C O G N IT I O N A N D E M O T I O N , 1999, 13 (5), 505±521

Social Functions of Emotions at

Four Levels of Analysis
D a ch er K eltner
University of California± Berkeley, USA
Jo n at h a n H a idt
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA

In t h is p a per we int egr at e claim s a n d ® n d in gs co n cer n in g t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s

o f em o t io n s at t h e in d ividu a l, d ya d ic, gro u p, a nd cu ltu r a l levels o f a n a lysis.
A cro ss levels o f a n a lysis t h eo rists a ssu m e t ha t em o t io n s so lve p ro blem s
im p o r t a n t t o so cia l r elat io n sh ip s in t h e co n t ext o f o n go in g in t era ct ion s.
T h eor ists d iverge, h owever, in t h eir a ssum p tio n s ab o u t th e o r igins, d e® n in g
ch a r a ct er istics, a n d co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n s, a n d in th eir p r eferred fo r m s o f
d at a . We illustr at e t h e d ifferen ces a n d co m p a tib ilities a m o n g t h ese levels
o f a n a lysis fo r th e sp eci® c ca se o f em b ar r a ssm en t . We clo se b y su ggestin g
resea rch str at egies t h a t in co r p o r at e a so cia l-fun ct ion a l p er sp ect ive.

INTRODUCTION
T h e p r im a ry fu n ct io n is t o m o b ilize t h e o r ga n ism t o dea l q u ick ly wit h
im p o r t a n t in t er p erso n a l en cou n ter s.
Ð E k m a n , 1992, p. 171

E m o t io n s a re a p r im ar y id io m fo r d e® n in g a n d n ego tiat in g so cia l rela tio n s o f

th e self in a m o r a l o r d er.
Ð L u t z & W h ite, 1986, p. 417

E a r ly st u d ies o f em o t io n t en d ed t o fo cu s o n t h e ``in t ra p erso n a l’ ’ a sp ect s o f

em o t io n , m a p p in g t h e d et er m in a n t s a n d ch a ra ct er ist ics o f em o t io n a l
1
resp o n se w ith in t h e in d ivid u a l. M a ny o f t h e in it ia l fu n ct io n a l a cco u n t s
o f em o t io n sim ila r ly h igh ligh t ed h o w em o t io n s so lve p ro b lem s with in t h e

R eq uest s fo r r epr in t s sh o u ld b e sen t to D r D a ch er K eltn er, D ep ar tm en t of P sych o lo gy, 3210

To lm an H a ll, U n iversity of C a lifor n ia , Berkeley, C A 94 720, U SA .

1
T h e ob vio u s except io n t o th is st atem en t is t h e r esea r ch o n th e int erp erso na l or in ter-
o rgan ism ic fu nction s o f fa cia l exp ressio n s, b eginn in g wit h D a r win (1872/1965), an d ca r r ied o n
sin ce th e 1960s b y E km a n (1993), I za r d (19 77), a nd o th ers.

q 1999 P sych olo gy P ress L td

506 KELTNER AND HAIDT

in d ivid u a l, fo r exa m p le a s ``in t er r up t s’ ’ t h a t p r io ritise m u ltip le go a ls o f

t h e in d ivid u a l (e.g. Sim o n , 1967; To m k in s, 1962).
Sever a l d evelo p m en t s h ave led research ers t o exam in e m o re clo sely t h e
``int erp erso n a l’ ’ fu n ctio n s o f em o t io n s. R esearch ers h ave b egu n t o u n cover
h ow em o t io n s stru ctu re relat io n ship s b etween pa ren t s a n d ch ild ren (e.g.
Bowlb y, 1969), sib lin gs (D u n n & M u n n , 1985), an d ro m an t ic p a rt n ers
(L even so n & G o t t m a n , 1983). E m o t io n s, su ch a s an ger an d em b a rra ss-
m en t , have b een shown t o h ave system at ic effects o n o t h er in d ivid u a ls (e.g.
Aver ill, 1980; K eltn er & Bu swell, 1997; M iller & L ea ry, 1992). E t h o logica l
stu d ies su ggest h ow em ot io n s gu id e so cial in t era ctio n s su ch a s co u rt sh ip a n d
ap p ea sem en t ritu als (E ib l-E ib esfeldt , 1989). F in a lly, t h e growin g con t a ct
b etween an t h ro p o logists (A b u -L u gh o d , 1986; L u t z & W h ite, 1986) a n d
p sych o logists (H a id t , K o ller, & D ia s, 1993; M ark u s & K itaya m a , 1991;
M esqu ita & F rijd a , 1992; R u ssell, 1991) in t h e n ew ® eld o f cu ltu ral p sych o l-
ogy (Sh wed er, 1990) h as led t o gr eat er awaren ess o f t h e ways t h at em o t io n s
co n stru ct a n d a re co n stru cted by cu ltu ra l p ra ctices a nd in stitu t io n s.
T h ese co nvergin g t ren d s h ave in sp ired a wave o f resea rch a n d t h eo r y in a
va r iet y o f d iscip lin es o n t h e co n n ect io n s b et ween em o t io n s a n d t h e so cia l
enviro n m en t (C a m p o s, C a m p o s, & Ba rret t , 1989 ; C la rk , 19 90; F rijd a ,
19 86; K em p er, 1993 ; L u t z & A b u -L u gh o d , 1990 ; d e R iver a & G rin k is,
19 86; To o b y & C o sm id es, 1990) . F ir jd a a n d M esq u it a (1994) h ave writt en
t h o u gh t fu lly ab o u t t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n s, p a rt icu la r ly a n ger,
sh a m e, a n d gu ilt. H owever, we t h in k t h e t im e is r igh t fo r a m o re gen er a l
d iscu ssio n o f t h e a ssu m p t io n s, cla im s, a n d em p irica l ® n d in gs t h a t ca n b e
b ro u gh t t o get h er in t o a so cia l fu n ct io n a l p ersp ective o n t h e em o t io n s.
O u r a im s in t h is review a re a s fo llows. F irst , we d iscu ss wh a t it m ea n s t o
t a ke a so cia l fu n ct io n a l a p p ro a ch in t h e st u dy o f em o t io n . Seco n d , we
review cla im s ab o u t t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n in a n t h ro p o logy,
et h o logy, h ist o ry, p sych o lo gy, a n d so cio logy, h igh ligh t in g illu st ra t ive
em p irica l ® n d in gs a n d co n cep t u a l issu es. We t h en a p p ly a so cia l fu n ct io n a l
a n a lysis t o em b a rr a ssm en t , a n d co n clu d e w it h a d iscu ssio n o f n eed ed lin es
o f em p irica l a n d t h eo ret ica l in q u ir y.
We h o p e t h at t h is essay co nt rib u t es so m e cla ri® cat io n t o a growin g ® eld b y
d istin gu ish in g b etween so cia l fu n ction s at fo u r levels o f a n a lysis: (1) in d ivid u a l
(in t rap erso n a l); (2) dya d ic (b etween t wo in d ivid u als); (3) gro u p (a set o f
in d ivid u a ls t h at d irectly in t era ct an d h a s so m e t em p o ra l co n t inu ity); a n d (4)
2
cu ltu r al (with in a la rge gro u p th at sh a res b eliefs, n o rm s, a n d cu ltu ra l m o d els).

2
O u r fr a m ewo r k wa s in ¯ u enced by Aver ill’s pro p osa l (19 92) t ha t cla im s ab o ut em o tio n s
ca n b e placed a t th e biologica l, p sych o logical, or so cial levels o f a n alysis. A lt h o u gh Averill’s
so cia l level is clear ly m o st r elevan t to th e pr esent p aper, o u r r eview d ea ls with st u d ies th at
d iffer in th eir u n it s o f a n alysis, m eth o d s, a n d p r eferred fo r m s o f d ata , b ut wo uld be cla ssi® ed
a t th e so cia l level. We th erefo r e expa n d ed Aver ill’s so cia l level in to fo u r d ifferen t levels.
 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 507
A s we d escrib e la t er, resea rch ers wo rk in g a t ea ch level d iffer in t h e syst em s
t h ey refer t o, t h eir p refer red k in d s o f d a ta , a n d t h e t h eo ret ica l t r a d itio n s
with in wh ich t h ey exp la in t h e o rigin s a n d d e® n in g ch a ra ct erist ics o f
em o t io n s. O u r a im will b e t o sp ecify t h e d ifferen ces a n d sim ila rities in
t h e a cco u n t s o ffered a t ea ch o f t h e fou r levels, a n d t o sh o w h ow t h ese levels
ca n b e p u t t o get h er t o crea t e a m o re co m p let e u n d erst a n d in g o f t h e so cia l
fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n s.

SOCIAL-FUNCTIONAL ACCOUNTS OF EMOTION

F u n ct io n a l exp la n at io n s, a lth o u gh a b it m o re recent t o t h e ® eld o f em o t ion
(Jo h n so n -L a ird & O a t ley, 1992; K eltn er & G ro ss, t h is issu e), h ave lo n g
b een u sed in b io logy a n d t h e so cia l scien ces. F u n ct io n a l exp la n at io n s refer
t o t h e h ist o r y o f so m e o b ject (e.g. b eh avio u r o r t ra it), a s well a s t h e regu la r
co n seq u en ces t h at b en e® t t h e syst em in wh ich t h e o b ject o r t r a it is
co n t a in ed . A s M ert o n (196 8) st a t ed , fu n ct io n a l exp la n a t io n s h in ge o n
``int er p ret in g d a ta b y estab lish in g t h eir co n seq u en ces fo r la rger st ru ct u res
in which t h ey a re im p licat ed ’ ’ .
F u n ctio n a l a cco u n t s va ry a cco rd in g t o t h e k in d o f system b ein g
a n a lysed . F o r b io logica l syst em s with in a n in d ivid u a l o rga n ism , a st ro n g
fu n ct io n a lism t h a t sp eci® es wh ich fea t u res were sh ap ed o r select ed fo r t h e
co n seq u en ces t h ey b r in g ab o u t is u sua lly a p p ro p r ia t e. F o r exa m p le, t h e
h ea rt ca n o n ly b e u n d er st o o d a s a p u m p wo rk in g with in a circu la t o ry
syst em ``d esign ed ’ ’ b y n a tu ra l select io n t o fu l® l a sp eci® c fu n ct io n Ð p u m p -
in g b lo o d a t va riab le r at esÐ w it h in t h at la rger syst em . A t t h e cu ltu r a l level
o f a n a lysis, gr ea ter ca u t io n m u st b e o b served wh en m a k in g fu n ct io n a l
cla im s. So m e in st itu t io n s a n d cu ltu ra l p r a ct ices m ay h ave b een d esign ed
t o b en e® t t h e rich a n d p ower fu l, a s a M a rxist m igh t say, o r t o p erp et u a t e
t h em selves, a s a m em e t h eo r ist m igh t say (D awk in s, 19 76). Bu t b eca u se
t h ere is n o over -a rch in g select io n m ech a n ism cu llin g o u t in ef® cien t o r
p o o rly a d a p t ed cu ltu res, o n e ca n n o t a ssu m e (a s M a lin o wsk i d id in h is
ea rly p ro n o u n cem en t s), t h a t ever y p ra ct ice a n d every a rt efa ct serves a
``vit a l’ ’ fu n ct io n a n d ``rep resen t s a n in d isp en sab le p a rt with in a wo rk in g
wh o le’ ’ (M a lin o wsk i, 1926 , q u o t ed b y E m m et , 19 67). A s a co n seq u en ce,
cu rren t cu ltu r a l a n t h ro p o lo gists gen era lly em p loy a m ild er fu n ct io n a lism .
T h ey lo o k a t cu lt u r a l fa ct s a n d p ra ct ices t o see h o w t h ey m ay p lay self-
regu la tin g o r self-m a in t a in in g ro les wit h in la rger syst em s, with o u t a ssu m -
in g t h a t ever y cu ltu r a l p r a ct ice h a s a co n ser va t ive o r st ab ilising effect .
Beca u se p eo p le h ave a gen cy in a wa y t h a t b io logica l su b syst em s d o n o t ,
it is n o w w id ely reco gn ised t h a t t h e b est-la id p la n s o f r u lin g elites a re o ften
co n t est ed a n d su b ver t ed b y t h o se t h ey a re m ea n t t o co n t ro l.
F u n ctio n a l a p p ro a ch es t o t h e em o t io n s sh o u ld t h erefo re va ry b y level o f
a n a lysis a s well. T h eo rist s wo rk in g at t h e in d ivid u a l a n d d ya d ic levels o f
508 KELTNER AND HAIDT

a n a lysis, co n cern ed with t h e effect s o f em o t io n s with in t h e in d ivid u a l o r

b etween in t era ct in g in d ivid u a ls (e.g. Bo wlb y, 1969; E k m a n , 199 2; I za rd ,
19 77; N esse, 199 0, O h m a n , 1986 ; P lu t ch ik , 1980) , esp o u se a fu n ctio n a lism
t h a t is co n sist en t w ith a d a p t a t io n ist a rgu m en t s fo u n d in evo lu t io n a ry
t h eo ry. T h ese t h eo rist s a rgu e t h a t em o t io n s were d esign ed b y n a t u r a l
selectio n , a n d t h a t t h e co re co m p o n en t s o f em o t io n s a re b io lo gica lly b a sed
a n d gen et ica lly co d ed . W ith in a n evo lu t io n a ry fra m ewo rk it ca n b e
a ssu m ed t h a t em o t io n a l exp ression s a n d a ct io n t en d en cies were select ed
b eca u se t h ey p ro d u ced co n seq u en ces t h a t im p roved t h e in d ivid u a l’s
3
in clu sive ® t n ess.
M a ny t h eo r ist s wo rk in g a t t h e gro u p a n d cu ltu ra l levels o f a n a lysis, in
co n t ra st, a re en ga ged in wh a t G eert z (1973 ) ca lled a n ``int er p ret ive
scien ce’ ’ in sea rch o f m ea n in g, r a t h er t h a n a n exp er im en t a l scien ce in
sea rch o f laws a n d m ech a n ism s. E m o t io n s a re seen a s cu ltu ra l p ro d u ct s,
co n str u ct ed b y in d ivid u a ls o r gro u p s in so cia l co n t ext s, a n d lin ked t o
co n str u a ls o f t h e self, p a t t ern s o f so cia l h iera rchy, la n gu a ge, o r req u ire-
m en t s o f so cio eco n o m ic o rga n isa tio n (L u t z & A bu -L u gh o d , 19 90). So cia l
co n str u ct io n s o ft en h ave co n seq u en ces, bu t t h ere is n o eq u iva len t t o
n at u r a l select io n , select in g t h e em o t io n a l co n st ru ct io n s with t h e b est co n -
seq u en ces. R a t h er, so cia lly co n st r u ct ed em o t io n s ® t w ith so cia l str u ct u res
a n d o t h er cu ltu r a l fa ct s in ways t h a t m a ke sen se from a n in t er p ret ive
viewp o in t , r at h er t h a n a n ef® cien cy viewp o in t .
D esp ite t h ese d ifferen ces, t h eo rist s a t a ll levels o f a n a lysis a d d ress a few
co m m o n q u est io n s, su ch a s: W hy d o p eo p le h ave em o t io n s? W h a t a re t h e
co n seq u en ces o f h avin g a n d exp ressin g em o t io n s, a n d h ow m igh t t h o se
co n seq u en ces revea l wh at em o t io n s were d esign ed o r co n st ru ct ed t o d o ? In
a n swer in g t h ese q u estio n s, t h eo r ist s a t a ll levels a lso sh a re a few a ssu m p -
t io n s. F ir st, so cia l fu n ct io n a l a cco u n t s o f em o t io n s a ssu m e t h a t p eo p le a re
so cia l b y n a t u re, a n d m eet t h e p ro b lem s o f su r viva l in rela t io n sh ip s (e.g.
L u t z & W h it e, 198 6). Seco n d , so cia l-fu n ct io n a l a cco u n t s p o rt r ay em o t io n s
a s m ea n s o f co -o rd in a tin g so cia l in t era ct io n s a n d rela t io n sh ip s t o a d d ress
t h o se p ro b lem s (e.g. Aver ill, 1980 ; E ib l-E ib esfeld t , 198 9; E k m a n , 199 2;
L u t z & W h ite, 198 6; To o b y & C o sm id es, 19 90). E m o t io n s a re t h o u gh t o f
a s rela tively a u t o m at ic, in vo lu n t a r y, a n d ra p id resp o n ses t h a t h elp h u m a n s
regu la t e, m a in t a in , a n d u se d ifferen t so cia l rela t io n sh ip s, u su a lly (t h o u gh
n o t a lways) fo r t h eir o wn b en e® t (Bo wlb y, 19 69; F ra n k , 198 8; H a za n &
Sh aver, 198 7; L u t z & W h ite, 19 86; N esse, 199 0; Jo h n so n -L a ird & O a t ley,
19 92). T h ird , em o t io n s a re p o r t r ayed a s dyn a m ic p ro cesses t h at m ed ia t e
t h e in d ivid u a l’s rela t io n t o a co n t in u a lly ch a n gin g so cia l enviro n m en t

3
A lt h o ug h a ny p a r ticu la r featu r e m ight h ave b egun as an accid en ta l ``sp a n dr el’ ’ (G o uld ,
1996) o r as a ``ser viceable a sso ciated habit’ ’ (D ar win , 1872 /1965), wh ich wa s lat er sh a ped b y
selection p ressu r es.
 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 509
(C a m p o s et a l., 1989 ; L a za ru s, 1991; R o sa ld o, 1984) , a lth o u gh t h e len gt h
o f t im e t h a t em o t io n s a re sa id t o la st va ries fro m seco n d s o r m inu t es
(E k m a n , 1992 ) t o week s o r yea r s (F rijd a , M esq u ita , So n n em a n s, & Va n
G o o zen , 1991 ).
G iven t h ese sh a red a ssu m p t io n s, t h ere is ever y rea so n t o b elieve t h at
fu n ct io n a l a n a lyses o f em o t io n will b e ``co n silien t ’ ’ a cro ss levels (W ilso n ,
1998 ); t h a t is, t h a t em o t io n t h eo rists ca n lin k a n d in t er rela t e t h e fo u r levels
o f a n a lysis. We o ffer su ch a m ult ilevel a cco u n t o f em b a r ra ssm en t n ea r t h e
en d o f t h is essay. Bu t ® r st , we su m m a r ise t h e cla im s a n d ® n d in gs releva n t
t o ea ch o f t h e fo u r levels o f a n a lysis.

Social Functions of Emotions at the Individual Level

of Analysis
A t t h e in d ivid u a l level o f a n a lysis, resea rch er s gen era lly fo cu s o n t h e
p a t t ern s o f ch a n ge o f in t r a -in d ivid u a l co m p o n en t s o f em o t io n . T h e
in d ivid u a l o rga n ism is t h e syst em w ith resp ect t o wh ich t h e fu n ctio n s o f
em o t io n s a re in t erp ret ed . R esea rch invest iga t es em o t io n -rela t ed ch a n ges in
t h e en d o crin e, a u t o n o m ic, a n d cen t ra l n ervo u s syst em s (D avid so n , 1993 ;
L eD o u x, 1996 ; L even so n , 199 2) a n d em o t io n -relat ed a p p r a isa l, a ct io n
t en d en cy, m em o ry, p ercep t io n , a n d ju d gem en t (C lo re, 1994 ; F rijd a , 1986 ;
L a za ru s, 199 1; Sch erer, 1984 ; Sch wa r z, 1990; Sm ith & E llswo rt h , 1985) .
T h e p refer red fo r m s o f d a t a in clu d e p hysio logica l m ea su rem en t , self-
rep o r t s o f em o t io n p h en o m en o lo gy, a n d t h e effect s o f em o t io n o n
m ea su res o f ju d gem en t , m em o r y, a n d so cia l p ercep t io n .
A lth o u gh resea rch ers in t erest ed in em o t io n -relat ed p hy sio logy, exp eri-
en ce, a n d co gn itio n h ave t en d ed t o fo cu s o n p a t t er n s o f in t ra p erso n a l
ch a n ge, so m e o f t h ese ch a n ges a re u n d erst o o d a s p rep a ra t io n s fo r o r
rea ct io n s t o sp eci® c p ro b lem s t h a t a rise in so cia l in t era ctio n . Sp eci® c b ra in
st ru ct u res a n d n eu ro t r a n sm itt er system s u n d erlie em o t io n -relat ed p lay a nd
d o m in a n t agg ressio n (P a n k sep p, 19 82). So m e em o t io n -rela t ed a ct io n
t en d en cies a re m o t iva ted b y so cia l co n cer n s, su ch a s sh a rin g o r p rovid in g
co m fo rt (F r ijd a & M esq u ita , 1994 ).
T h eo r ist s h ave p ro p o sed t h a t em o t io n a l resp o n ses with in t h e in d ivid u a l
serve t wo b ro a d so cia l fu n ctio n s (O at ley & Jen k in s, 1996) . F irst , t h e
co n scio u s feelin g o f em o t io n p ro d u ced b y a p p r a isa l p ro cesses is b elieved
t o inform the indiv idu al ab o u t sp eci® c so cia l even t s o r co n d itio n s, t yp ica lly
n eedin g t o b e a ct ed u p o n a n d ch a n ged (C a m p o s et a l., 1989 ). A ffect is a
k in d o f in fo r m a t io n (C lo re, 199 4; Sch wa rz, 199 0). A s exa m p les, t h eo rist s
h ave p ro p o sed t h a t t h e feeling o f a n ger p rovid es a n a ssessm en t o f t h e
fa irn ess o f even t s (So lo m o n , 1990 ), love in fo r m s t h e in d ivid u a l o f t h e level
o f co m m itm en t t o a n o t h er (F r a n k , 198 8), h a p p in ess m ay sign a l t h e rep ro -
d u ctive p o t en t ia l o f cer t a in so cia l a ct io n s (N esse, 1990) , a n d sh a m e in fo r m s
510 KELTNER AND HAIDT

t h e in d ivid u a l o f h is o r h er lo wer so cia l st a t u s (Ta n gn ey, M iller, F licker, &

Ba rlow, 199 6). A s co m p ellin g a s t h ese cla im s seem , few em p irica l st u d ies
h ave d irectly exa m in ed wh et h er sp eci® c em o t io n s in ¯ u en ce so cia l ju d ge-
m en t s (fo r a n excep t io n , see Wein er, 1993 , o n t h e ro le o f a n ger a n d
sym p a thy in p u n it ive ju d gem en t s). M o st stu d ies o f t h e effect s o f a ffect
o n co gn itio n h ave exa m in ed m o re gen er a l p o sitive a n d n ega t ive m o o d
st a t es (Sch wa r z, 1990 ).
Seco n d , it h a s b een cla im ed t h at cer t a in em o t io n -relat ed p hysio logica l
(e.g. L even so n , 199 2) a n d cogn it ive p ro cesses (C lo re, 19 94; Sch wa rz, 1990)
prepare the individual t o resp o n d t o p ro b lem s o r o p p o rt u n ities t h a t a rise in
so cia l in t er a ct io n s, even in t h e ab sen ce o f a ny awa ren ess o f a n elicitin g
even t (O a t ley & Jen k in s, 1996) . F o r exa m p le, em p irica l stu d ies sh ow t h a t
a n ger invo lves a sh ift o f b lo o d away fro m t h e in t ern a l o rga n s t owa rd s t h e
h a n d s a n d a r m s (L even so n , E k m a n , & F riesen , 1990) , a n d h eigh t en ed
sen sitivit y t o t h e in ju stices o f o t h er’s a ct io n s (K eltn er, E llswo r t h , &
E dwa rd s, 199 3), which p resu m ab ly fa cilitat es resp o n ses t o t h rea t o r
in ju st ice. M o re gen era lly, it fo llow s t h at em o t io n -relat ed p hysio logy a n d
cogn itio n will b e ® n ely t u n ed t o t h e sp eci® c n a t u re o f so cia l even t s, a s
evid en t in b r a in -im a gin g stu d ies sh o win g t h a t fa cia l exp ressio n s o f a n ger,
d isgu st , fea r, a n d sa d n ess evo ke a ctiva t io n in d ifferen t b ra in regio n s in t h e
p erceiver (fo r a review, see K eltn er & E k m a n , in p ress). It is a lso im p lied
t h a t em o t io n a l resp o n ses with in t h e in d ivid u a l w ill ch a n ge in resp o n se t o
ch a nges in t h e em o t io n -elicit in g even t . A recen t st u d y revea ls t h a t t h e
effect s o f a n ger o n so cia l cogn itio n a pp ea r t o d im in ish wh en t h e a n ger -
p ro d u cin g in ju stice is red ressed (L ern er, G o ld b erg, & Tet lo ck , 19 98).

Social Functions of Emotions at the Dyadic Level of

Analysis
A t t h e dya d ic level o f a n a lysis, resea rch er s fo cu s o n h o w em o t io n s o rga n ise
t h e in t era ct io n s o f in d ivid u a ls in m ea n in gfu l rela t io n sh ip s. T h e in t era ct in g
d ya d is t h e system with resp ect t o wh ich t h e co n seq u en ces o f b eh avio u rs
a re in t erp ret ed . R esea rch er s h ere fo cu s o n t h e co m m un ica t io n o f em o t io n
in fa cia l, vo ca l, a n d p o stu ra l ch a n n els (e.g. D eP a u lo, 1992; F er n a ld , 199 2;
F rid lu n d , 1992; K lin n ert , C a m p o s, So rce, E m d e, & Svejd a , 198 3; O h m a n ,
19 86; Sch erer, 198 6), p ro p ert ies o f d ya d ic em o t io n s, su ch a s ``co n t in gen cy’ ’ ,
``m a t ch in g’ ’ , ``link age’ ’ , a n d ``syn ch ro ny’ ’ (e.g. F ield , H ea ly, G o ld st ein, &
U t h ert z, 1990 ; L even so n & G o t t m a n , 1983; Tro n ick , 1989) , a n d h ow
em o t io n s o p er a t e in o t h er so cia l in t er a ct io n s, su ch a s greet in g r itu a ls
(E ib l-E ib esfeld t , 1989 ), d isco u rse (Bret h er t o n , F ritz, Z a h n -W a xler, &
R id geway, 19 86), a n d a t t a ch m en t a n d ca regivin g (B owlb y, 19 69; H a za n
& Sh aver, 198 7). T h e p refer red fo rm s o f d a t a a re lab o r a t o ry a n d
n at u r a listic o b serva t io n s o f in t era ctio n s in h u m a n s a n d o t h er sp ecies,
 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 511
a n d m a n ip u lat io n s o f em o t io n a l b eh avio u r a s so cia l stim u li (e.g. D im b erg
& O h m a n , 1996 ).
T h eo r ist s wo rk in g a t t h e dya d ic level o f a n a lysis h ave a rgu ed t h at
em o t io n a l exp r essio n s help ind ividuals know others’ emotions, beliefs, and
intentions, t h u s r ap id ly co -o rd in a t in g so cia l in t er a ct io n s. T h u s, releva n t
evid en ce in d ica t es t h a t t he co m m u n ica t io n o f em o t io n co nveys in fo r m a-
t io n t o receiver s ab o u t sen d ers’ : C u rren t em o t io n s (E k m a n , 19 93; Sch erer,
1986 ), so cia l in t en t io n s (F rid lu n d , 1992 ), a n d o r ien t a t io n s t o wa rd s t h e
rela t io n sh ip, fo r exa m p le, a s a d o m in a n t o r su b m issive in d ivid u a l
(K nu t so n , 199 6). T h e co m m u n ica t io n o f em o t io n a lso co nveys in fo r m a t io n
ab o u t o b ject s in t h e enviro n m en t : b rief exp o su re t o a m o d el’s fea r fu l
b eh avio u r t o wa r d s a p h o b ic o b ject (sn a ke) lea d s o b ser vers t o d evelo p
sim ila r fea rfu l resp o n ses t o t h e p h o b ic o b ject (M in ek a & C o o k , 1993) ;
a n d ch ild ren rely o n p a ren t s’ fa cia l em o t io n t o a ssess wh et h er a m b igu o u s
situ a t io n s, st im u li, a n d p eo p le a re sa fe o r d a n ger o u s (K lin n er t et a l., 1983) .
Seco n d , em o t io n a l co m m u n icat io n evokes com plementary and reciproca l
emotion s in others t h a t h elp in d ivid u a ls resp o n d t o sign i® ca n t so cia l even t s.
F o r exa m p le, resea rch h a s d o cu m en t ed t h a t a n ger d isp lays elicit fea r-
rela t ed resp o n ses, even when t h o se d isp lays a re p resen t ed su b lim in a lly
(D im b erg & O h m a n , 1996) . Sim ila r ly, d isp lays o f d ist ress elicit sym p a t hy-
rela t ed resp o n ses in o b servers (E isen b erg et a l., 19 89). In t u r n , em o t io n s
evo ked in o t h er s a re a sso cia t ed with b eh avio u rs, su ch a s avo id a n ce, h elp -
in g, a f® lia t io n , a n d so o t h in g, wh ich h elp m eet t h e go a ls o f in t era ct in g
in d ivid u a ls.
T h ird , em o t io ns serve as incentives or deterrents for other individuals ’
social beha viour (K lin n ert et a l., 1983 ). D evelo pm en t a l resea rch ® n d s t h at
em o t io n a l resp o n ses rewa rd o t h ers’ sh ifts in a t t en t io n a n d go a l-d irect ed
b eh avio u r (Tro n ick , 19 89), a n d t h u s p lay a n im p o r t a n t ro le in lea r n in g.
In a sim ila r vein , st u d ies ® n d t h a t la u gh t er o ccu rs a t t h e en d o f u t t era n ces
(P rovin e, 1993 ), su ggest in g t h a t la u gh t er rewa rd s d esir ab le so cia l
b eh avio u r.

Social Functions of Emotions at the Group Level of

Analysis
A t t h e gro u p level o f a n a lysis, resea rch er s fo cu s o n h o w em o t io n s h elp
co llect io n s o f in t era ct in g in d ivid u a ls wh o sh a re co m m o n id en t ities a n d
go a ls m eet t h eir sh a red go a ls, o r t h e su p ero rd in a t e go a ls of t h e gro u p.
G ro u p s, su ch a s fa m ilies, wo rk gro up s, o r so cia l clu b s, a re t h e system s with
resp ect t o wh ich t h e fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n a re in t erp reted . R esea rch er s
fo cu s o n p h en o m en a su ch a s: T h e d ifferen t ia l d ist r ib u t io n o f em o t io n
a cro ss gro u p m em b er s (e.g. C o llin s, 1990 ; K em p er, 199 3); co llect ive
em o t io n (D u rk h eim , 1915/19 54; d e W a a l, 199 6); em o t io n d irect ed at o t h er
512 KELTNER AND HAIDT

gr o u p s (e.g. F rijd a & M esq u ita , 199 4); a n d ro le-relat ed im p licat io n s o f

em o t io n a l exp er ien ce in gr o u p co n t ext s (e.g. C la rk , 1990) . T h e p refer red
fo rm s o f d a t a in clu d e t h e b eh avio u r o f gro u p m em b er s in n a t u r a list ic a n d
exp er im en t a l co n t ext s (e.g. K eltn er, Yo u n g, H eerey, O em ig, & M o n a rch ,
19 98), et h n o gr a p h ies o f sm a ll gro u p s o f p eo p le (A b u -L u gh o d , 198 6;
Br iggs, 19 70), a n d a n im a l gr o u p s (e.g. d e W a a l, 19 96), a lth o u gh su ch
d escr ip t io n s ca n so m et im es b e p la ced a t t h e d ya d ic a n d cu ltu r a l levels o f
a n a lysis a s well.
A lth o u gh few em p irica l st u d ies ca n b e p la ced a t t h e gro u p level o f
a n a lysis, t h eo rist s h ave m a d e severa l p rovo cat ive cla im s wo r t hy o f
em p irica l st u d y. F ir st , em o t io n s h ave b een cla im ed t o help individuals
de® ne grou p bo unda ries an d iden tify group members (e.g. D u rk h eim , 1915/
19 65). C o llect ive ecst a sy a n d awe m a y give gro u p m em b er s t h e sen se o f
co m m u n a l id en t ity (H eise & O ’ Brien , 1993) , wh erea s fea r, h at red , a n d
d isgu st t o wa rd s n o n gro u p m em b ers m ay sh a r p en gro u p b o u n d a r ies
(H eise & O ’ B rien , 199 3; F rijd a & M esq u ita , 1994) . C o n sist en t with
t h ese sp ecu la t io n s, t h e exp erim en t a l in d u ct ion o f fea r o f d ea t h h a s
b een sh ow n t o in crea se in gr o u p so lid a rity a n d o u t gro u p d ero ga t io n
(G reen b erg et a l., 1990) . So cia l a n xiet y a d d itio n a lly m o t iva t es in d ivi-
d u a ls t o avoid b eh avio u r s t h at wo u ld o st ra cise t h em fro m gro u p s
(B a u m eist er & T ice, 1990 ).
W it h in gro u p s, t h e d ifferen t ia l exp erien ce a n d d isp lay o f em o t io n m ay
help individuals de® ne and negotiate group -related roles an d statuses (e.g.
C la rk , 1990; C o llin s, 19 90). C ert a in em o t io n s a re sa id t o relat e t o, o r
co n stitu t e d ifferen t ro les a n d so cia l sta t u ses, fo r exa m p le, sym p at hy is
p a rt o f p layin g a nu r t u r a n t ro le, a n d d isp lays o f em b a rr a ssm en t m a rk
lo wer st a t u s. C o n sist en t w it h t h is view, em p ir ica l st u d ies h ave d o cu m en t ed
a sso cia t io n s b et ween a n in d ivid u a l’s sta t u s in a gr o u p a n d d ifferen ces in
jo k in g a n d la u gh t er (C o ser, 1960) , a n d em b a rr a ssm en t , a n ger, co n t em p t ,
a n d fea r (K eltn er et a l., 19 98). Severa l cu ltu res h ave a wo rd t h a t d escr ib es
b o t h a feelin g, rela t ed t o sh a m e o r em b a r ra ssm en t , a n d a d eferen t ia l a ct io n
d irect ed at h igh -st at u s in d ivid u a ls (lajya a n d ha sha m; see lat er). A d d itio n a l
resea rch n eed s t o est ab lish wh et h er t h e d ifferen t ia l exp erien ce a n d d isp lay
o f em o t io n a ct u a lly est ab lishes a n in d ivid u a l’s ro le o r st a t u s in a gro u p, a n d
wh et h er t h ese effect s a re in d ep en d en t o f in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in t h e
p red isp o sitio n t o wa rd s cert a in em o t io n s.
F in a lly, recen t a n im a l evid en ce su ggests t h at co llect ive em o t io n a l
b eh avio u r m ay help group members negotiat e group- related problems. In
a su gg est ive stu dy, ch im p a n zee gro u p s were o b served t o en ga ge in
exu b era n t , celeb r at o r y a f® lia t io n ju st p rio r t o t h e a llo ca tio n o f va lu ab le
reso u rces (d e Wa a l, 199 6). T h is b eh avio u r wa s b elieved t o so lid ify so cia l
b o n d s t h at m igh t b e t h rea t en ed b y co n ¯ ict rela t ed t o d ist rib u t in g
reso u rces.
 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 513
Social Functions of Emotions at the Cultural Level
of Analysis
A t t h e cu ltu ra l level o f a n a lysis, resea rch ers h ave fo cu sed o n h ow em o t io n s
a re sh ap ed by h ist o rica l a n d eco n o m ic fa ct o r s, o n h ow em o t io n s a re
em b ed d ed in cu ltu ra l in st it u t io n s a n d p ra ct ices, a n d on t h e cu ltu r a l n o r m s
a n d scr ip t s fo r t h e p ro p er exp ressio n a n d exp er ien ce o f em o t io n s. T h e
cu lt u re is t h e syst em w it h respect t o wh ich t h e fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n a re
in t erp reted . C u lt u res a re so m et im es eq u a t ed with n a tio n s o r so cieties, b u t
m o re o ft en a cu lt u re is rest r ict ed t o a co m m u n ity o f sh a red m ea n in gs, a s in
D ’ A n d r a d e’s (198 4, p. 116 ) t rea t m en t o f cu ltu re a s: ``lea rn ed system s o f
m ea n in g, co m m u n ica ted b y m ea n s o f n a tu ra l la n gu a ge a n d o t h er sym b o l
syst em s, h avin g rep resen t a t io n a l, d irect ive, a n d affective functions, a n d
cap able o f crea t in g cu ltu ra l en t ities a n d p a r t icu la r sen ses o f rea lity’ ’
(em p h a sis a d d ed ). C u ltu re n o t o n ly crea t es t h e so cia l wo rld , it gu id es
p eo p le in t h e a ffect ive rea ct io n s n eed ed t o fu n ct io n in t h a t wo rld . So m e
o f t h e m a in a rea s o f resea rch in clu d e: H o w cu ltu re sh a p es em o t io n b y
sh a pin g t h e self (L u t z, 198 8; M a rk u s & K it aya m a , 1991 ); t h e so cia l
st ru ct u res with in wh ich em o t io n s a re exp er ien ced (A bu -L u gh o d , 1986 ;
F iske, 1992) ; a n d cu lt u re-sp eci® c va lu a t io n s o f t h e exp er ien ce a n d exp res-
sio n o f em o t io n , fo r exa m p le in rela tio n t o gen d er, a ge, a n d so cia l st at u s
(e.g. L u t z, 1990; Sh wed er & H a id t , in p ress). T h e m et h o d o logica l em p h a sis
is in t erp ret ive, a n d t h e p refer red fo r m s o f d a ta in clu d e et h n ogr a ph ies a n d
``t h ick d escrip t io n s’ ’ (G eer t z, 1973) o f so cia l p ra ct ices; lin gu ist ic fo r m a-
t io n s su ch a s em o t io n lexico n s (R u ssell, 19 91), a n d m et a p h o r s (L a ko ff,
1987 ); a n d h ist o r ica l d o cu m en t s a n d o t h er m ea n in g-la d en cu ltu ra l p ro -
d u cts, su ch a s et iq u et t e m a nu a ls (E lia s, 197 8) o r cu ltu ra l m yt h s a n d legen d s
(M iller, 1997).
T h eo r ist s wo rk in g a t t h e cu lt u r a l level o f a n a lysis h ave a t t r ib u t ed severa l
so cia l fu n ct ion s t o em o t io n , so m e o f wh ich o verla p with t h o se a t t h e gro up
level o f a n a lysis. F irst , em o t io n s a re cla im ed t o play a critical role in the
processes by wh ich indiv iduals assume cultural identities. C u ltu re-sp eci® c
co n cep t s o f em o t io n a l d evia n ce a re b elieved t o m o t iva t e cu ltu r a lly a p p ro -
p r ia t e b eh avio u r (T h o its, 198 5). E m b a r ra ssm en t (G o ffm a n , 196 7)
m o t iva t es co n fo r m it y a n d t h e p ro p er p layin g o f o n e’s ro les, wh erea s
d isgu st s m o t iva t es t h e avo id a n ce a n d sh u n n in g o f p eo p le wh o vio lat e key
va lu es wit h in a cu ltu re (R o zin , H a id t , & M cC a u ley, in p ress).
E m o t io n s a re a lso em b ed d ed in so cia lisat io n p r a ct ices t h at help children
learn the nor ms an d values of their culture. F o r exa m p le, d evelo p m en t a l (e.g.
Bret h ert o n , et a l., 1986; D u n n & M u n n , 1985) a n d cro ss-cu ltu r a l st u d ies
(e.g. W h ite, 1990 ) in d ica t e t h at em o t io n a l co n ¯ ict s en ga ge in d ivid u a ls in
co nver sa t io n s ab o u t cu ltu r a l n o t io n s o f righ t a n d w ro n g a n d red ressin g
wro n gd o in g. D isp lays o f d isgu st by p a ren t s, fo r exa m p le, a re likely t o b e
514 KELTNER AND HAIDT

im p o r t a n t in t o ilet t ra in in g a n d n ega tive so cia lisat io n (R o zin et a l., in

p ress). T h e em o t io n a l rea ct io n s o f p a ren t s a n d o t h er ``lo ca l gu a rd ia n s o f
t h e m o ra l o rd er’ ’ (Sh wed er, M a h a p at r a , & M iller, 1987) m ay b e t h e m o st
im p o r t a n t gu id es t h a t ch ild ren u se in ® gu r in g o u t t h e co n t o u r s o f t h eir
m o r a l wo r ld .
F in a lly, so m e t h eo rist s h ave a sser t ed t h at cu ltu r a l co n str u ct io n s o f
em o t io n a l exp erien ce reify and perpetuate cultural ideologie s an d power
structures (e.g. H o ch sch ild , 199 0). M u ch a s at t h e gro u p level, t h e select ive
exp er ien ce a n d exp ressio n o f em o t io n fo r cert a in gro u p s ju st i® es t h eir
p o sitio n with a cu lt u re. T h u s, d rawin g o n st ereo t yp es o f t h e em o t io n s o f
su b or d in a t ed gro u p s, L u t z h a s a rgu ed t h a t cu ltu r a l d isco u r ses ab o u t
fem a le em o t io n a lit y relega t e wo m en t o p o sit io n s o f su b o rd in a t e st a t u s
(L u t z, 19 90). I t wo u ld b e in t erest in g t o d o cu m en t h ow gen d er st ereo t yp es
o f em o t io n a re in d eed u sed t o ju st ify su b o rd in a t e p o sitio n s fo r wo m en , a n d
wh et h er t h ese st ereo t yp es a ct u a lly creat e gen d er d ifferen ces in em o t io n a l
resp o n se.

CASE STUDY: THE SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF

EMBARRASSMENT
We h ave reviewed evid en ce a n d t h eo r y ab o u t t h e m a ny so cia l fu n ct io n s o f
em o t io n . E m o t io n s in fo r m peo p le ab o u t so cia l even t s a n d p r ep a re t h eir
b o d ies a n d m in d s fo r a ctio n . E m o t io n s co -o rd in a t e so cia l in t er a ct io n s.
E m o t io n s h elp in d ivid u a ls d e® n e t h eir id en t ities a n d p lay t h eir ro les
with in gro u p s, a n d em o t io n s m a rk o r stren gt h en b o u n d a r ies b et ween
gr o u p s. F in a lly, em o t io n s sim u lta n eo u sly crea te a n d a re sh ap ed b y
cu ltu ra l p ra ct ices a n d sym b o l system s. A ll o f t h ese fu n ct io n s, in t erp ret ed
with resp ect t o fo u r d ifferen t k in d s o f syst em s, ca n o ccu r sim u lta n eo u sly
a n d in m ut u a lly in t er lo ck in g ways. A lth o u gh co n ¯ icts o r in co m p a tib ilities
a cro ss levels a re p o ssib le in p r in cip le, in p ra ct ice t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f
em o t io n at o n e level a re likely t o wo rk in t a n d em with t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s
o f t h e a d jo in in g levels. To illu st r at e t h e co m p a t ib ility a n d co n silience o f
t h ese va r io u s fu n ct io n a l p er sp ect ives, we will wo rk t h ro u gh t h e ca se o f
em b a r ra ssm en t in d et a il.
In itia lly, m o st t h eo rists ign o red t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s o f em b a r ra ssm en t .
D a r win’s a n a lysis o f em b a r ra ssm en t fo cu sed o n t h e b lu sh , wh ich h e p o sit ed
wa s sim p ly a sid e-effect o f so cia l a t t en t io n (D a r win , 1872/ 1965 ). A lth o u gh
G o ffm a n (1967) h in t ed a t cer t a in fu n ct io n s o f em b a r ra ssm en t , h e p r im a r ily
co n cen t ra ted u p o n it s ch a o t ic d isp la y a n d p a in fu l exp er ien ce. R ecen t
st u d ies o f t h e ca u ses, ch a r a ct er ist ics, a n d so cia l co n seq u en ces o f em b a r-
r a ssm en t , h owever, h ave led resea rch ers t o cla im t h a t em b a r ra ssm en t ser ves
a n a p p ea sem en t fu n ct io n , reco n cilin g so cia l relat io n s fo llo win g t ra n sgr es-
sio n s o f so cia l n o r m s (K eltn er & Bu swell, 1997; M iller & L ea ry, 19 92). A t
 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 515
ea ch level o f a n a lysis, we see t h a t em b a r ra ssm en t serves t h is a p p ea sem en t
fu n ct io n in a d ifferen t way.
A t t h e in d ivid u a l level o f a n a lysis, self-rep o r t n a rr a t ive stu d ies h ave
revea led t h at p ro t o t yp ica l fo rm s o f em b a r ra ssm en t t yp ica lly fo llow so m e
d isr u p t io n in so cia l in t er a ct io n s (P a rro t t & Sm ith , 199 1; Silver, Sab in i, &
P a r ro t t , 198 7). E m b a rr a ssm en t is d e® n ed b y t h e sen se o f p er so n a l fa ilu re
a n d lowered st a t u s (e.g. Ta n gn ey et a l., 1996 ), wh ich m ay sign a l t o t h e
in d ivid u a l wh ich so cia l a ct io n s t o avo id , t h u s m o t iva tin g p a r t icipa n t s t o
st ay w it h in t h e b o u n d s o f a p p ro p ria t e b eh avio u r. C o n sist en t with t h is
cla im , evid en ce in d ica tes t h a t p eo p le will fo rego p erso n a l ga in t o avo id
em b a rra ssm en t , a n d o n ce em b a rr a ssed , t h ey en gage in co r rect ive b eh a-
vio u r t h a t rest o r es t h eir so cia l sta n d in g (see K eltn er & Bu swell, 1997 ).
So cia l t r a n sgr essio n s req u ire so m e fo r m o f a p p ea sem en t o r rep a ir.
E m p irica l st u d ies a t t h e d ya d ic level o f a n a lysis in d ica t e t h at t h e d isp lay
o f em b a r ra ssm en t b rin gs ab o u t reco n ciliat io n . E m b a rr a ssm en t is sign a lled
b y b lu sh in g, a co n t ro lled sm ile, fa ce t o u ch in g, d o wn wa rd m ovem en t s o f
t h e h ea d a n d eyes, a n d in h ib ited sp eech (K eltn er & Bu swell, 1997). T h ese
b eh avio u rs h ave b een sh o wn t o sign a l t h e em b a rr a ssed p erso n’s co m m it-
m en t t o so cia l n o r m s, a n d t o p ro m p t fo rgiven ess in o t h er s (fo r a review, see
K elt n er, Yo u n g, & Bu swell, 199 7).
T h eo r ist s wo rk in g at t h e gro u p level o f a n a lysis h ave p ro p o sed , co n sis-
t en t with o u r gen er a l review, t h a t em b a rr a ssm en t h elp s est ab lish a n d
m a in t a in gr o u p h ier a rch ies a n d n o rm s (e.g. C la rk , 199 0). H ow m igh t t h is
wo rk ? O n e p o ssib ility is t h a t em b a rr a ssm en t is em b ed d ed in gro u p p ra c-
t ices, wh ich h ave sp eci® c co n seq u en ces at t h e in d ivid u a l a n d d ya d ic levels
o f a n a lysis. G ro u p p ra ct ices, su ch a s t ea sin g a n d sh a m in g, p ro d u ce d iffer-
en t levels o f em b a r ra ssm en t in gro u p m em b ers (K elt n er et a l., 199 8). F o r
in d ivid u a ls, t h e d ifferen t ia l exp erien ce o f em b a rr a ssm en t in gro u p co n t ext s
m ay sign a l t h eir p o sitio n s in t h e gr o u p h iera rchy. D ya d ic in t er a ct io n s in
t ea sin g a n d sh a m in g m ay lea d t o reco n ciliat io n a n d en h a n ced gro u p b o n d s.
F in a lly, recen t eth n o gr a p h ies revea l h o w self-co n scio u s em o t io n s relat ed
t o em b a rr a ssm en t a re invo lved in t h e a ssu m p t io n o f cu ltu r a lly a p p ro p ria t e
id en t ities a n d t h e p er p et u a t io n o f cu ltu ra l n o r m s a n d va lu es. Awla d -A li
Bed o u in s a n d O riya I n d ia n s h ave lo n g t r a d itio n s o f stro n g p a t ria rch a l
a u t h o r ity in wh ich o p en exp ressio n s o f fem a le sexu a lity b rin g d ish o n o u r
a n d t h rea t en t o d est ab ilise m a scu lin e a u t h o rity. W h en in t h e p resen ce o f
h igh -ra n k in g m en , it is co n sid ered a vir t u e fo r wo m en t o d isp lay hasha m
a m o n g t h e Awla d -A li (A b u L u gh o d , 19 86) a n d t o d isp lay lajya in O r issa ,
In d ia (M en o n & Sh wed er, 199 4). E xp ressio n s o f ha sham a n d lajya h o n o u r
p a t ria rch a l id eo lo gies a n d h iera rch ies, a n d t h e p o ssessio n o f a well-
cu lt iva t ed liab ilit y t o exp er ien ce a n d exp ress t h ese em o t io n s is a p a th t o
fem a le h o n o u r a n d vir t u e in b o t h cu lt u res. R ecen t cro ss-cu ltu ra l wo rk
d em o n st ra t es t ha t if lajya m u st b e eq u a t ed w it h a n E n glish em o t io n
516 KELTNER AND HAIDT

wo rd , t h a t wo rd is em b a rra ssm en t (H a id t & K elt n er, in p r ess). H o wever,

b eca u se N o r t h A m er ica n m id d le cla ss cu ltu re va lues h iera rchy less a n d t h e
exp ressio n o f fem a le sexu a lity m o re t h a n d o O riya s, t h e exp erien ce o f
em b a r ra ssm en t ca n n o t b e eq u a t ed w it h t h e exp erien ce o f lajya. E m b a r ra ss-
m en t fo r A m erica n s seem s t o la ck t h e elem en t o f vir t u e a n d even p rid e t h a t
ca n b e a sso cia t ed with t h e exp er ien ces o f lajya a n d hasha m.

RESEARCH STRATEGIES FOR THE STUDY OF

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS
We h ave a t t em p t ed t o p la ce m a ny lin es o f resea rch o n t h e so cia l fu n ct io n s
o f em o t io n in t o a t a xo n o m y of fo u r levels o f a n a lysis: I n d ivid u a l, dya d ic,
gr o u p, a n d cu ltu r a l, a ll o f wh ich a re co m p lem en t a r y a n d in t er rela t ab le. In
t h is ® n a l sect io n , we lo o k t o t h e fu t u re a n d a sk h o w a so cia l-fu n ct io n a l
p er sp ect ive, co gn isa n t o f d ifferen t levels o f a n a lysis, ca n gu id e resea rch .
M o st gen era lly, we b elieve t h at in t egra t ive, cro ss-d iscip lin a ry wo rk m ay b e
fu rt h ered b y wo rk in g a t m u lt ip le levels o f a n a lysis, lo o k in g t o a d jo in in g
levels fo r id ea s a n d hyp o t h eses. In t er m s o f co n cret e resea rch q u est io n s, we
b elieve a so cia l fu n ct io n a l p er sp ect ive p o in t s t o t wo gen er a l issu es t h a t h ave
o n ly recen t ly b egu n t o receive syst em a t ic a t t en t io n .
F irst , so cia l fu n ctio n a l a cco u n t s a ssu m e t h a t em o t io n s so lve so cia l
p ro b lem s. E m o t io n s a r ise in resp o n se t o so cia l p ro b lem s (e.g. in ju st ice,
est ab lish in g a t t a ch m en t s, n ego t iat in g st at u s h ier a rch ies), a n d p resu m ab ly
ch a nge a s t h o se p ro blem s (o r o p p o rt u n ities) a re m et . T h e d yn a m ic
relat io n s b et ween elem en t s o f em o t io n a l resp o n se a n d ch a n gin g so cia l
p ro b lem s m er it at t en t io n . A t t h e in d ivid u a l level o f a n a lysis, em o t io n s
ca n b e lin ked t o sp eci® c k in d s a n d fea t u res o f ch a n gin g so cia l even t s
(e.g. K em p er, 19 93). A t t h e d ya d ic level o f a n a lysis, resea rch sh o u ld
co n t inu e t o exa m in e h ow sp eci® c em o t io n s em erge in resp o n se t o rela -
t io n a l p ro b lem s, a s h a s b een d o n e in st u d ies relat in g t h e em ergen ce o f
a d o lescen t so cia l h ier a rch ies a n d t h e d evelo p m en t o f em b a rr a ssm en t ,
sh a m e, a n d so cia l a n xiet y (O h m a n , 19 86). F in a lly, it sh o u ld b e p o ssib le
t o p red ict a n d m ea su re ch a n ges in t h e em o t io n a l life o f gro u p s a n d cu ltu res
a s n ew so cia l p ro b lem s a rise. F o r exa m p le, a s in d ivid u a lism , co m m ercia l-
ism , a n d ch a n gin g sex ro les sp rea d t h ro u gh t h e yo u n g gen era t io n o f a
t r a d it io n a l so ciety, d o eld er s t ry t o elicit m o re sh a m e, a n d en ga ge in
m o re t ea sin g a n d sh a m in g r itu a ls? W ith so m u ch o f A sia ra p id ly a d o p t in g
West ern m o d es o f co m m erce, d ress, a n d even h o u sin g, it sh o u ld b e p o ssib le
t o d o cu m en t ch a n ges in t h e d istr ib u t io n a n d va lu at io n o f em o t io n s
(in clu d in g p a t t ern s o f u se, a n d em o t io n co n cep t s) over t h e co u rse o f a
d eca d e.
Seco n d , so cia l fu n ct io n a l p er sp ect ives p o sit t h a t in feren ces ab o u t so cia l
fu n ct io n s d erive fro m a n a lyses o f t h e syst em at ic co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n s.
 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 517
E a ch em o t io n sh o u ld h ave syst em a tic effect s o n o t h er in d ivid u a ls a n d
feat u res o f t h e so cia l enviro n m en t t h a t , fo r t h e m o st p a r t , awa it d iscovery.
M o d el resea rch a n d releva n t a n a lyt ic p ro ced u res fo r a scer t a in in g t h e so cia l
co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n s h ave em erged in t h e st u d y o f m o re n a t u r a list ic
em o t io n a l in t era ct io n s b etween sib lin gs (e.g. D u n n & M u n n , 1985) , ro m a n -
t ic rela tio n sh ip s (L even so n & G o t t m a n , 198 3), a n d p a ren t -ch ild in t er-
a ct io n s (e.g. F ield et a l., 1990) . E xp erim en t a l m a n ip u la t io n s o f em o t io n a l
b eh avio u r, a s h a s b een d o n e in st u d ies o f t h e resp o n ses evo k ed b y
d ep ressive m a tern a l style (e.g. C o h n & Tro n ick , 198 3) a n d p o sed fa cia l
exp ressio n s (D im b erg & O h m a n , 1996 ), h ave t h e p ro m ise o f m a k in g sim ila r
co n t r ibu t io n s t o a n u n d erst a n d in g o f t h e so cia l fu n ctio n s o f em o t io n s.
In su m , t h e exp a n sio n o f sch o la rsh ip fro m in t r a p er so n a l t o in t er-
p erso n a l fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n p o in t s t o sever a l p ro m isin g lin es o f en q u iry
t h a t m ay in t egr a t e t h e in sigh t s a n d st ren gt h s o f d ifferen t d iscip lin es. T h is
co n cep t u a lly a n d m et h o d o logica lly va r ied wo rk ca n b e u n d er st o o d a n d
in t egr a t ed b y d ist in gu ish in g a m o n g t h e in d ivid u a l, d ya d ic, gr o u p, a n d
cu lt u r a l levels o f a n a lysis. A ll fo u r a re n ecessa r y t o u n d erst a n d t h e so cia l
fu n ct io n s o f em o t io n s.

M a nu scr ip t r eceived 2 M a r ch 1999

REFERENCES
A b u-L u gh o d , L . (1986). Veiled sentim ents. Berkeley, C A : U n iversity o f C a lifo r n ia P r ess.
Aver ill, J.R . (1980). A con st r u ctivist view of em ot io n . I n R . P lu tchik & H . K ellerm an (E ds.),
Emotion: Theory, Research, and experience (p p. 305±339). N ew Yo rk : A ca dem ic P r ess.
Aver ill, J.R . (1992). T h e st r u ctu r a l b ases of em o tio n a l beh avior. In M .S. C la rk (E d .), Emotion
(p p. 1±24). N ewb u r y P ar k , C A : Sa ge.
Ba u m eist er, R .F., & T ice, D .M . (1990 ). A nxiety an d so cia l exclu sio n . Journal of Social and
Clinical Psychology, 9, 165±195.
Bo wlb y, J. (196 9). Attachment. N ew Yo r k: Ba sic Boo k s.
Br eth erto n, I ., F r itz, J., Z a h n -Wa xler, C., & R idgeway, D . (1986). L ea r n in g t o ta lk abo u t
em o tio n s: A fu n ct io na list p ersp ective. Child Development, 57, 529 ±548.
Br iggs, J.L . (1970). Never in anger. C am b r id ge, M A : H a r va r d U niversity P r ess.
C a m p o s, J.J., C a m p o s, R .G ., & Ba r ret t, K .C . (1989 ). E m ergen t t h em es in t h e st u d y o f
em o tio n a l d evelop m en t a n d em o t io n r egulation . Developm ental Psychology, 25, 394±402.
C la rk , C . (1 990 ). E m o t io n s a n d t h e m ircro p o lit ics in everyd a y life: So m e pa t t er n s a n d
pa r a d oxes o f ``P la ce’’ . I n T.D . K em p er (E d .), Research agendas in the sociology of emotions
(p p. 305±334). A lba ny, N Y: St at e U n iversity of N ew Yo r k P r ess.
C lo r e, G . (1994). W hy em o tion s a re felt. I n P. E k m a n & R .J. D avid so n (E d s.), The nature of
emotion (p p. 103±111). N ew Yo r k : Ca m b r id ge U n iversity P r ess.
C o hn , J.F., & Tro n ick , E .Z . (1983). T h r ee m o n th o ld in fa n ts’ r ea ct io ns t o sim u la ted m atern a l
dep ressio n . Child Development, 5 4, 18 5±193.
C o llin s, R .C . (1990). St r a ti® cation , em o tio n al en ergy, a nd t he tr a n sien t em o tio n s. In T.D .
K em per (E d .), Research agendas in the sociology of emotions (p p. 27±57). A lb an y, N Y: St ate
U n iversity o f N ew Yo r k P r ess.
C o ser, R .L . (1960). L a ugh ter a m o n g colleagu es. Psychia try, 23, 81±95.
518 KELTNER AND HAIDT

D ’ A nd r a d e, R .G . (19 84). C ultu ra l m ean in g syst em s. I n R .A . Sh wed er & R .A . L eVin e (E d s.),

Culture theory. C a m b r id ge, U K : C a m br idge U niversity P r ess.
D a r w in , C . (1 965 ). Th e ex pre ssio n of th e em ot ion s in m a n a nd an im als. C h ica go, I L :
U niversity o f C h ica go P r ess. (O rigin a l wo r k pu blish ed 1872)
D avid so n , R .J. (1 993 ). P a r sin g a ff ect ive sp a ce: P er sp ect ives f ro m n eu r o p sych o lo gy a n d
p sych op hysio logy. Neuropsychology, 7, 46 4±475.
D awk in s, R . (19 76). The sel® sh gene. L o nd o n : O xfo rd U n iver sity P ress.
D eP a ulo, B.M . (1992 ). N o nverb a l b eh avio r a n d self-p r esen ta tio n. Psychological Bulletin,
111, 203±24 3.
D im berg, U ., & O h m a n , A . (1996 ). Beh old th e wr ath : P sych op hysio lo gical r esp o nses to fa cia l
st im u li. M otivation an d Emotion, 20, 149±182.
D u nn , J., & M u nn , P. (1985). Beco m in g a fam ily m em b er: F a m ily co n ¯ ict a n d th e d evelop -
m en t o f so cia l un d erst a n d in g in th e seco n d yea r. Ch ild Development, 56, 480±492.
D u rk heim , E . (1965). The elementary form s of the relig ious life (J.W. Swa in, Tra n s.). N ew
Yo r k: T h e F r ee P r ess. (O r igina l wo r k p ub lished 1915)
E ibl-E ib esfeld t, I . (1989). H uman ethology. N ew Yo r k : A ld ine d e G r u yter.
E isen b er g, N . , F a b es, R .A ., M iller, P.A ., F u lt z, J., Sh ell, R ., M a t hy, R .M ., & R en o,
R .R . (1989). R elat io n of sym p athy a n d d ist r ess to p ro so cia l b eh avio r : A mu lit m et ho d
st u dy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 55±66.
E km a n, P. (1992). A n ar gu m ent fo r b a sic em o tion s. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169 ±200.
E km a n, P. (1993). F a cia l exp r essio n an d em o tio n . Am erican Psycholog ist, 48, 384±392.
E lia s, N . (1978). The history of manners. The civilizing process: Vol. I (E . Jep h co tt , Tra ns.).
N ew Yo r k : P a n t h eo n . (O r igina l wo r k p u blish ed 1939)
E m m et, D .M . (1967). F u n ct io na lism in so cio lo gy. The encyclopedia of philosophy. N ew Yo r k:
M a cm illan .
F er na ld , A . (1992). H u m a n m atern a l vo ca lizatio ns to infan ts a s b io logica lly r elevant sign a ls:
A n evolu tio n a r y per sp ective. I n J.H . Ba r ko w, L . C osm id es, & J. To ob y (E ds.), The adap ted
mind (p p. 391±428). N ew Yo r k : O xfo r d U niver sity P ress.
F ield , T., H ea ly, B., G o ld st ein , S., & G u th er tz, M . (1990). Beh avio r -st a t e m at ch in g a n d
syn ch ro ny in m o t her-in fa n t in tera ctio n s o f d ep ressed versu s n o n-d epr essed dyad s. Develop-
mental Psychology, 26, 7±14.
F isk e, A .P. (1992 ). F ou r elem ent ar y fo r m s o f so cia lit y: F r a m ewo rk fo r a u ni® ed t heo r y o f
so cia l r elation s. Psychological Review, 99, 689±723.
F r an k , R .H . (1988). Passions within reason. N ew Yo r k : N or t on .
F r id lun d , A .J. (1992). T h e beh avior a l ecology a n d so cia lit y o f h u m a n faces. I n M .S. C la r k
(E d .), Emotion. N ewb ur y P a r k, C A : Sa ge.
F r ijd a , N . (1986 ). The emotions. C am b ridge, U K : C a m b r id ge U n iversit y P r ess.
F r ijd a , N .H ., & M esq u it a, B. (1994). T h e so cia l r oles a nd fu nction s o f em o tio n s. I n
S. K it a ya m a & H . M a r cu s (E d s.), Em otion and culture: Em pirica l stud ies of mu tu al
in¯ uenced (p p. 51±87). Wash in gt on , D C : A m er ican P sych o lo gical A sso ciatio n .
F r ijd a , N .N ., M esq u it a , B., So n n em a n s, J., & Va n G o o zen , S. (199 1). T h e d u r a tio n o f
a ffect ive p h en o m en a o r em o t io n s, sen tim en t s, a n d p a ssio n s. Intern ational Review of
Studies on Emotion, 1, 187±225.
G eer tz, C. (1973). T h ick d escript io n: Towa r d an in terp r et ive th eo r y o f cultu r e. I n C . G eert z
(E d .), The interpreta tion of cultures. N ew Yo r k : Ba sic Bo ok s.
G o ffm a n , E . (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. G ar d en C it y, N Y:
A nch o r.
G o uld , S.J. (1996). The mismeasure of man (r ev. ed .). N ew Yo r k : N or t on .
G r een berg, J., P yszczyn sk i, T., So lo m o n , S., R o sen bla tt, A .V.M ., K irklan d , S., & L yo n , D .
(1990). E vid en ce fo r t er ro r m a n agem en t th eor y: I I. T h e effects of m o r ta lit y sa lien ce o n
 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 519
rea ctio n s t o th ose wh o th r eaten o r bo lst er t he cu ltu r a l wo r ld view. Journal of Perso nality
and Social Psychology, 58, 308 ±318.
H a id t , J., & K elt n er, D . (1999). C ultu r e a n d fa cial expr essio n : O pen -en d ed m et ho d s ® n d
m o re fa ces a n d a gr a dient of r ecogn itio n . Cognition and Emotion, 13, 225±266.
H a idt , J., K o ller, S., & D ia s, M . (1993 ). A ffect , cu lt u r e, a nd m o r a lit y, or is it wr on g t o ea t
yo u r d o g? Jou rnal of Perso nality and Social Psychology, 65 , 613±628.
H a za n , C ., & Sh aver, P. (1987). Ro m a n tic love co n cep t ua lized a s a n a tt ach m ent p ro cess.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511±524.
H eise, D .R ., & O ’ Br ien , J. (199 3). E m o t io n exp r essio n in gr ou p s. I n M . L ewis & J.M .
H avilan d (E d s.), Handbook of emotions (p p. 489±498). N ew Yo r k : G uilfo r d P ress.
H o chsch ild, A .R . (1990). Id eo logy a n d em ot io n m a n agem ent . I n T.D . K em p er (E d .), Re-
se arch agendas in the socio logy of emotions (p p. 117 ±142). A lba ny, N Y: St ate U n iversity o f
N ew Yo r k P ress.
I za r d, C .E . (19 77). H uman emotions. N ew Yo r k : P lenu m .
Jo h n so n-L a ird , P.N ., & O at ley, K . (1 992 ). Ba sic em o tio n s, r at io n a lity, a n d fo lk th eo r y.
Cogn ition and Emotion, 6, 201±22 3.
K eltn er, D ., & Bu swell, B.N . (1997 ). E m b a r r a ssm en t: I ts d ist in ct fo r m a n d a pp ea sem en t
fu nction s. Psychological Bulletin, 122, 250±270.
K elt ner, D ., & E k m a n , P. (in pr ess). F a cia l expr essio ns o f em ot io n. I n J. H avilan d & M . L ewis
(E d s.), H an dbook of emotions (2nd ed.). N ew Yo rk : G u ilfo r d P r ess.
K eltn er, D ., E llswo r th , P.C ., & E dwa r ds, K . (1993). Beyo n d sim ple p essim ism : E ffects o f
sa dn ess a n d a n ger o n so cia l p ercep tio n . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64,
740±752.
K elt ner, D ., & G ro ss, J. (T h is I ssu e). F u n ctio n al a ccou nt s o f em o tio n. Cognition and Emotion,
13, 467 ±480.
K eltn er, D ., Yo u n g, R ., & Bu swell, B.N . (1997). A pp ea sem en t in h um a n em ot io n , so cia l
pr a ctice, a n d perso na lity. Aggressi ve Behavior, 23, 359±374.
K eltn er, D ., Yo u n g, R .C ., O em ig, C ., H eerey, E ., & M o n a r ch , N .D . (1 998). Tea sin g in
h ier a r ch ica l a n d in t im at e r elat io n s. Jo urn al of Person ality an d Social Psycho logy, 75,
1231±1247.
K em per, T.D . (1993). So ciolo gical m o dels in t he exp la n atio n of em o t ion s. I n M . L ewis & J.M .
H avilan d (E d s.), Handbook of emotions (p p. 41±51 ). N ew Yo r k : G uilfo r d P r ess.
K linn ert, M ., C a m p o s, J., So r ce, J., E m d e, R ., & Svejd a, M . (198 3). E m o t io ns a s beh avio r
regu lato r s: So cia l r eferencin g in in fa n ts. In R . P lu tch ik & H . K ellerm an (E ds.), Emotion
theory, research, and experience: Vol. 2. Emotions in early development (p p. 57±68). N ew
Yo rk : A ca d em ic P r ess.
K nu tso n, B. (1996). F a cia l exp r essio n s of em o tio n in¯ u ence int erp erso na l t ra it in ferences.
Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20, 165±182.
L a ko ff, G . (1987). Wom en, ® re, and dangerous things. C h ica go , I L : U n iversity o f Ch ica go
P r ess.
L a za r u s, R .S. (1991). Emotion an d adaptation. N ew Yo r k: O xfo rd U niversity P r ess.
L eD o u x, J. (1996). The emotional brain. N ew Yo r k : Sim o n & Sch u st er.
L ern er, J.S., G o ld b erg, J.H ., & Tetlo ck , P.E . (199 8). So ber seco n d th o u gh t : T he effects o f
acco un tab ility, an ger, an d a u th or ita r ian ism on at tr ib ut ion s o f r esp on sib ility. Perso nality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 563±574.
L evenso n , R .W. (1992). Au to n om ic n ervo u s syst em d ifferen ces a m o n g em o t io n s. Psycho-
logical Science, 3, 23±27.
L even so n , R .W., E k m a n , P., & F r iesen , W.V. (19 90 ). Vo lu n t a r y fa cia l a ctio n gen er a t es
em o tio n -sp eci® c a u to n o m ic n ervo u s syst em act ivity. Psycholphysiology, 27, 363 ±384.
L even so n, R .W., & G o tt m a n , J.M . (1983). M a r ita l I n tera ction : P hysio logical lin ka ge a n d
affect ive exch an ge. Jou rn al of Person ality and Social Psychology, 45, 587±597.
520 KELTNER AND HAIDT

L ut z, C. (1988). Unnatural emotions. C h ica go , I L : U n iversity o f C h icago P r ess.

L ut z, C . (199 0). E n gen d ered em o tion : G en der, p o wer, a n d the r h et or ic o f em o tio na l co nt ro l
in A m erican d iscou r se. I n C .A . L u t z & L . A b u -L u gh o d (E ds.), Language and the politics of
emotion (p p. 69±91 ). N ew Yo r k : C a m b r id ge U niversit y P r ess.
L ut z, C.A ., & A b u -L u gh o d , L . (1990). Language and the politics of emotion. N ew Yo rk :
C a m b r id ge U niversity P r ess.
L ut z, C ., & W h it e, G . (1986). T h e a n th ro p o logy o f em o tio n s. Annual Review of Anthropology,
15, 405±436 .
M a lino wsk i, B. (1926). A nt hro p o lo gy. Encyclopa edia Britannica (13t h ed .), su pp lem ent I.
M a r ku s, H .R ., & K itaya m a , S. (1991). C u ltu r e a n d t h e self: I m p licatio ns fo r cogn it io n ,
em o tion , a n d m o tivatio n . Psychological Review, 98, 224±253.
M en on , U ., & Sh wed er, R .A . (1994). K ali’s to ngu e: C u lt ur a l p sych ology, cu lt u r a l co nsen su s
a nd th e m ea n in g o f ``sh a m e’ ’ in O r issa , I n dia. I n H . M a rk u s & S. K it aya m a (E ds.), Culture
and the emotions (p p. 241±284). Wash in gto n , D C: A m erican P sych ologica l A sso cia tio n.
M ert on , R .K . (1968). Social theory and social structure. N ew Yo r k: F r ee P r ess.
M esq uit a , B., & F r ijd a , N . (199 2). C ult u r al var ia tion s in em o tio n s: A r eview. Psychological
Bulletin, 112, 17 9±204.
M iller, R .S., & L ea r y, M .R . (199 2). So cia l so u rces a n d in tera ct ive fu n ctio n s of em b a r r a ss-
m en t. I n M . C la r k (E d .), Emotion and so cial behavior (p p. 322±339). N ew Yo r k: Sa ge.
M iller, W.I . (1997). The anatomy of disg ust. C a m br idge, M A : H a r var d U n iver sity P r ess.
M inek a, S., & C o o k , M . (1993). M echa n ism s in vo lved in th e o bserva tio n a l co nd it io n in g o f
fea r. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 23±3 8.
N esse, R . (19 90). E vo lu tio n ar y explan a tio n s o f em o tio ns. Hum an Nature, 1, 261±289.
O atley, K ., & Jen kin s, J.M . (1996). U n d erst a n din g em ot io ns. O xfo r d , U K : Bla ck well.
O h m a n , A . (1986). F ace t he bea st a nd fea r th e fa ce: A n im al an d so cia l fea r s a s p ro t ot yp es fo r
evo lu t io n a r y an a lysis o f em ot io n . Psychophysiology, 23, 123±145.
P a n ksep p, J. (1982). To wa r d a genera l p sych o bio logica l t heo r y of em ot io n s. W it h co m m en -
ta r ies. Brain and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 407±467.
P a r ro tt , W.G ., & Sm ith , S. (1991). E m b a r r a ssm en t: A ct u a l vs. t yp ica l ca ses, cla ssica l vs.
p ro t o t yp ica l. Cognition and Emotion, 5, 467±488.
P lut chik , R . (1980). Emotion: A psychobioevolutionary synthesis. N ew Yo r k : H ar per & Ro w.
P rovin e, R .R . (19 93). L a ugh ter p un ct u ates sp eech : L in gu istic, so cia l, a n d gend er co nt ext s o f
la u gh t er. Etho logy, 95 , 291±298.
d e R ivera , J., & G r in k is, C. (1986). E m o tion s a s so cia l r elat ion sh ip s. M otivation and Emotion,
10, 1986.
Ro sa ld o, M . (1984 ). Towa rd a n a n th ro p ology o f self a n d feeling. In R . Sh wed er & R . L eVin e
(E d s.), Cu lture theory (p p. 137±157). Ca m b r id ge, U K : C a m br idge U n iversity P r ess.
Ro zin, P., H aidt , J., & M cCa u ley, C. (in p ress). D isgu st . I n M . L ewis & J. H avilan d (E ds.),
H andbook of emotions (2nd ed.). N ew Yo r k : G u ilfo r d P r ess.
R ussell, J.A . (1991). C u ltu r e an d th e ca tego r ization o f em ot io n s. Psychological Bulletin, 110,
426±450.
S ch er er, K .R . (1 98 4 ). O n t h e n a t u r e a n d fu n ct io n o f em o t io n : A co m p o n en t p r o cess
a p p r o a ch . I n K . Sch erer & P. E k m a n (E d s.), A ppro aches to em otion (p p. 293±31 8).
H illsd a le, N J: L awr ence E r lb au m .
Sch erer, K .R . (1986). Vo cal a ffect exp r essio n : A review a n d a m od el fo r fu t ur e r esea r ch .
Psychological Bulletin, 99 , 14 3±165.
Sch wa r z, N . (1990). F eelings as in fo r m ation : I nfo r m at io na l a nd m o t iva tio na l fu nct ion s o f
a ffective st ates. I n E .T. H iggin s & R .M . So r r en tin o (E ds.), H andb ook of motivation and
cognition (Vo l. 2, p p. 527±561). N ew Yo rk : G uilfor d P r ess.
Sh wed er, R . (1990). C u lt ur a l psych o logy: W h at is it ? I n J. St igler, R . Sh wed er, & G . H erdt
 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 521
(E d s.), Cultural psychology: The Chicago sym posia on culture and hu man development (p p.
1±43). N ew Yo r k: C a m br idge U n iversity P r ess.
Sch wed er, R .A ., & H a id t , J. (in p r ess). T he cult u r al p sych olo gy o f t he em o t io ns. In M . L ewis
& J.M . H avilan d (E d s.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed.). N ew Yo r k : G u ilfo rd P ress.
Sh wed er, R .A ., M a h a p atr a, M ., & M iller, J. (1987 ). Cu lt u re a nd m or a l d evelop m en t. I n
J. K aga n & S. L a m b (E d s.), The emergence of m orality in young children (p p. 1±83).
C hicago, IL : U n iversity o f C hicago P ress.
Silver, M ., Sa b in i, J., & P a r ro t t , W.G . (198 7). E m b a r r a ssm en t: A d r a m at u r gic a cco u n t .
Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 17, 47±61.
Sim o n , H .A . (1 96 7). M o t iva t io n a l a n d em o t io n a l co n t r o ls o f cogn it io n . P sych ological
Review, 74, 29±39.
Sm ith , C., & E llswo r th , P. (1985). P at t ern s o f cogn it ive app r a isa l in em o tio n . Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 813±838.
So lo m on , R .C . (1990 ). A passion for justice. R ea din g, M A : A d d iso n-Wesley.
Ta ngn ey, J.P., M iller, R .S., F licker, L ., & Bar low, D .H . (1996). A r e sh a m e, gu ilt a n d em ba r -
ra ssm en t d ist in ct em o tio n s? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 12 56±1269.
T h o it s, P.A . (1 985 ). Self-lab elin g p r o cesses in m en t a l illn ess a n d t h e r o le o f em o t io n a l
devia nce. Ame rican Journal of Sociology, 91, 221±249.
To m k in s, S. (196 2). Affect, imagery, consciousness: Vol. 1. The positive affects. N ew Yo r k :
Sp r in ger.
To ob y, J., & C o sm id es, L . (1990). T h e pa st exp la in s t he p r esen t: E m ot io n a l a da p ta tion s a n d
th e st r u ctu re o f a n cest r a l enviro nm en ts. Ethology and Sociobiology, 11, 375±424.
Tro n ick , E .Z . (19 89). E m ot ion s a n d em ot io na l co m m u n ica tio n in in fa nt s. Am erican Psycho-
logist, 44, 112±119.
d e Wa a l, F.B.M . (19 96). Go od natured. C a m br id ge, M A : H a rva r d U n iversit y P r ess.
W h it e, G .M . (199 0). M or a l d iscou r se an d th e r heto r ic o f em otion s. I n C.A . L ut z & L . A bu -
L u gh o d (E ds.), Langu age and the politics of emotion (p p. 46±68). N ew Yo r k : C a m br idge
U n iversity P r ess.
Wein er, B. (199 3). O n sin versu s sickn ess: A th eor y o f p erceived r esp o n sib ility a n d so cia l
m o tivation . Am erican Psychologist, 48, 957±965.
W ilso n, E .O. (1998). Consilience: The unity of know ledge. N ew Yo r k : K n op f.