGUAGE  Structure was viewed as being at the heart of
speaking ability
o “our principal classroom activity in the
o DISTINCT FEATURES: (Finnochiaro, 1983)
 Attends to structure & form more than
meaning
 Demand memorization of structure-
based dialogue
 Language items are not necessarily
contextualized
 Language learning is learning structures,
sounds or words
 Mastery is sought
 Drilling is central technique
 Native-like pronunciation is sought
 Grammatical explanation is avoided
 Communicative activities only come after
a long process of rigid drills and exercises
 Translation & use of student’s native
language is forbidden
 Reading & writing are deferred till
speech is mastered
 Target linguistic system will be learned
through the overt teaching of the
patterns of the system
 Linguistic competence is the desired goal
 Varieties of language are recognized but
not emphasized
 Sequence of units is solely by principles
of linguistic complexity
 Teacher controls the learners & prevent
them from doing anything that conflicts
with the theory
 “Language is habit” , errors must be
prevented
 Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness,
is primary
 Students are expected to interact with
the language system
 Teacher specify the language that
students are to use
 Intrinsic motivation will spring from an
interest in the structure of language
 Structural theory of language constituted its
backbone
 Language was viewed as a system of
structurally related elements for the
encoding of meaning, the elements of
phonemes, morphemes, words, structures
and sentence types
 Learning a language entails mastering the
elements or building blocks of the language
and learning the rules by which these
elements are combines
Primary medium: oral
o “Primarily what is spoken & only
secondarily what is written” (Brooks
1964)
Structural linguistics; structural theory of
language constitutes its backbone
 Language was viewed as a system of
structurally related elements for the
 teaching of Englsih structure will be oral
practice of structures” (Pittman. 1963)
 Knowledge of structures must be linked to
situations in which they could be used
 Language was viewed as purposeful activity
related to goals and situations in the real
world
o “the language which a person
originates…is always expressed for a
purpose.” (Frisby, 1957)
THEORY OF  Addresses primarily the processes rather than  Reinforcement: vital element in the learning
LEARNING the conditions of learning
 Adopts an inductive approach to the teaching
of grammar
 Meaning is to be induce from the way the
form is used in a situation
 Extending structures and vocabulary to new
situations takes place by generalization
DESIGN and  To teach a practical command of the four
OBJECTIVES basic skills of language
 Skills are approached through structure
 Accuracy in both pronunciation & grammar is
regarded crucial
 Errors are to be avoided at all cost
o “We shall teach orally both the new
structures and the new vocabulary”
(Pittman, 1963)
o “Only when the teacher is reasonably
certain that learners can speak fairly
correctly w/in the limits of their knowledge
of sentence structure and vocabulary may
he allow them free choice in sentence
patterns & vocabulary” (Pittman, 1963)
SYLLABUS  Structural syllabus (list of the basic structures  Structural-based
& sentence patterns) and a word list
o Structure- always taught w/in sentences
o Vocabulary- chosen according to how well
it enables sentence patterns to be taught
encoding of meaning, the elements being
phonemes, morphemes, words, structures
and sentence types
 Learning a language entails mastering the
elements or building blocks of the language
and learning the rules by which these
elements are combined
 The primary medium of language is oral:
Speech is language
o “language is speech not writing….a language
is a set of habits…teach the language, not
about the language” (William Moulton)
process, it increases the likehood that the
behavior will occur again and eventually
become a habit
 Language Mastery: represented as acquiring
a set of appropriate language stimulus-
response chains
 Language teaching should focus on mastery
of speech & that writing or even written
prompts should be withheld until reasonably
late in the language learning process
 PRINCIPLES OF AUDIOLINGUAL:
o Foreign language learning is basically a
process of mechanical habit formation
o Language skills are learned more
effectively if the items to be learned in the
target language are presented in spoken
form before they are seen in written form
o Analogy provides a better foundation for
language learning than analysis
o The meanings that words of a language
have for the native speaker can be learned
only in a linguistic and cultural context and
not in isolation
o “We have no reason to assume that verbal
behavior differs in any fundamental
respect from nonverbal behavior, or that
any new principle must be invoked to
account for it” (BF Skinner, 1957)
 return to speech-based instruction w/
primary objective of oral proficiency
 dismissed the study of grammar or literature
as the goal of foreign language teaching
 Short Range Obj.- training in listening
comprehension, accurate pronunciation,
recognition of speech symbols & the ability to
produce these symbols in writing
 Long Range Obj.-“must be language as the
native speaker uses it…there must be some
knowledge of a second language as it is
possessed y a true bilingualist” (Brooks,
1964)
 Lexical-syllabus of basic vocabulary item is
usually specified in advance
 Language skills are taught in the order of
listening, speaking, reading & writing
 Listening- viewed largely as a training in aural

TEACHING/  Situational approach presenting new sentence
LEARNING patterns & a drill-based manner of practicing
ACTIVITIES them
o Situation- concrete objects, pictures and
realia; actions & gestures can be used to
demonstrate meanings of new language
items (Pittman)
o Practice Technique-guided repetitions and
substitution activities, chorus repetition,
dictation, drills, controlled oral-based
reading & writing tasks
o Oral Practice-pair practice & group work
LEARNER ROLES  Required simply to listen & repeat what the
teacher says
 Responds to questions & commands
 No control over the content of learning
 Avoid incorrect habits at all costs
 (Later) more active participant
 Initiates responses and asking each other
questions
 Practice new language is stressed
TEACHER ROLES  Model
 Sets up situations where need for target
structure is created
 Modeling new structures for students to
repeat
 Skillful manipulator, using questions,
commands & other cues
o LESSON is: teacher-directed, teacher sets
the pace
 Organizing review
ROLE OF INST.  Textbook (tightly organized lesson planned
MATERIALS around different grammatical structures)
 Visual Aids ( wall charts, flashcards, pictures,
stick figures)
PROCEDURE  Consist of Five Parts
o Pronunciation
o Revision (prepare for new work if
necessary)
o Presentation of new structure or
vocabulary
o Oral practice (drilling)
o Reading of material on new structure, or
written exercise
OTHER  
HIGHLIGHTS
CONCLUSION  Essential features of SLT are seen in the PPP
lesson model
o Presentation- introduction of a new
discrimination of basic sound patterns
 Dialogue
o means of contextualizing key structures
and illustrate situations in w/c structure
might be used as well as some cultural
aspects of the target language
o used for repetition & memorization
 Drills & Pattern Practice-distinctive feature
o KINDS: repetition; inflection;
replacement; restatement; completion;
transposition; expansion; contraction;
transformation; integration; rejoinder;
restoration
 Reactive, responding to stimuli
 Have little control over the content, pace or
style of learning
 Not encouraged to initiate interaction,
because this may lead to mistakes
 Central & active
 Teacher-dominated method
 Teacher models the target language
 Controls the direction & pace of learning
 Monitors & corrects learner’s performance
 Keep the learners attentive by varying drills &
tasks & choosing relevant situations to
practice structures
 Assist the teacher to develop language
mastery in the learner
 Teacher have access to a teacher’s book that
contains the structured sequence of lessons
 Tape recorders & audiovisual equipments
often have central roles
 Language laboratory-provides accurate
models for further drill work & to receive
controlled error-free practice of basic
structure
 Involves extensive oral instruction
 Focus of instruction is on immediate &
accurate speech
 Little provision for grammatical explanation
or talking about the language
 Target language is used as the medium of
instruction
 Translation or use of the native language is
discouraged
 Classes of 10 or fewer is considered optimal
DECLINE
o Practitioners found that the practical
results fell short of expectations
o Students were found unable to transfer
skills acquired
o Many students found it boring &
unsatisfying
 There are many similarities between SLT &
Audiolingualism. The order which the
language skills are introduced, and the focus
 teaching item in context on accuracy through drill & practice in the
o Practice-controlled practice basic structure & sentence patterns of the
o Production- freer practice phase target language. These similarities reflect
 Because of the principles of SLT and its strong similar views about the nature of language &
emphasis on oral practice, grammar and of learning, through these views were in fact
sentence patterns; conforms to the institutions developed from quite different traditions
of many language teachers, and offer a
practical methodology suited to countries
where national EFL/ESL syllabuses continue to
be grammatically based, it continues to be
widely used , though not necessarily widely
acknowledge

METHOD TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE THE SILENT WAY

BACKGROUND o James Asher- sees successful adult second o Caleb Gattegno
language learning as a parallel process to child o Base on the premise that the teacher should
first language acquisition be silent as much as possible & the
 Claims that speech directed to young classroom but the learner should be
children consists primarily of command, w/c encouraged to produce as much language as
children respond to physically before they possible
begin to produce verbal responses
o Built around the coordination of speech &
action
o Attempts to teach language through physical
(motor) activity
o Method that is undemanding in terms of
linguistic production & involves gamelike
movements reduces learner stress & creates a
positive mood in the learner w/c facilitates
learning
APPROACH o Grammar-based view of language  LEARNING HYPOTHESES
o Asher views the verb, particularly imperative o Learning is facilitated of the learner
verb, as the central linguistic motif around w/c discovers or creates rather than
language use & learning are organized remembers & repeats what is to be
o Stimulus Response View- provides the learning learned
theory  Benefits derived from “Discovery
o “Trace Theory”-linked to TPR, of memory in Learning” (Bruner, 1966)
psychology; the more often or intensively a  Increase intellectual potency
memory connection is traced, the stronger the  Shift from extrinsic to intrinsic
memory association will be & the more likely rewards
will be recalled  Learning of heuristic discovering
o (INFLUENTIAL) LEARNING HYPOTHESES-  Aid to conserving memory
 There exist a specific bio-program for o Learning is facilitated by accompanying
language learning (mediating) physical objects
 3 Bio-Program Process:  Rods & Fidel Charts- provide physical
 Children develop listening competence foci for learners
before they develop the ability to speak o Learning is facilitated by problem solving
 Because children are required to involving the material to be learned
respond physically, their listening  Related to a set of premise that we have
comprehension ability is acquired called “problem-solving approaches to
 Speech evolves naturally & effortlessly learning”
once listening comprehension
foundation is established
 Brain lateralization defines different
learning functions in the left & right brain
hemisphere
 Directed to right brain learning; language
through motor movement
 Similarly, adult should proceed to language
mastery through right-hemisphere motor
activities, while the left-hemisphere
 watches & learns
 Stress intervenes between the act of
learning & what is to be learned
 Stress Reduction- absence of stress
 Language acquisition takes place in a
stress-free environment
THEORY OF  Requires initial attention to meaning rather
LANGUAGE than to the form of items
THEORY OF  Grammar is taught inductively
LEARNING  Fixed number of items are to be introduced at
a time, to facilitate ease of differentiation &
assimilation
DESIGN and  To teach oral proficiency at a beginning level
OBJECTIVES  To teach basic speaking skills
 Aims to produce learners who are capable of
an uninhibited communication that is
intelligible to a native speaker
 Must be attainable through the use of action-
based drills in the imperative form
SYLLABUS  Inferred from an analysis of exercise types
employed in TPR classes
 Sentence-based Syllabus- grammatical & lexical
criteria primary in selecting teaching items
TEACHING/  Imperative Drills- major classroom activity;
LEARNING used to elicit physical actions & activity on the
ACTIVITIES part of the learners
 Conversational Dialogues- delayed until after
about 120 hours of instruction
 Role Plays- should focus on everyday situations
LEARNER  Listener
ROLES  Performer
 Expected to recognize & respond to novel
combination of previously taught items
 Required to produce novel combinations of
their own
 Monitor & evaluate their own progress
 Successful learning involves commitment of
the self to language acquisition through the
use of silent awareness & then active trial
 Focus on the self of the learner, priorities &
commitments
 Silence- considered the best vehicle for
learning because in silence learners
concentrate on the tasks to be accomplished
& the potential means to its accomplishment
 Inner Criteria- acquired by learners; allow
learners to monitor & self-correct their own
production
 Self-awareness- what makes Silent Way
different from other ways of language
learning
 Structural approach to the organization of
language to be taught
 Sentence is the basic unit of teaching
 Teacher focus: propositional meaning rather
than communicative value
 Vocabulary is the central dimension of
language learning (Gattegno)
 Choice of vocabulary is crucial (Gattegno)
 Deals with the most functional & versatile
words of the language
 Learners “return to the state of mind that
characterizes a baby’s learning-surrender”
(Scott & Page, 1982)
 General Obj.- give beginning level students
oral & aural facility in basic elements of the
target language
 General Obj.-emphasis on the near-native
fluency in the target language & correct
pronunciation & mastery of the prosodic
elements of the target language
 Immediate Obj.- provide learners with basic
practical knowledge of the grammar
 Structural syllabus
 Lessons planned around grammatical items &
related vocabulary
 Language are introduced according to their
grammatical complexity, relationship to
previous learning, & ease with which items
can be presented visually
 Have function of encouraging & shaping
student oral response w/o direct oral
instruction from or unnecessary modeling by
the teacher
 Expected to develop independence,
autonomy & responsibility
 Required to develop “inner criteria” & to
correct themselves
  Encouraged to speak when they feel ready to
speak
TEACHER  Active and direct role
ROLES  Decides what to teach, who models & presents
the new materials, & who selects supporting
materials for classroom use
 (Asher) not so much to teach but to provide
opportunities for learning
 Provide best kind of exposure to language so
that the learner can internalize basic rules of
the target language
 Controls the language input received by
learners
 Provide raw materials for the “cognitive map”
that learners will construct in their own minds
 Allow speaking abilities to develop in learners
at learner’s own natural pace
 Refrain from too much correction in the early
stages
ROLE OF INST.  Beginners, lessons may not require the use of
MATERIALS materials since teacher’s voice, actions and
gestures may be a sufficient basis for classroom
activities
 Later, teacher may use common classroom
objects such as realia; collect supporting
materials to support the lesson
PROCEDURE  Review
 New commands
 Role reversal
 Reading & writing
CONCLUSION  Should be used in association with other
methods and techniques
 Represents a useful set of techniques & is
compatible with other approaches to teaching
METHOD COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
BACKGROUND o Charles A. Curan
 His application of psychological counseling
techniques to learning is known as
Counseling-Learning
o Derives its primary insights, & indeed its
organizing rationale from Rogerian Counseling
(Rogers 1951)
o Draws on the counseling metaphor to redefinine
the roles of the teacher & learners in language
classroom
 Minimal teacher modeling
 Teach, test and get out of the way
 Silently monitors learners’ interactions w/
each other & may even leave the room while
learners struggle w/ their new linguistic tool
 Designed for manipulation by the students as
well as by the teacher, independently &
cooperatively
 Set of colored rods, color-coded
pronunciation & vocabulary wall charts,
pointer, reading/writing exercise
 First part of the lesson focuses on
pronunciation
 Beginning Stage- teacher models appropriate
sound after pointing to a symbol on a chart
 Later Stage- teacher silently point to
individual symbols & combinations of
utterances & monitors student utterances
 Pointer- used to indicate stress, phrasing &
intonation
 Stress- shown by touching certain symbols
more forcibly than others
 Intonation & Phrasing- demonstrated by
tapping on the chart to the rhythm of the
utterance
 Innovations from Gattegno’s method derive
primarily from the manner in which classroom
activities are organized, the direct role of the
teacher is required to assume in directing &
monitoring learner performance, the
responsibility placed on the learners to figure
out & test their hypotheses about how the
language works, and the materials used to
elicit & practice language.
SUGGESTOPEDIA
o Georgi Lasonov-
o Specific set of learning recommendations
derived from Suggestology
o “science…concerned with as systematic
study of the motivational and/or
nonconscious influence” (Stevick, 1976)
o most conspicuous characteristics:
decoration, furniture, and arrangement of
classroom
o uses Music Therapy
 o Humanistic technique o 3 Functions of Music Therapy:
o “Blend what the students feels, thinks & knows  facilitate the establishment & maintenance
w/ what he is learning in the target language.” of personal relations
(Moskowitz, 1978)  bring about increased self-esteem
o engage the whole person including the  use unique potential of rhythm to energize
emotions & feelings as well as linguistic & bring order
knowledge & behavior skills
APPROACH o La Forge goes beyond the structuralist view of  Emphasis on memorization of vocabulary
language and elaborates an alternative theory pairs
of language which is referred to as “Language
as Social Process”  Refers to language to be learned as
o “Language is people; language is persons in “material”
contact; language is persons in response” (La  Suggestion is at the heart of this theory
Forge, 1983)  PRINCIPAL THEORITICAL COMPONENTS:
o 2 FUNDAMENTAL INTERACTIONS: o Authority- people remember & are most
Interaction between Learners- unpredictable in influence by information coming from an
content but typically are said to involve authoritative source
exchange of affect; the desire to be part of o Infantilization- suggest a teacher-student
the growing intimacy pushes learners to relation like parent to a child
keep pace with the learning of their peers o Double-Planedness- learners also learns
Interaction between Learns and Knowers- from the environment where learning
initially are dependent takes place
o Intonation, Rhythm & Concert Pseudo-
Passiveness- varying tone & rhythm of
presented material helps both to avoid
boredom ; intonation & rhythm are
coordinated w/the musical background;
induce a relax attitude
THEORY OF  Consensual Validation or Covalidation is 
LANGUAGE considered essential in to the learning process
& key element of CLL classroom procedures
THEORY OF  View learning as a holistic one, since “true” 
LEARNING human learning is both cognitive & affective;
“whole-person learning”
 Five Stages:
o “Birth” Stage- feelings of security &
belonging are established
o learner as a child- begins to achieve a
measure of independence from the parent
o learner “speaks independently” & may
need to assert his or her own identity
o learner is secure enough to take criticism
o learner merely works on improving style &
knowledge of linguistic appropriateness
 Requirements for Successful Learning
o Security
o Attention & Aggression
o Retention & Reflection
o Denotes discrimination
 Address not the psycholinguistic &
cognitive processes involved in second
language acquisition but rather the
personal commitments that learners need
to make before language acquisition can
operate
DESIGN and  Progression is topic-based  To deliver advanced conversational
OBJECTIVES  Learners nominate things they wish to talk proficiency quickly
about & meanings they wish to communicate  Bases its learning claims on students mastery
with other learners of prodigious list of vocabulary pairs
 Classes are held 4 hours a day, 6 days a week
 Unit study is organized around 3 days
 Days 2 & 3: Primary elaboration (imitation,
question & answer, reading) and Secondary

SYLLABUS  Emerges from the interaction between the
learners expressed communicative intentions
& the learner’s reformulations of these into
suitable target-language utterances
TEACHING/  Combines innovative learning tasks & activities
LEARNING w/ conventional ones (translation, group work,
ACTIVITIES recording, transcription, analysis, refection &
observation, listening, free conversation)
LEARNER  Member of a community
ROLES  Expected to listen attentively to the knower
 Freely provide meaning they wish to express
 Repeat target utterances without hesitation
 Support fellow members of a community
 Report deep inner feelings & frustrations, as
well as joy & pleasure
 Counselors to other learners
TEACHER  Supportive role, providing target language
ROLES translation & a model for imitation on request
of client
 Monitors learner’s utterances providing
assistance when requested
 May intervene directly to correct deviant
utterances, supply idiom & advice on usage &
fine point in grammar
ROLE OF INST.  My be developed by the teachers as the course
MATERIALS develops
 Conversations may be transcribed & distributed
for study & analysis, learners may wok in
groups
PROCEDURE  First Class- may begin with a period of silence, in
which learners try to determine what will happen in
their language class
 Intermediate or Advanced Class- teacher may
encourage groups to prepare a paper drama for
presentation
 Teacher asks learners to reflect on the language
class, as a class or as a group
CONCLUSION  places unusual demands on language teachers. They
must be highly proficient & sensitive to nuance in
both L1 & L2
 stresses the humanistic side of language learning and
not merely its linguistic dimension
METHOD MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
BACKGROUND o Howard Gardner-argues that all humans have
these intelligences, but people differ in
strengths & combinations of intelligences
o Learner-based philosophy that characterizes
human intelligence as having multiple
dimensions that must be acknowledged and
developed in education
o Learners are viewed as possessing individual
styles, preferences or intelligences
o Gardner claims that his view of intelligences is
elaboration (encouraging students to make
new combination s& productions based on
dialogues)
 Last day is devoted to performance in which
every student participates

 Imitation, question and answer and role play
 Must forgo mind-altering substances & other
distractions
 Immerse themselves in the procedures of the
method
 Must not try to figure out, manipulate or
study presented but must maintain pseudo-
passive state
 Expected to tolerate & in fact, encourage
their own “infantilization”
 Create situations in which the learner is most
suggestible
 Present linguistic material in a way most
likely to encourage positive reception and
retention by learner
 Direct support material, primarily text & tape
 Indirect support materials, including
classroom fixtures and music
 First Part, oral review section- previously learned
materials are used as basis for discussion; involve
micro studies (specific attention given to
grammar, vocabulary and precise question &
answer) and macro-studies (emphasis is on role
playing & wide ranging ,innovative language
construction)
 Second Part, introduction and presentation of
new material
 Third Part, concert session-reading of text while
background music is played
 “If we have learnt anything at all in the seventies,
it is the art of language teaching will benefit very
little from the pseudo-science of suggestology”
(Scovel, 1979)
COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
o Competency Based Education- education
movement that focuses on the outcomes or
outputs of learning
o Competency-Based Language Teaching
 Designed not around the notions of
subject knowledge but around the notion
of competency(Docking, 1994)
 A syllabus & course content are
developed around the subject
 Objectives may be specified but usually
 culture-free & avoid conceptual narrowness have little role in teaching or referencing
usually associated with traditional models of  Student assessment is usually based on
intelligences norm referencing
o 8 Native Intelligences:  Competency- description of the essential
 Linguistic skills, knowledge, attitudes & behaviors
 Logical/Mathematical required for effective performance of the
 Spatial real-world task or activity
 Musical o
 Bodily/Kinesthetic
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
 Naturalistic
APPROACH o Looks at the language of the individual, o EIGHT KEY FEATUIRES OF CBE:
including one or more second languages, not  Focus on Successful Functioning in
as an “added on” & somewhat peripheral skill society- enable students to become
but as central to the whole life of the language autonomous individuals capable of
learner & user coping w/ the demands of the world
 Focus on life skills- teaches language as
a function of communication
 Task or Performance-Centered
Orientation- what counts is what
students can do as a result of instruction
 Modularized Instruction- “Language
learning is broken down into
manageable & immediately meaningful
chunks (Center for Applied Linguistics,
1983)
 Explicit Outcomes are Priority- specified
in terms of behavioral objectives
 Continuous & Ongoing Assessment-
program evaluation is based tests results
 Demonstrated Mastery of Performance
Objectives- assessment is based on the
ability to demonstrate prespecified
behaviors
 Individualized, Student-Centered
Instruction
THEORY OF  MI proponents believe that there is more to 
LANGUAGE language than what is usually subsumed under
rubric linguistics
 Language has its ties to life through senses
 Senses provide accompaniment & context for
linguistic message that give it meaning &
purpose
THEORY OF  there exist a cluster of mental abilities that are 
LEARNING separate but equal & that share the pinnacle at
the top of the hierarchy called intelligence-
thus the eight Multiple Intelligences
 “Is not a perspective. Rather, it gives teachers
a complex mental model from which to
construct curriculum & improve themselves as
educators” (Campbell, 1997)
DESIGN and  aimed at making the language learner a better 
OBJECTIVES designer of his/her own learning experiences
SYLLABUS  Basic Developmental Sequence (Lezar, 1991)- 
considered as a type of “syllabus”
o Stage 1: Awaken the Intelligence
o Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence
o Stage 3: Teach with/for the Intelligence
o Stage 4: Transfer of Intelligence
 How MI can be Used to Individualize Learning:
o Multiple intelligence Projects
o Curriculum-based Projects
 o Thematic-based Projects
o Resource-based Projects
o Student-choice Projects
TEACHING/  Designed to support development of the 
LEARNING “whole person” to become more well-rounded
ACTIVITIES individuals & more successful learners in
general
LEARNER  Need to see themselves as engaged in a 
ROLES process of personality development above &
beyond that of being a successful language
learner
 Encouraged to see their goals in broader terms
 Expected to take the MI inventory
 Develop their own MI profiles
TEACHER  Administer MI inventory on themselves & 
ROLES thereby be able to “connect life’s experiences
to your concept of MI” (Christison, 1997)i
 Curriculum developers, lesson designers &
analyst, activity finders or inventors
ROLE OF INST.  Multi-sensory activity planning 
MATERIALS  Realia
PROCEDURE  Stage 1: Awaken the Intelligence  Stage 1 & 2- relate to general development
 Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence  Stage 3- learners are more often grouped
 Stage 3: Teach with/for the Intelligence according to their goal focus & competencies
 Stage 4: Transfer of Intelligence are defined according to the three syllabus
strands of Further Study, Vocational English
and Community Access
 Four Domains of Competency Description:
o Knowledge & Learning Competencies
o Oral Competencies
o Reading Competencies
o Writing Competencies
CONCLUSION  The literature on MI provides a rich source of  CBLT is seen as prescriptivist in that it
classroom ideas regardless of one’s theoretical prepares students to fit into the status quo &
perspective & can help teachers think about maintain class relationships.
instruction in their classes in unique ways  Teaching typically focuses on behavior &
performance rather than on the development
of thinking skills

METHOD COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING NATURAL APPROACH

BACKGROUND o Partly a response to the sorts of criticism the
prominent American linguist Noam Chomsky
had leveled at structural linguistic theory
o Proponents saw the need to focus in language
teaching on communicative proficiency rather
than on mere mastery of structures
o D.A. Wilkins (1972)- proposed a functional or
communicative definition of langue that could
serve as basis for developing communicative
syllabuses for language teaching
 Described 2 types of meaning:
 Notional Categories- time, sequence,
quantity, location, frequency
 Categories of Communicative Function
o AIMS TO:
 Make communicative competence the goal
of language teaching
 Develop procedures for the teaching of the
four language skills that acknowledge the
interdependence of language &
communication
 Tracy Terell(1977)- attempt to develop a
language teaching proposal that
incorporated the “naturalistic” principles
researchers had identified in studies of
second language acquisition
 Stephen Krasehen- elaborated the
theoretical rationale of Natural Approach
 Place less emphasis on teacher monologues,
direct repetition and formal question and
answers
 Less focus on accurate production of target
language sentences
 Emphasis on input rather than practice
o “One of the most characteristic of
communicative language teaching is that it
pays systematic attention to functional as well
as structural aspects of language.” (littlewood,
1981)
o Strong Version of CLT (advances the claim that
language is acquired through communication,
so that it is not merely a question of activating
an existing but inert knowledge of the language
but of stimulating development of the language
system) and Weak Version of CLT (stresses the
importance of providing learners w.
opportunities to use their English for
communicative purposes & characteristically
attempts to integrate such activities into a
wider program of language teaching), Howatt
o Firth stressed that language needed to be
studied in the broader sociocultural context of
its use, which include participants, their
behavior, their beliefs, the objects of linguistic
discussion & word choice
o Learner-centered & experience-based view of
the second language teaching
o Teachers are encouraged to develop materials
“on the basis of the particular needs manifested
by the class” (Applebee, 1974)
o DISTINCT FEATURES: (Finnochiaro, 1983)
 Meaning is paramount
 Dialogues, if sued, center around
communicative functions, not normally
memorized
 Contextualization is basic premise
 Effective communication is sought
 Peripheral drilling
 Comprehensible pronunciation is sought
 Attempts to communicate may be
encourage from the very beginning
 Judicious use of native language is
accepted where feasible
 Translation may be used
 Reading & writing may start from the first
day, if desired
 Target linguistic system will be learned
through the process of struggling to
communicate
 Communicative competence is desired
goal
 Linguistic variation is central concept in
materials & methodology
 Sequencing is determined by any
consideration of content, function or
meaning that maintains interest
 Teachers help learners in any way that
motivates them to work
 Language is created by the individual,
often through trial & error
 Fluency & acceptable language is the
primary goal
 Students are expected to interact with
other people
 The teacher cannot know exactly what
language students will use
 Intrinsic motivation will spring from
 interest in what is being communicated by
language
THEORY OF  Language is communication. The goal of  Emphasize the primacy of meaning
LANGUAGE language teaching is to develop what Hymes  Importance of vocabulary is stressed
(1972) referred to as “Communicative  “The quantity of information in the lexicon
Competence” overweighs that in any other part of the
 Person who acquires communicative language, & there is anything to the notion
competence acquires both knowledge & ability of redundancy, it should be easier to
for language with respect to, whether: (Hymes, reconstruct a message containing just words
1972) than on containing just the syntactic
o Something is formally possible relations.” (Bolinger, in Terell, 1977)
o Something is feasible in virtue of the  Language is viewed as a vehicle for
means of implementation available communicating meanings & messages
o Something is appropriate in relation to a  “Acquisition can take place only when people
context in which it is used & evaluated understand messages in the target language”
o Something is in fact done, actually (Krashen & Terrell, 1983)
performed, & what its doing entails  Assumes linguistic hierarchy of structural
 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: (Halliday, complexity that one masters through
1975) encounters with “input” containing
o Instrumental function structures at the “I + 1 “ level
o Regulatory function
o Interactional function
o Heuristic function
o Imaginative function
o Representational function
o Personal function
 DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE: (Canale & Swain, 1980)
o Grammar competence
o Sociolinguistic competence- understanding
of social context in w/c communication
takes place, including role relationships
o Discourse competence- interpretation of
individual message elements in terms of
their interconnectedness & of how
meaning is represented in relationship to
the entire discourse or text
o Strategic competence-coping strategies
that communication employ to initiate,
terminate, maintain, repair, redirect
communication
 Language is a system for the expression of
meaning
 The primary function of language is to allow
interaction & communication
 Structure of language reflects its functional &
communicative uses
 Primary units of language are not merely its
grammatical & structural features, but
categories of functional & communicative
meaning as exemplified by discourse
THEORY OF  Communication Principle: activities that  “it is based on an emperically grounded
LEARNING involve real communication promote learning theory of second language acquisition which
 Task Principle: activities in w/c language is has been supported by a large number of
used for carrying out meaningful tasks scientific studies in a wide variety of language
promote learning (Johnson, 1982) acquisition & learning context” (Krashen &
 Meaningfulness Principle: language that is Terrell, 1983)
meaningful to the learner supports learning  THE ACQUISITON/LEARNING HYPOTHESIS
process o 2 ways of developing competence in 2nd
 Krashen sees acquisition as the basic process language: Acquisition ( “natural way”;
involved in developing language proficiency & unconscious process that involves
distinguishes this process from learning naturalistic development of language
proficiency) and Learning (process in

 THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS
 AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS
DESIGN and  LEVELS of OBJECTIVES: (Piepho, 1981)
OBJECTIVES o Language as a means of expression
o Language as a semiotic system & an object
learning
o Language as a means of expressing values
& judgment about oneself & others
o Language learning within the school
curriculum
SYLLABUS  Notional Syllabus- specified the semantic-
grammatical categories & categories of
communicative function that learners need to
express (Wilkins, 1976)
 PROPOSALS FOR SYLLABUS:
o Structures + functions (Wilkins, 1976)
o Functional spiral around a structure core
(Brumfit, 1980)
o Structural, functional, instrumental (Allen,
1980)
o Functional (Jupp & Hodlin, 1975)
o Notional (Wilkins, 1976)
o Interactional (Widdowson, 1979)
o Task-based ( Prabhu, 1983)
o Learner-generated ( Candlin, 1976;
Henner-Stanchina & Riley, 1978)
 “The only form of syllabus which is compatible
with & can support communicational teaching
seems to be a purely procedural one- which
lists, in more or less detail, the types of tasks
to be attempted in the classroom & suggests
an order of complexity for tasks of the same
which conscious rules about a language
are developed)
o Claims that we may call upon learned
knowledge to correct ourselves when we
communicate
o 3 conditions limit: time, focus on form
and knowledge of the rules
 THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS
o Acquisition of grammatical structures
proceeds in a predictable order
 INPUT HYPOTHESIS
o Explain the relationship between what is
the learner exposed to of a language &
language acquisition
o Four Main Issues:
 Relates to acquisition & not learning
 People acquire language best by
understanding input that is slightly
beyond their current level of
competence
 Ability to speak fluently cannot be
taught directly
 If there is sufficient quantity of
comprehensible input, I+1 will
usually be provided automatically
o Leaner’s emotional state or attitudes a
an adjustable filter that free passes,
impeded or blocks input necessary to
acquisition
o 3 kinds of Affective Variables:
Motivation, Self-confidence & Anxiety
 Learners “Will be able to function adequately
in target situations, understand the speaker
of the target language, will be able to convey
their requests & ideas, should be able to
make meaning clear but not necessarily be
accurate all details of grammar” (Krashen &
Terrell, 1983)
 Goals Should be Under Four Areas: (Krashen
& Terrell, 1983)
o Basic personal communication skills: basic
o Basic personal skills: written
o Academic learning skills: oral
o Academic learning skills: written
 “designed to develop basic communication
skills- both oral & written” & “will vary
according to the needs of the students & their
particular interests” (Krashen & Terrell, 1983)
 king” (Prabhu, 1983)
 Some have argued that syllabus concept be
abolished altogether in its accepted forms,
arguing that only learners can be fully aware of
their own needs
TEACHING/  Enable learners to attain the communicative
LEARNING objectives of the curriculum
ACTIVITIES  Engage learners to communication
 Require the use of such communicative
processes as information sharing, negotiation
of meaning & interaction
 Classroom Activities- are often designed to
focus on completing tasks that re mediated
through language or involve negotiation of
information & information sharing
 Functional Communication Activities-
comparing sets of pictures, noting similarities
& differences; sequence of events in a set of
pictures, and related activities
 Social Interaction Activities- conversation &
discussion sessions, dialogues & role play,
simulation, skits, improvisations and debates
LEARNER  Negotiator, between self, the learning process
ROLES & the objects of learning ( Candlin)
 Expected to interact primarily with each other
rather than with the teacher
 Correction of errors may be absent or
infrequent
 Recommend that learners see that failed
communication is a joint responsibility
TEACHER  To facilitate the communication process
ROLES between all participants in the classroom
 Act as independent participant within the
learning-teaching group
 Researcher & learner with much to contribute
in terms of appropriate knowledge & abilities
 Needs analyst (assumes a responsibility for
determining & responding to learner language
needs)
 Counselor (expected to exemplify an effective
communicator seeking to maximize the
meshing of speaker intention & hearer
interpretation)
 Group process manager (responsible in
organizing the classroom as a setting for
communication & communicative activities)
ROLE OF INST.  TEXT-BASED MATERIALS
MATERIALS o Typical lesson consist of theme, a task
analysis for thematic development,
practice situation description
 TASK-BASED MATERIALS
 Emphasis is on presenting comprehensible
input in the target language
 Learners are not required to say anything
until they feel ready but are expected to
respond to teacher commands & questions in
other ways
 Acquisition Activities- those that focus on
meaningful communication rather than
language forms
 Techniques recommended by Krashen&
Terrell are often borrowed from other
methods & adapted to meet requirements of
Natural Approach theory
 Use of familiar techniques within the
framework of a method that focuses on
comprehensible input
 A classroom environment that cues
comprehension of the input, minimizes
learner anxiety and maximizes learner self-
confidence
 Seen to change according to their stage of
linguistic development, central to his
changing roles are learner decisions on when
to speak, what to speak about and what
linguistic expression to use in speaking
o Pre-production Stage
o Early-Production Stage
o Speech-emergent Phase
 FOUR RESPONSIBILITIES:
o Provide information about their specific
goals
o Take an active role in ensuring
comprehensible input
o Decide when to start producing speech
& when to upgrade it
o Where learning exercises are to be part
of the program
 Primary source of comprehensible input in
the target language
 Required to generate a constant flow of
language input while providing a multiplicity
of nonlinguistic clues to assist students in
interpreting the input
 Creates a classroom atmosphere that is
interesting, friendly, and in which there is a
low affective filter for learning
 Choose and orchestrate a rich mix of
classroom activities, involving a rich variety
of group sizes, content and contexts
 Make class room activities meaningful as
possible
 Realia
 Primary Aim: promote comprehension and
communication
 o Variety of games, role plays, simulations,
and task-based communication activities;
cue cards, exercise handbooks, activity
cares, pair-communication practice
materials, student-interaction practice
booklets
 REALIA
o The use of “authentic”, “from life” materials
in the classroom
PROCEDURE  Presentation of a brief dialogue or several mini
dialogues
 Oral practice of each utterance of the dialogue
segment
 Question & answers based on the dialogue topic
situation itself
 Study one of the basic communicative
expression in the dialogue or one of the
structures w/c exemplify the function
 Learner discover generalization or rule
underlying functional expression of structure
 Oral recognition, interpretative activities
 Oral production activities
 Sampling of written homework assignment, if
given
 Evaluation of learning
CONCLUSION  Refers to a divers asset of principles that reflects
a communicative view of language and language
learning & that can be used to support a wide
variety of classroom procedures
 Stresses that the content or subject matter of
teaching is of primary importance in teaching
 Focus more directly on instructional factores
METHOD COOPERATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING
BACKGROUND o makes maximum use of cooperative activities
involving pairs and small groups of learners in
classroom
o group learning activity organizes so that
learning is dependent on the socially structured
exchange of information (Olsen & Kagan, 1992)
o provide opportunities for naturalistic 2nd
language acquisition through the use of
interactive pair/ group activities
o provide teachers with a methodology to enable
them to achieve goal & one that can be applied
to a variety of curriculum
o enable focused attention to particular lexical
items, language structures and communicative
functions thru interactive tasks
o enhance learner motivation & reduce learner
stress
 Games: by their very nature, focus students
on what it is they are doing & us the
language as a tool for reaching the goal
rather than as a goal in itself (Terrell, 1982)
 Facilitate the acquisition of a large
vocabulary within a class
 Start with TPR
 Use TPR to teach names of body parts,
numbers and sequence
 Introduce classroom terms and props
command
 Use names of physical characteristics and
clothing to identify members of the class by
name
 Use visuals, typically magazine pictures, to
introduce new vocabulary combine use of
pictures with TPR
 Using several pictures, ask students to point
to the picture being described
 focus on comprehension and meaningful
communication as well as provision of the
right kinds of comprehensible input provide
the necessary & sufficient conditions for
successful classroom second & foreign
language acquisition
 evolutionary rather than revolutionary in its
procedures. Its greatest claim to originality lies
not in the techniques employs but in their use
in a method that emphasizes comprehensible
& meaningful practice activities, rather than
production of grammatically perfect utterance
& sentences
CONTENT –BASED INSTRUCTION
 Teaching is organized around the content or
information that students will acquire, rather
than around a linguistic or other type of
syllabus
 “If any word in English language is hot,
buzzworthy and finger-snappingly with it,
surpassing even millennium in both general
discourse and insideres that word is content”
(William Safire, New York Times, 1998)
 Content-Refers to the substance or subject
matter that we learn or communicate
through language rather than the language
used to convey it
 St. Augustine- early proponent of Content-
Based Language Teaching as proposed by
Brinton, Snow and Wesche (1989)
 “Language that is being taught could be
used to present subject matter and students
would learn the language as a by-product of
learning about the real-world content “
(Widdowson, 1978)
 ROLE IN OTHER CURRICULUM DESIGN:

APPROACH  
THEORY OF  Premise 1: “all normal children growing up in a
LANGUAGE normal environment learn to talk. We are born
to talk…we may think of ourselves as having
been programmed to talk…communication is
generally considered to be the primary
purpose of language” (Weeks, 1979)
 Premise 2: most talk/ speech is organized as
conversation
 Premise 3: conversation operates according to
a certain agreed upon set of cooperative rules
or “maxims” (Grice, 1975)
 Premise 4: one learns how these cooperative
maxims are realized in one’s native language
through casual, everyday conversational
interaction
 Premise 5: one learns how the maxims are
realized in a second language through
participation in cooperatively structured
interactional activities
THEORY OF  Learners develop communicative competence
LEARNING in language by conversing socially or
pedagogically structured situations
 Bloom assumes a hierarchy of learning
objectives ranging from simple recall of
information to forming conceptual judgments
 Seeks to develop classrooms that foster
cooperation rather than competition in learning
 Cooperative learning is the instructional sue of
small groups through which student s work
together to maximize their own and other’s
learning (Johnson, et. al 1994)
 LEARNING ADVANTAGES: (McGoarty, 1989)
o Increased frequency & variety of 2nd
o Immersion Education- type of foreign
language instruction in which the regular
school curriculum is taught through the
medium of foreign language
o Immigrant On-Arrival Programs- focus on
the language newly arrived immigrant in
a country need for survival
o Program for Students with Limited
English Proficiency (SLEP)-
governmentally mandated programs to
serve especially those children whose
parents might be served by the on-
arrival programs, more generally
designed to provide in-class or pullout
instruction for any school-age children
whose language competence is
insufficient to participate fully in normal
school instruction
o Language for Specific Purposes (LSP)-
movement that seeks to serve the
language needs of learners who need
language in order to carry out specific
roles
Two Central Principle:
o People learn a second language more
successfully when they use the language
as a means of acquiring information,
rather than as an end in itself
o Content-based instruction better reflects
needs for learning second language
 Language is text and discourse-based- vehicle
for learning content; focus on teaching is how
meaning & information are communicated
and constructed through text & discourse
 Language draws on integrated skills- involving
several skills together; students are often
involved in activities that link the skills
because this is how skills are generally
involved in the real world; seek to bring
knowledge, language and thinking skills
 Language is purposeful- used for specific
purposes; purpose may vary; language
contains great potential for communicating
meaning
 “Content is the share of departure or
organizing principle of the course- a feature
that grows out of common underlying
assumption that successful language learning
occurs when students are presented with
target language material in a meaningful,
contextualized form with the primary focus
on acquiring information” (Brinton, et. al
Wesche, 1989)
 People learn a second language most
successfully when the information they are
acquiring is perceived as interesting, useful &
leading to a desired goal
 Some content areas are more useful as a basis
 language practice through different types of for language learning than other
interaction  Students learn best when instruction
o Possibility for development or use of addresses student’s needs
language in ways that support cognitive  Teaching builds on the previous experience of
development and increased language skills the learners
o Opportunities to integrate language with
content-base instruction
o Opportunities include a greater variety of
curricular materials to stimulate language
as well as concept learning
o Freedom for teachers to master new
professional skills
o Opportunities for students to act as
resource for each other
DESIGN and  Designed to foster cooperation rather than  Objectives in a typical CBI course are stated
OBJECTIVES competition as objectives of a content course with the
 Develop critical thinking skills exception of theme-based instructional
 To develop communicative competence models for CBI
through socially structures interaction
activities
SYLLABUS  Does not assume any particular form of  Derived from the content area, and vary in
language syllabus detail and format
TEACHING/  TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING (Johnson,  ACCRDNG to INST. FOCUS (Stoller, 1997)
LEARNING et. al., 1994) o Language skills improvement
ACTIVITIES o Formal Cooperative Learning Groups- o Vocabulary building
established for a specific tasks & involve o Discourse organization
students working together to achieve o Communicative interaction
shared learning goals o Study skill
o Informal Cooperative Learning Groups- used o Synthesis of content materials and
to focus attention or facilitate learning grammar
during direct teaching  UNIVERSAL STRUCTURES (Mohan, 1986)
o Cooperative Base Groups-primary purpose o Description
is to allow members to give each other the o Sequence
support, help & encouragement , and o Choice
assistance they need to succeed o Concepts/classification
academically o Principles
 KEY ELEMETS OF SUCCESSFUL GROUP-BASED o Evaluation
LEARNING: (Olsen & Kagan, 1992)
o Positive Interdependence- occurs when
group members feel that what helps one
member helps all and what hurts one
member hurts all; build mutual support
within the group
o Group Formation- important factor in
creating positive interdependence (deciding
on the size of the group, assigning students
to groups & student roles in groups)
o Individual Accountability- involves both
groups & individual performance;
determine the way students interact with
each other as teammates
o Structuring and Structures- refers to ways of
organizing students interaction & different
ways students are to interact
 COOPERATIVE LEARNING TASKS (Coelho, 1992)
o Team practice from common input-skills
development & mastery of facts
o Jigsaw: differentiated but pre-determined
input-evaluation & synthesis of facts &
opinions
o Cooperative projects: topics/resources
selected by students- discovery learning
LEARNER  Member of a group who must work  Become autonomous so they come to
ROLES collaboratively on tasks with other group “understand their own learning process and…
members take charge of their own learning from the
 Directors of their own learning very start” (Stryker & Leaver, 1993)
 Active interpreters of input
 Willing to explore alternative learning
strategies and to seek multiple
interpretations of oral and written text
 May be sources of content and joint
participants in the selection of topics and
activities
 Committed to this new kind of approach to
language learning
TEACHER  Create a highly structures & well-organized  Must be knowledgeable in the subject matter
ROLES learning environment in classroom, setting and able to elicit knowledge from their
goals, planning & structuring tasks, establishing students
the physical arrangement of the classroom,  Keep context and comprehensibility foremost
assigning to groups & roles, selecting materials in planning and presentation
 Facilitation of learning  Responsible for selecting and adapting
authentic materials for use in class
 Become student needs analysts
 Create truly learner-centered classroom
ROLE OF INST.  May be specifically designed for CLL learning,  “Textbooks are contrary to the very concept
MATERIALS modified from existing materials or borrowed of CBI- and good language teaching in
from other disciplines general” (Stryker & Leaver, 1993)
 Need modification in order to ensure
maximum comprehensibility
 COURSE IN UNIVERSITY LEVEL:
o Theme-Based Language Instruction-
syllabus are organized around themes or
topics
o Sheltered Content Instruction- content
course taught in the second language by
content area specialist
o Adjunct Language Instruction- students are
enrolled in two linked course, one a
content course and one a language course
o Team-Teach Approach- subject and
language teacher working together in
preparing the syllabus
o Skill-Based Approach- focus on specific
academic skill
 ELEMENTARY & SECONDARY LEVEL:
o Theme-Based Approach- designed to
facilitate entry into regular subject-areas
classroom, focus on learning the
mainstream curriculum
o Adjunct Approach- focused on preparing
students to make the transition to learning
science through English
PROCEDURE   Linguistic analysis
 Preparation for film
 Viewing segment of the movie
 Discussion of the film
 Discussion of the reading
 Videotaped interview
 Discussion
 Preparation of articles
 Presentation of articles
 Wrap-up discussion
OTHER  
HIGHLIGHTS
CONCLUSION  Promotes learning through pairs or small groups  Advocates claim that it leads to more
 Cooperative learning, group activities are the successful program outcomes than alternative
 major mode of learning and are part of a
comprehensive theory & system for the use of
group work in teaching
 Has been extensively researched and evaluated
and research finding generally supportive
(Slavin, 1995; Baloche, 1998)
 Places considerable demands on teachers, who
may have difficulty adapting to the new roles
required of them
language teaching approaches
 “In content based approach, the activities of
the language class are specific to the subject
being taught, and are geared to stimulate
students to think and learn through the target
language.” (Brinton, et al. 1989)
 Based on a set of broad principles that can be
applied in many different ways and is widely
used as the basis for many different kinds of
successful language programs.

METHOD TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING GRAMMAR TRANSLATION

BACKGROUND  refers to an approach based on the use of tasks  “Prussian Method”
as the core unit of planning and instruction of  PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS
language o To learn language in order to read its
 proposes the notion of “task” as a central unit literature or in order to benefit from the
of planning and teaching mental discipline & intellectual
 aimed to provide learners with a natural development that result from foreign
content of language use language study
 “The central purpose we are concerned with o Reading & writing are major focus
this language learning, and task present this in o Vocabulary selection is based solely on
the form of problem-solving negotiation the reading texts used, and words are
between knowledge that the learners old and taught through bilingual word lists,
new knowledge.” ( Candlin and Murphy, 1987) dictionary study and memorization
 THEORITICAL BACKGROUND: o Sentence is the basic unit of teaching
o Psycholinguistic Perspective- task is a device and language practice
that guides learners to engage in certain o Accuracy is emphasized
types of information processing that are o Grammar is taught deductively
believed too important for effective o Student’s native language is medium of
language use for language acquisition and instruction
using mental processing that is beneficial to
acquisition
o Interaction Hypothesis - meaning
negotiation can contribute to acquisition.
o Cognitive Approach- constructs both
exemplar-based system and rule-based
system wherein lexical items and formulaic
chunks of language contribute to fluency,
accuracy and complexity.
o Constructivism- learners learn in ways that
are meaningful to them, they learn better if
they feel in control of what they are
learning, learning is closely linked to how
people feel about themselves, and learning
takes place in a social context through
interaction with other people.
 FOUR CATEGORIES OF TEAM PERFORMANCE:
o orientation function (processes for
generating and distributing information
necessary to task accomplishment to team
members)
o organizational functions (processes
necessary for members to coordinate
actions necessary for task performance)
o adaptation functions (processes occurring
as team members adapt their
performance to each other to complete
the task)
o motivational functions (defining team
objectives and “energizing the group” to
complete the task)

APPROACH   Laid foundations for the development of
new ways of teaching languages and raise
controversies that have continued to the
present day
 General Reformers Believed That:
o Spoken language is primary and that this
should be reflected in an oral-based
methodology
o Findings of phonetics should be applied
to teaching and to teacher training
o Learners should hear the language first,
before seeing it in written form
o Words should be presented in sentences
o The rules of grammar should be taught
only after the students have practiced
grammar points in context-taught
inductively
o Translation should be avoided, although
the native language could be used in
order to explain new words or to check
comprehension
THEORY OF  Language is primarily a means of making 
LANGUAGE meaning. Emphasizes the central role of
meaning in language use
 Multiple models of language inform TBI.
Advocates of TBLT draw on structural,
functional, and interactional models of
language
 Lexical units are central in language use and
language learning
 “Conversation” is the central focus of language
and the keystone of language acquisition
THEORY OF  Tasks provide both the input and output 
LEARNING processing necessary for language acquisition
 Task activity and achievement are
motivational. TBLT improves learner
motivation and therefore promote learning
 Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine
tuned for particular pedagogical purposes
DESIGN and  Selection of tasks should be based on a careful 
OBJECTIVES analysis of the real-world needs of the learners
(Long & Crookes 1993)
SYLLABUS  Must specify two types of tasks: real-world 
tasks and pedagogical tasks (Nunan)
TEACHING/  “task in an activity which requires learners to 
LEARNING arrive at an outcome form given information
ACTIVITIES through some process of thought and which
allows teachers to control and regulate that
process.” Prabhu, 1987)
LEARNER  Group Participant 
ROLES  Monitor
o learners need to “attend” not only to the
message in task work, but also to the form
in which such messages typically come
packed
 Risk-taker and innovator
o create and interpret messages for they lack
full linguistic resources and prior
experience
TEACHER  Selector and sequencer of task 
ROLES  Preparing learners for task
 Consciousness-raising
o employing a variety of form-focusing
 techniques, including attention-focusing
pretask activities, text exploration, guided
exposure to parallel tasks, and use of
highlighted material
ROLE OF INST.  Pedagogic Material 
MATERIALS  Realia (newspapers, television, internet)
PROCEDURE  Pre-Task Phase 
o students are prepared to perform the task
in ways that will promote acquisition
o students can perform similar tasks
 Task Phase
o Two Kinds of Options:
 Task Performance OptionI- under time
pressure or own time; with or without
access to text; and introduction of some
surprise element into the task
 Process Options- concerns itself with the
way the task is enacted rather than the
pedagogical decisions about the way the
task is to be handled
 Post Task Phase
o Pedagogic Goals:
 to provide an opportunity for a repeat
performance of the task
 to encourage reflection on how the task
was performed
 to encourage attention to form, in
particular to those forms that proved
problematic to the learners when they
performed the task
 Proponents of TBLT believe that when learners
repeat a task their production improves in a
number of ways
 Willis (1996) recommends asking students to
present a report on how they did the task and
on what they have discovered
OTHER  5 Key Characteristics: 
HIGHLIGHTS o Meaning is primary
o There is some communication problem to
solve
o There is some sort of relationship to
comparable real world activities
o Task completion has some priority
o The assessment is done in terms of
outcome
CONCLUSION  Depending on one’s definition of task, task have 
long been part of the mainstream repertoire of
language teaching techniques
 Basic assumption of TBLT that it provides for a
more effective basis for teaching than other
language teaching approaches- remains in the
domain of ideology rather than fact

EDL 201 – Applied Linguistics for Communication Arts

University of the Philippines – Visayas
Iloilo City