Book 1 Module 2. ee Reale aan nn PHYSICS MATTER MECHANICS. MATERIALS FLUIDS ° BUOYANCY Licence By Post... ee he aap a ako each iE fingers Nt suable for smal Licance By Post © copyrightAUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study /training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturer's handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority [the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local- procedures, recording, report writing, documentation ete. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments, ~ NOTE It is policy to review our study material in the light of changing technology and syllabus requirements, This means that books are re-written and/or updated on a regular basis LBP. 140 Narbeth Drive Aylesbury Bucks HP20 194 UK Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433873 Fax [+ 44) 01296 330697 Email: www.infod icencebypest.com Website: www licencebypost.comCONTENTS Matter Atomic structure Chemical reactions Mechanics Force Moment of a force Equilibrium A couple Scalar & vector quantities Centre of gravity Density Strength of materials Tension Compression Shear Stress Strain Hooke’s Law Young’s modulus of elasticity Fluids & gases Pressure Pressure due to depth Buoyancy Page 12 12 12 14 18 18 23 26 27 27 27 27 29 29 30 31 32 32 34 38HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written to the level 2 of the B1 technician syllabus, but most of the book should be studied to level 1 for the B2 and A line mechanic. Check the syllabus or contact your tutor ~ for AS and FS students. It is comprehensive and many parts will need more that one read to fully understand the subject. If it does “not go in” straight away, this is not unusual ~ it happens to most people (except for the lucky few), Read that part again and possibly take up the subject the following day. Complete all the examples and take the revision questions in the last book as a test and see how you do. For those that are AS and FS students you always have your tutor to fall back on. The Atomic Model The structure of the atom is dealt with so as to give the student a reasonable understanding of the basic layout at this level. It is really just an introduction to atomic theory. The important point to remember is that the present model (scientists have developed others) is simplified and based on that that gives the best answers to observations on practical experiments - to date. As research continues so new papers are published which up-dates/amends current theory. Any sizes quoted for atomic particles are approximate with different reference manuals not giving exactly the same value Details of scientists /inventers are included for interest only and need not be committed to memory.MATTER Nature of Matter All matter is made up of small particles called molecules. A molecule is defined as the smallest particle that any substance can be reduced to and still retain the unique properties of the original substance from which it can still be identified. These molecules are packed tightly together so that substances appear as solids, liquids or gases. Forces of attraction and repulsion exist between all molecules and these forces which are electro-magnetic, vary with the state in which the substance exists. Molecules of all matter are in constant motion, the amount of motion or vibration is dependent on the temperature. In a solid the molecules are packed closely together and vibration is about a fixed position, held there by strong bonding forces. This forms a rigid intermolecular structure. A solid, therefore, holds its shape and volume, changing size only with temperature changes (or large external forces). In liguids the motion of molecules is much greater and this prevents any permanent intermolecular structure from occurring. However, temporary bonds are formed and broken continually between molecules. These bonds prevent the molecules from totally moving apart so that a liquid will occupy, to the extent of it’s volume, the shape of the container into which it is poured. In a gas, the molecules are spaced widely apart, the force of attraction is so small that they continue to drift apart with relative ease, occupying the complete volume of the container that the gas is in. — Between molecules, whether in a solid, liquid or gaseous state, an empty space exists. This space allows materials to be compressed, forcing the molecules to move closer together and occupying a smaller volume. As the volume is gradually reduced the compressive force required has to increase providing evidence of a repulsive force existing between molecules. On the other hand, to produce a gradual extension of a solid bar, for example, an increasing tensile or stretching force would have to be applied, indicating that a force of attraction is also present between molecules. The force that holds molecules of a particular substance together is called a COHESIVE force. Where molecules of different substances are held together the force is known as an ADHESIVE force.Atomic Structure Molecules are constructed of even smaller particles called ATOMS. The size of an atom is small and may be defined as being the smallest particle that any substance can chemically be broken down to. The size of an atom is difficult to comprehend - a fine grain of salt would contain about a million, million, million (1018) atoms, Even at this size research has lead to the discovery that the atom itself is made up of many smaller particles, Of these, three are considered as being fundamental in its construction. These are the electron, the proton and the neutron, An atom consists largely of empty space. At its centre is the nucleus, which is formed from closely packed protons and neutrons. Surrounding this is a ‘cloud’ of orbiting electrons (figure 1) circulating around it in all directions. PATH OF ELECTRONS, Fig. 1 AN ATOM The size of the proton and neutron are very similar being about 1.6 x 107g and 1.7 x 10g respectively, whereas the electron is about 1/2000th times as small, it's mass being about 9 x 101g. Theory suggests that ‘binding forces’ hold the nucleus together. These forces are very strong but of short range and act only within the nucleus. Protons are positively charged particles and electrons are negatively charged particles, whilst the neutron, as it’s name suggests is neither positive or negative but neutral. As a whole, the atom, is seen from outside as having no electrical charge. The positive charge on the nucleus being cancelled by the negative charge of the orbiting electron. It follows that there must be as many electrons orbiting the nucleus as there are protons within the nucleus so as to keep its charge neutral. -2-Where the molecules of a substance consists of only one type of atom, the substance is classified as an element. Carbon, gold, iron, mercury, oxygen and hydrogen are all examples of elements. There are more than one hundred elements, and the most recent ones discovered are unstable and change spontaneously into other known elements The abundance of materials in the world varies considerably with fewer than ten elements making up 98% of the total All atoms of a particular element contain a definite number of protons and subsequent electrons. Different elements will contain different numbers of protons in the nucleus. It is the number of protons in an atom that provide the ATOMIC NUMBER, and the total mass of all the sub-atomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons) that provide a measure of the ATOMIC WEIGHT. Atomic weight is now often referred to as RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS. Forms of an element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus but different relative atomic masses, as a result of different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus, are called ISOTOPES, Atomic weights are comparative. Originally the weight of the hydrogen atom was taken as 1 and the weights of all other atoms made relative to it. Atomic weights are now based on a value of 12, based on carbon 12, which has six neutrons and six protons. On this comparative scale, hydrogen has an atomic weight of 1.008. MASS NUMBER is the total number of protons and electrons in the nucleus, each being taken as a unit of mass. FIRST QUANTUM NUMBER (SHELL NUMBER), NucLeus. MAXIMUM NUMBER OF Jr2|e ELECTRONS IN EACH SHELL ‘SHELL IDENT LETTER MAXIMUM NUMBER OF SHELLS =7 Fig. 2 THE ELECTRON SHELLS euThe way in which the electrons orbit the nucleus follows a fairly rigid pattern and may be envisaged as occupying orbital layers or spherical shells. Each shell can only contain a specific number of electrons with the maximum theoretical number related to the formula 2n?, Where n is the first quantum number and noting that the outer shell can only contain a maximum of 8 electrons anyway. Figure 2 shows the theoretical maximum number of electrons in each of the shells that surround the nucleus. In practice many atoms do not reach this number. The gap between each shell is not constant but reduces as the distance increases from the nucleus with the outer electrons being called VALANCE electrons Some examples of elements and the number of atoms in each shell is shown in the following table, (The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom) ELEMENT SHELL - number of electrons in each shell’ ATOMIC (Maximum possible number in brackets) NUMBER K L M N © P Q., 2) (8) (8) (82) (50) (72) 8) | 5 n= 1 2 3 4 6 7 eee Hydrogen 1 1 Sodium 2 8 1 iL Aluminium 2 8 3 : 13 Silicon 2 8 4 4 4 Copper aes ete C2 29 Germanium 2 8 18 4 32 Silver 2 8 18 18 1 47 Gold ate ie east eh 79 Radon 2 8 18 32 18 8 86 Uranium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2 92 TABLE 1 SOME ELEMENTS ‘The electrons (or electron] making up the outermost shell are called valence electrons, and these being furthest from the attractive force of the nucleus are least tightly bound in the atom. It is the valence electrons that play the active part in electrical conduction. Figure 3 shows an atom of hydrogen and figure 4 shows an atom of helium, both very light gases. Figures 5 and 6 show atoms of silicon and germanium respectively, two very important elements in the manufacture of transistors, both having four valance electrons.\ one eLecTRON one Proton: Fig. 3 THE HYDROGEN ATOM Anucieus of Two orbital two protons lect Fig. 4 THE HELIUM ATOM Fig. 5 THE SILICON ATOM © SZ Fig. 6 THE GERMANIUM ATOM Normally atoms are electrically neutral, as far as charge is concerned, because electrons and protons are present in equal numbers, An atom can become positively or negatively charged if it has electrons taken away or added. When an atom gives up an electron it becomes positively charged (it has more protons than electrons), and this is called a positive ion. When it takes in an additional electron it becomes negatively charged and it is called a negative ion.An ion is therefore an atom which has lost or gained an electron Metals represent a category of elements endowed with particular properties. One of these is that some of the electrons in the outer shells are so loosely tied to the nucleus that they are effectively floating free and move easily from one atom to another. Normally their movement is random, but by applying an external electrical force (such as that provided by a battery or generator) they can all be made to move in the same direction. When all the electrons move in one direction the current is known as Direct Current (dc) ~ as when a battery is used to provide the electrical force (voltage). When the electrons are moved forwards and backwards (as when an alternator/generator is used) then the current is called Alternating Current (ac). Ac current usually has a frequency (on aircraft) of 400 Hz, though some frequency wild systems do exist where the frequency varies depending on generator rotational speed (rpm) This orderly movement of electrons is called current. Metals which easily permit the orderly movement of electrons are called conductors eg, copper, aluminium, silver, platinum, bronze and gold. In other materials the electrons are held more firmly in their outer shells. In these materials it is almost impossible to induce an orderly movement of electrons and they are classified as non-conductors, or insulators, eg: glass, rubber, plastic, air, wood and mica. The family of elements called semiconductors sometimes behave like conductors and sometimes like insulators. Typical materials are silicon and germanium. ee - NUCLEI [> ELECTRONS Fig. 7 VALENCE ELECTRONS IN A SILICON CRYSTAL LATTICEFREE ELECTRON Fig. 8 FREE ELECTRONS IN SILICON (Si) DOPED WITH ARSENIC (As) ~~ These materials have four valence electrons, each atom shares its electrons with adjacent atoms to form a strongly bonded structure called a crystal lattice. The freedom of movement of electrons is poor, and in their’pure state in semiconductors are insulators. re However, electron movement can be achieved by heating, as the temperature rises the electrons become more agitated and leave their orbits and if a voltage is placed across the material electron movement occurs, ["_“ This is known as “intrinsic” conduction. Current causes heat which causes more conduction and this can continue until breakdown occurs, known as “thermal runaway” Another way to improve the conductivity is by “doping”, of a tiny amount of another element. The “dope” is introduced into the crystal lattice structure which improves the conducuvity. More detail of this in Module 4 study books in this series. Chemical Reactions If the third shell is an outer shell it can only accommodate 8 electrons, but if covered by a fourth shell it can accommodate 18 electrons. If the outermost shell is either completely filled or holds 8 electrons then the element is chemically un-reactive, ie it will not combine chemically with any other element. Thus if we consider a substance such as Neon (Ne), atomic number 10, then 2 electrons will occupy the inner shell and 8 electrons the outer shell. Neon is an un-reactive gas. -7-Sodium (Nal, having an atomic number of 11, has 2 electrons occupying the inner shell, 8 in the second shell but only 1 electron in the third (outer shell), with a deficiency of 7 electrons in this shell. Chlorine (Cl) has an atomic number of 17, thus the shells have 2, 8 and 7 electrons respectively with a deficiency of 1 electron in the other shell, These last two elements, sodium and chlorine, will readily combine to form the COMPOUND sodium chloride (NaCl), sea salt, with the outer shell of the chlorine readily accepting the single electron of the sodium outer shell and in doing so completing its outer shell. Chemical reactions are concerned with the loss or gain of electrons in the outer shells and as the example above has shown, elements with deficiencies in their outer shells are chemically very active and form compounds easily. A COMPOUND is defined as the chemical combination of two or more elements and by chemical means can be separated back into their original elements. The third way in which a substance can exist is as a mixture — remembering the other two ways are as an element or a compound. In a mixture, substances exist side by side without combining chemically. Air is a good example of a mixture. Air consists mainly of oxygen and nitrogen (23% oxygen and 77% nitrogen approximately my mass). A mixture is often recognised by the fact that a physical process may be used to separate it back to its original constituent parts. In a reaction a chemical compound is either formed by the combination of elements or broken up (decomposed) into its separate elements. To represent such a process a chemical equation is used. Itis worth memorising the more common elements, and those associated with combustion (in the following table}, as these are used in the writing and balancing of chemical equations. ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC MASS. MOLECULAR MASS HYDROGEN He 1 2 CARBON. c 12 12 NITROGEN No 14 28 OXYGEN Oe 16 32 SULPHUR 8 32 32 TABLE 2 SOME COMMON ELEMENTS‘The subscript number (eg the 2 in Oz) associated with some of the elements denotes the number of atoms contained in a single molecule of the substance. Thus carbon C contains a single atom whilst a molecule of hydrogen Ha is formed by 2 hydrogen atoms. Note. The subscript : as in C) is understood but rarely used The molecular mass is the total atomic mass of all the atoms that form the molecule. Thus a molecule of oxygen, which consists of 2 atoms in its natural state, has a molecular mass of 32 ie 2 x 16. In a compound the molecular mass is determined from the addition of the atomic masses of the individual masses concerned. Consider a molecule of water chemical symbol H20. This is a compound, a single molecule of which is made up of 3 atoms, one of oxygen and two of hydrogen. Its molecular mass is thus 18 or [{2 x 1) + 16]. However, as a chemical formula, it is not possible to show this 4s Hp + O= K20 since oxygen on its own can only exist naturally in its molecular form with 2 atoms, ie Og. — Thus the equation has to be written as 2He + O2 = 2H20 in order to balance. In other words 2 molecules of Hydrogen + 1 molecule of Oxygen = 2 molecules of Water. In terms of the atemic masses the equation may be written as 2(2 x 1) + 1(16 x 2) = 2[(2x 1) + 16] 4 + 32 = 36 ie, both sides of the equation are the same and the equation balances. In the second example C + O2 = COz, 1 molecule of carbon is chemically combined with 1 molecule of oxygen to form 1 molecule of carbon dioxide. In this form the chemical equation balances as shown below, where the comparison of the atomic masses is made.12 + (16 x 2) [12 + (16 x 2)] 12+ 32 44 The final examples show, respectively, the chemical equations involved in the production of carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide. @) 2C+02 = 2c0 tii) = S+O. a SO2 Check yourself that these two equations balance by considering the atomic masses. In alll the preceding equations, remember that: (a) There must be the same number of atoms on both sides of the equation. (b) The atomic mass is the same on each side of the equation. (o) Its not necessary for the same number of molecules to occur on each side of the equation, (@) The addition sign on each in the equation indicates ‘chemically combining with’ and is not a mathematical function as such. Note. The process of division or decomposition of a substance into its constituent parts to determine the type of constituents present is called analysis. Synthesis is the opposite process ~ ie the process of producing a compound by a chemical reaction from commonly available materials. Matter, as previously stated, exists as a solid, liquid or gas. You will remember that in a solid the molecules are held in fixed positions about which they vibrate. By raising the temperature of the solid the effect is to increase this vibration, (that is to increase the kinetic energy or movement energy of the molecule). If the temperatu.. continues to be increased the bonds acting between the molecules become less effective and the molecules move away from their fixed positions. The substance subsequently becomes a liquid. Increasing the temperature still further gives the molecules even more energy so that a second point is reached where the bonds of attraction no longer have the strength to restrain the molecules, and they leave the liquid to form a gas. Changes of state whether from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas, take place at constant temperature. This is because the energy absorbed during this phase is used up in breaking down the bonds of attraction. -10-The heat required to change the state of solid to liquid is known as ‘the latent heat of fusion’, and that from liquid to gas as ‘the latent heat of vaporisation’, Where energy absorbed produces a change in temperature, this is referred to as ‘Sensible Heat’, ‘The graph below shows the changes that occur as ice (below 0°C) is converted into steam, TEMP °C WATER & STEAM 100 |}——_-_________. ICE & WATER SENSIBLE) LATENTHEAT | SENSIBLE HEAT | LATENT HEAT OF HEAT OF FUSION, VAPORISATION, (Enthalpy) |(Specitic enthaipy| (Enthalpy) _| (Specific enthalpy of change of of change of phase) phase) Fig. 9 ENTHALPY CHANGES DURING CHANGES OF STATE (ICE TO STEAM) Sensible heat and Latent heat, may often be referred to as Enthalpy and Specific Enthalpy as change of phase respectively, blank -ll-MECHANICS STATICS Force If we want to bend, stretch, compress, twist or break a body (say a piece of metal), then we must apply a force. The application of a force is also necessary to produce movement of a static body and to produce acceleration, slow down (decelerate] or change the direction of a moving body. Whenever we consider a force we see it in terms of its effect on the body to which it is applied. In this way a force is defined as “that which changes or attempts to change the state of rest of a body or of its state of uniform motion in a straight line.” In all its forms, a force has units of Newtons (N). (The Newton is the SI unit of force and named after Sir Isaac Newton English mathematician 1642 -1727,) It is quite small - if a small apple is placed on the hand it will exert a force of about 1 Newton towards the earth. 7 When a force is represented on a drawing by an arrowed line the length of which is proportional to the amount of force and it is pointing in the correct direction then the quantity is known as a Vector Quantity. Moment of a Force A force can also be used to produce rotation, as occurs when opening a door or tightening a nut with a spanner. Such motion does require the door to be pivoted (hinged) at some position and the force to be applied at some distance from the pivot. APPLIED Perpendicular distance between te pivot and the fine of action FORCE (P) of the force: pivot | / LINE OF ACTION OF THE FORCE TURNING EFFECT OF THE FORCE Fig. 10 MOMENT OF A FORCE -12-This turning effect of the force is known as ‘the moment of the force’, and its magnitude is determined from the product of the force and the distance from the hinge or pivot. However, the distance must be the perpendicular distance from the pivot (ie the distance measured at right angles to the force) to the line of action of the force. Referring to figure 10. Moment (ofthe = — Magnitude of the force x Perpendicular distance force) Nm wy) between pivot and line of action of the force (m) Applying the force in such a way that its line of action passes through the pivot will not produce a turning effect (figure 11). Both force and distance are necessary to produce a moment and perpendicular distance is zero. LINE OF ACTION OF THE FORCE LEVER ———————— _ eer APPLIED LINE OF ACTION FORCE JoF THE FORCE (a) (>) Fig. 11 FORCE APPLIED THROUGH THE PIVOT LINE fF PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE FROM PIVOT TO LINE OF ACTION OF THE FORCE LINE OF ACTION OF THE FORCE Fig. 12 FORCE INCLINED AT AN ANGLE If the force is inclined, as shown in figure 12 then the turning effect is reduced because the perpendicular distance is reduced. Both figures 10 and 12 show that if motion had taken place, the lever would have moved in a clockwise direction hence, both these moments, would be referred to as ‘clockwise moments’. -13-If the force is applied in such a way as to produce a counter clockwise rotation then, the moment produced would be called an ‘anti-clockwise moment’, Movement is not necessary for a moment to be present in a system, and the tendency of the force to produce a turning effect is often used in calculations, The power of an internal combustion engine may be defined by the amount of torque it produces. This torque (T) is measured in the same units T= Fx D (Nm) where F Force D = Distance Equilibrium QUESTION Can you define equilibrium? (3 mins) ANSWER Equilibrium is where all the forces and all the moments acting on a body cancel each other and the net effect on the body is zero. In other words it will not move if it is in a state of rest, and if in motion it will not slow-down or accelerate or change direction. The state of equilibrium is very important in engineering situations. It provides stability in practice and a means of solving problems in theory. Consider the beam, shown below in figure 13. It is supported at a single point, which also acts as a pivot. Two forces Pi and P2 are situated each side of the pivot at distances S; and S2 respectively. P, Po ANTICLOCKWISE CLOCKWISE ] TENDENCY PivoT TENDENCY Fig. 13 EQUILIBRIUM OF ROTATION -14-The product P2 x Sz produces a clockwise moment about the pivot and the product Pi x S) produces an anti-clockwise moment about the pivot. For equilibrium of rotation (je, no rotation) these two moments must be equal, ie P) x8) = Pox S2 Although rotation is now prevented, the beam still has the opportunity to move up or down, ie translate, hence for equilibrium of translation, the sum of the downward forces must be balanced by sum of the upward forces (reaction force}. In this case just one supplied by the pivot, as shown below figure 14. PIVOT REACTION FORCE P+ P Fig. 14 EQUILIBRIUM OF TRANSLATION Once these two conditions of rotation and translation have been satisfied then the beam can be said to be in a state of equilibrium. f If more than two forces are involved then for equilibrium of rotation: The sum of the clockwise moments = the sum of the anti-clockwise moments. Lets now consider some examples. Example 1 In this case the requirement is to balance the arrangement in figure 15 by determining the unknown force (P). 5N aN iN P Fig. 15 BEAM BALANCE - ONE UNKNOWN FORCE -15-Taking moments about the pivot. For equilibrium of rotation: Sum of clockwise moments (P x 6m) + (IN x 2m) sum of anti-clockwise moments (2N x 2m) + (SNx 4m) ee) 6P+2 4+ 20 oP 24-2 6P 22 2 P oo= 22% — 32N (3.667) Y, 3 (6.667) Example 2 A uniform bar AB (figure 16), 7m long has forces of: 25N at a point 0.5m from A 12N at a point 3.0m from A and 12N at a point 1.0m from B, applied to it. Find the position of the pivot which will allow the beam to balance, ie be ina state of equilibrium {ignore the mass of the beam). 5 Fig. 16 BEAM BALANCE - PIVOT LOCATION Let the pivot be positioned on the beam at a distance x from end A. From equilibrium of translation, we know that the reaction force at the pivot must equal the sum of the downward forces, ie 49N. Taking moments about A for equilibrium of rotation Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments (25N x 0.5m) + (12N x 3.0m) + (12N x 6m) = 49N x x 12.5 + 36 +72 49x 1205 = 49x x = 1205 = 246m -16-The solution is as shown below. 25N 12N 12N | 4 Fig. 17 BEAM BALANCE ~ SOLUTION As the last example shows, the point chosen about which the moments are taken, can be any point on the beam, provided that the beam is in equilibrium. In the next example, the weight of the beam is to be taken into consideration. Of course each part of the beam has its own mass and weight, but there is a point where all the mass or weight appears concentrated. This point, the half- way point on a uniform beam, is known as it's ‘centre of gravity’ (C of G). It is the point, at which, if supported by a single support, the beam on its own would balance. 7 Example 3 A uniform beam AB, 4m long and 200N weight, has forces of 120N and 20N applied respectively to its ends A and B. Find the point about which the beam will balance. (Reaction force obtained A Aremine nisin of te 34oN total downward forces), Fig. 18 BEAM BALANCE ~ MASS & FORCES PIVOT LOCATION ‘The weight of the beam alone would act at a point 2m from either A or Bie, the mid-position and its centre of gravity. Let the balance point be at a distance x from end A. Taking moments about point A for equilibrium of rotation: -17-Sum of clockwise moments Sum of anti-clockwise moments (200N x 2m)+(20Nx4m) = — (340Nxa 400 + 80 | 340x 480 - 2. 41 = 340 att A Couple In some situations, for example the winding up of a clockwork mechanism, the forces that are applied to the winding key are equal in magnitude, but opposite in sense. Va ~ APPLIED FORCE P Pivot a cP ouneael APPLIEO FORCE P Fig. 19 COUPLE PRODUCING A TORQUE In this case the resultant force on the pivot is zero and there is only pure rotation present with no tendency for the pivot to move sideways. The value of the resultant moment (P x d) produces rotation. Such an arrangement of forces is called a ‘COUPLE’ and the resultant moment of a couple is called a TORQUE. SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES All quantities may be described as being either ‘scalar’ or ‘vector’. A scalar quantity has magnitude only and nothing else is required in defining it. As such, it may be represented by the length of a straight line drawn to some scale. Examples of scalar quantities include, time, mass, temperature and speed. -18-Thus a time interval of 20 seconds may be represented as: 0 20 (ESE DSS See ee ETE See Scere ey Using a scale of Icm = 2 seconds, and a temperature of 60°C may be represented as: orc 20°C using a scale of lem = 10°C, A vector quantity on the other hand, not only possesses magnitude but also direction and sense. Examples of vector quantities include, force, velocity and acceleration. The force of SN applied to a body as shown in figure 20 is a vector quantity. It is a straight line, the length of which represents magnitude, drawn at an angle, representing direction and including an arrow showing how it is-applied, ie it’s sense - up or down. FORCE SN (MAGNITUDE) DIRECTION (Angle to some datum) tom=4N) ARROW (Sense) Fig. 20 SPACE DIAGRAM SHOWING A VECTOR QUANTITY Vector quantities have the advantage over scalar quantities in that they can be added graphically, resulting in solutions to various problems. Consider now a situation in which two forces are applied to a body, as shown in figure 21. The question is: In which direction does the body move and with what force? -19-42N 20N Fig. 21 VECTOR QUANTITIES - SPACE DIAGRAM It is unimportant as to which force is the first to be drawn as a vector, but which ever one is chosen, the next vector must be added to it ie, the second vector starts where the first ends. Using a scale of lom = 2N and starting with the 20N force drawn in the correct direction (horizontal) and 10cm long. Draw the next vector vertically from the end of the first 6em'long (figure 22). END POINT RESULTANT (23.3N), 12N START POINT 20N Fig. 22 VECTOR DIAGRAM A line joining the start of the first vector to the end point of the last vector represents the resuit of the combine forces acting on the body. It’s magnitude, using the drawing scale, is found from its length and its direction found by using a protractor and measuring the angle it makes with the horizontal. The RESULTANT is the name given to this vector and it represents the single force that replaces the original force system and yet has the same effect on the body. -20-Thus: ‘aN 23. at 20N ‘The two forces can by a single force: Fig. 23 SINGLE FORCE REPLACEMENT A single force that can hold the original system of forces in equilibrium is known as the EQUILIBRANT. It is equal in magnitude to the resultant but it is opposite in sense, as shown below in figure 24. Thus to hold the original force arrangement in equilibrium, the equilibrant is required as shown in figure 25. END POINT EQUILIBRANT (23.3N) START POINT 20N Fig. 24 VECTOR DIAGRAM WITH EQUILIBRANT ran 20N ar '23,3N Fig. 25 EQUILIBRANT -21-It is worth noting that, as shown above, for a system under the action of three co-planar forces to be in a state of equilibrium, then those forces must pass through a common point (ie, the forces must be con-current}, and when represented as vectors and drawn in order, they must form a closed triangle. This is known as the ‘triangle of forces’ (co-planar means on the same plane). Using vector addition systems with more than three forces can be solved in a similar way. Consider the forces acting on the body shown in figure 26. Which way is the body likely to move? In other words what is the resultant? 2 108, ' Bopy |» sx an | aN SPACE DIAGRAM RESULTANT (9N) VECTOR DIAGRAM / SCALE tom = 1N Fig. 26 RESOLUTION OF THE FORCES ACTING ON A BODY USING VECTORS You can start with any force, but in the vector diagram above the vertical 2N force is used as the start. It is drawn accurately to scale vertically, then the next force (SN) is taken and drawn horizontally, then the 3N force is drawn to scale at the correct angle, then the 2N force and finally the 10N force. From the beginning of the vector diagram to where the 10N force finishes is the resultant. This represents the direction and the magnitude of the force that could replace all the others with the same result. -22-Note that a vector component at 90° to its original is sometimes referred to as the quadrature component. CENTRE OF GRAVITY The centre of gravity (C of G) is defined as the point where all the mass of a body appears to be concentrated. In a gravitational field this is also the point where all the weight appears to act, no matter what attitude the body is in. ‘The word ‘appears’ is important since with some hollow shapes the centre of gravity occurs in space (with a horse-shoe for example the C of G is in the space between the two sides of the shoe). cor. coreat AT CENTRE CENTRE OF SPHERE OF PRISM —?@ iN SPHERE RECTANGULAR PRISM Gof 6 ON CENTRE LINE ONE QUARTER. C of 6 ON CENTRE A (OF PERPENDICULAR HEIGHT FROM BASE LINE AT HALF LENGTH CYLINDER | | CONE i | I Fig. 27 LOCATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY FOR SOME COMMON SHAPES ‘The centre of gravity should not be confused with the centre of area which is known as a CENTROID. For a body to posses a centre of gravity it must have a volume ie, it must be three dimensional. An area is only two-dimensional and as such cannot posses mass, Figure 27 shows some examples giving the location of the centre of gravity within the body of common shapes. For comparison, figure 28 shows the location of the centroid of some common shapes. -23-> RECTANGLE 0.5L ‘cIRCLE ANNULUS TRIANGLE Fig. 28 CENTROIDS OF SOME COMMON SHAPES. The location of the centre of gravity of an aircraft is of particular importance, and is obtained by using moments, as can be seen in the following example. An aircraft has a total downward action of 70KN (mass of 7135.6kg). Its’ nose wheel is positioned 3m in front of the main wheels. Determine the position of its C of G from the nose wheel if the load on the main wheels is 60KN. Figure 29 shows a simplified side view of the aircraft with only one main wheel showing as the other is immediately behind it in the drawing. NOSE WHEEL 60kN Fig. 29 AIRCRAFT C of G ON THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS. -24-Let the C of G be x metres from the nose wheel centre line along the aircraft’s longitudinal axis. As the centre of gravity is a balancing point we can consider the aircraft as a simple beam supported at this position. An upward reaction equal to its total mass would be necessary to provide equilibrium of translation at the C of G position. ‘Thus for equilibrium of rotation, taking moments about the nose wheel: Sum of Clockwise moments 4 Sum of anticlockwise moments 60kN x 3m TOKN x x 180 x 70 2.57m In this example the centre of gravity was found along the longitiidinval axis. However, its location within the body of the aircraft would require additional moments to be taken along its lateral axis as well as its vertical axis. In other words the actual centre of gravity requires three planes to be considered, the longitudinal, lateral and vertical. In reality the longitudinal is the one that is calculated when weighing an aircraft with a tolerance allowed for the lateral position (taken as a difference between the weight recordings of the port (left) and starboard (right) weighing* devices]. It is rare for the vertical position to be considered by the aircraft maintenance engineer. * Weighing devices are placed at the nose of the aircraft and at each main wheel positions. The aircraft may be towed onto each unit with the wheels resting on low level flat steel weighing platforms. Alternatively the aircraft may be jacked clear of the ground with a weighing unit fitted to the top of each jack. ‘The total mass of the aircraft is found by adding each value of the 3 weighing units. QUESTION Define the terms longitudinal, lateral and vertical axes (5 mins). ANSWER: These are all straight imaginary lines running through the aircraft's C of G all at right angles to each other. The longitudinal one runs from nose to tail, the lateral one runs from wing tip to wing tip (or parallel to a line running from wing tip to wing tip), and the vertical line runs vertically through the other two. Aircraft weighing is dealt with in more detail in other books in the LBP series. -25-DENSITY Density is defined as “the mass per unit volume” and is the amount of matter that can be ‘packed’ into a specified volume. The more matter than can be ‘packed in’, the greater the density. Density is given the symbol ‘p’ (rho) mass kg anddensityp = = volume m> Some typical values are given in the following table. MATERIAL: DENSITY Aluminium 2700 kg/m? Steel 7870 kg/m? ‘Tungsten 19300 kg/m? PELE Mereury 13600 kg/m? Water 1000 kg/m? Air 1,225 kg/m? at 15°C | and pressure 101.3KN/m? at sea level. TABLE 3 MATERIAL DENSITIES ~— The density of a given body is not a fixed quantity and will change with any change in volume of the body resulting from a temperature change. The density of gases are particularly susceptible to change either as a result of pressure changes and/or termperature changes. In general we are looking for high density materials for such things as mass balance weights in flying control surfaces etc. Depleted uranium (density 19,000 kg/m®) was used for this purpose until safety fears made it unacceptable, but steel, tungsten, lead and titanium are still used. Low density materials are used for cores of composite sandwich construction such as micro-balloons, aluminium or composite honey comb etc (density under 100 kg/m’), -26-STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Whenever a force is applied to a solid, deformation takes place. Sometimes this deformation is permanent as in the case when bending locking wire. Sometimes the deformation is temporary and on removal of the force the solid returns to its original shape eg, when the deflection force is removed from a spring. When the deformation of the material is temporary the material is said to be elastic and the response of the material is said to be an elastic response. ‘The response of a material to the application of a force depends on the size and direction of the force and the period of time during which it acts, the type of material and the area on which the force acts. The material attempts to neutralise the applied force by exerting an opposing force or reaction, If the applied force exceeds the reaction, the material breaks. With most materials if the applied force is small, then when it is removed the material behaves elastically. If the force is greater than a certain amount then the material will change shape permanently. When a material changes shape either elastically or permanently it is said to STRAIN. Tension Ifa force tends to stretch the material the force is called a tensile force and the material is said to be in tension eg, parachute cords, a spring balance, lifting cable, a towing arm, flying control cables etc. Structures that are designed to take tensile loads are called TIES and are usually of small cross-section. Compression Ifa force tends to compress or squeeze a material the force is called a compressive force, eg the legs of a chair, bridge supports, also landing gear legs when the aircraft is on the ground. Structures that are designed to withstand compression are called STRUTS and are usually of larger cross-section. Shear A material is said to be in shear if the forces applied to it tend to slide one face of the material over an adjacent face, eg paper failing in shear when cut by scissors, rivet holding an assembly together (figure 24). -27-RIVET PLATES RIVETED Fae! TOGETHER FORCE RIVET SHANK IN SHEAR Fig. 30 SHEAR STRESS IN A RIVET In an aircraft structure (as in all structures) it is rare for any one part to have a pure compressive load or a pure tensile load - the classic case for a pure tensile load is a cable (or a piece of string). So most load bearing members are subjected to a combination of tensile, compressive and shear forces. When subjected to all these forces the structure is called a BEAM. A good example of a beam is the main spar of the wing of an aircraft. COMPRESSIVE STRESS FUSELAGE NAINPLANE, ‘TENSILE STRESS SHEAR STRESS rt Fig. 31 BENDING FORCE ON A BEAM Figure 31 shows the front view of an aircraft mainplane. Its main structural member is the front spar (main spar).It is said to be a CANTILEVER BEAM if it is attached at one end only. Most aircraft wings are attached at the fuselage end only, but some wings on some small aircraft do have an additional support strut from the fuselage to the wing which means they are not cantilever. With the aircraft in the air the lift force will bend the wing upwards (for large aircraft several feet] putting a compressive force on the top surface, a tensile force on the bottom surface and a shear force in the middle. When on the ground, with the main landing gear near or in the fuselage, the compressive and tensile forces will be reversed. -28-Stress Siress is defined as force per unit area - in the imperial system lbs force per square inch (psi), in the SI system it is the Pascal (Pa)*, A Pascal is defined is 1 Newton per square meter (N/m). So 1Pa = 1N/m?. The Pa is a small unit and often quoted as kPa or MPa, * Named after Blaise Pascal French mathematician 1623 - 1662. It is important to note that the unit of stress is the same as the unit of pressure. When a force is applied to a material the material is said to be in a state of stress. The intensity of this stress will depend on the magnitude and direction of the applied force and the cross-sectional area of the material withstanding the force ight angles For direct tensile or compressive stressés this area is measured to the direction of the force. : : For sheer stress the area will be of the adjacent faces which the shear force is tending to slide one over the other. i applied force (or load) Thus stress= “Een cross sectional area of material units = N/m? = Pascals - Strain When a body is under stress distortion of its shape occurs and this distortion is called Strain. For a material under tensile or compressive stress the strain is measured by the ratio: change in length Strain it original length (This is a dimensionless quantity) In the case of shear strain it is not only a change in length that is considered. Shear stress tends ta make one face of the material slide over an adjacent face as shown in figure 32. x 7 a The shear strain is measured by the ratio , Where x is the relative movement between the top and bottom layers and L is the perpendicular distance between these surfaces. ~29-= LAYERS OR PLATES Fig. 32 SHEAR STRAIN Hooke’s Law During loading many materials initially behave as if they are elastic, but become plastic (acquire a permanent deformation) as the load increases. The connection between load and extension was first made by Robert Hooke English physicist 1635 - 1703. His law states that ‘the extension produced by an elastic material is directly proportional to the load which produces it’. ‘This relationship, if represented graphically, produces a straight line graph up to a certain point, known as ‘the Limit of Proportionality’, after this the change in shape is no longer proportional to the load and the graph starts to curve as show in figure 33. 7 UUTMATE STRENGTH METAL FAILS Eee POSITION OF ELASTIC LiMiT Loa VARIES WITH uni oF DIFFERENT METALS PROPORTIONALITY EXTENSION Fig. 33 GRAPH OF LOAD AGAINST EXTENSION The point at which the material ceases to be elastic is known as the ‘Elastic Limit’. Its position varies with the material under test. With some materials it coincides with the ‘Limit of Proportionality’, but with others it occurs on the curved and non-proportional part of the graph. -30-Wherever the elastic limit occurs, if it is exceeded then the material will never return to its original length, it will have acquired a permanent set. If stress is plotted against strain, then the shape of the graph will initially follow that of the load-extension graph. Up to the limit of proportionality stress « strain («x means is proportional to) ‘Thus Ste8S 6 constant (B) strain This constant ‘E’ is known as ‘Young's Modulus of Elasticity’, and has the same units as stress ie, Pascals (N/m?) It is a constant for a particular material. The table below shows some typical values. MATERIAL E (GN/m?) — Aluminium 70 a Mild Steel 200 Cast Iron 120 — Tungsten 410 : TABLE 4 YOUNG'S MODULAS FOR SOME MATERIALS QUESTION A tie rod of rectangular cross-section, 60mm x 10mm and carries a tensile load of 30KN, Calculate the tensile stress in N/mm?. (10 mins) Load __30.x10°N Area ANSWER (o = tensile stress) x 19mm? = 50 N/mm? QUESTION What diameter of circular bar is required to carry a load (f) of 38.5 KN if the stress is 40N/mm?? Load f rea Tid “4 ANSWER: _4x38.5x10° 4 Tixd? -31-or d= f4%385x10 40x 10° xa d=35mm FLUIDS AND GASES PRESSURE Pressure in engineering and scientific terms is defined as force per unit area, and as a formula: Force Pressure = Ore = N/m? Area In iaperial units it is Ibs per square inch (psi) - used commonly on aircraft, and in the SI system it is N/m? - the Pascal (Pa). It is interesting to note that there is 6894 Pa to Ipsi. A typical tyre pressure for a car would be 30psi ~ in SI units it would be 206,820 Pa (206.82kPa), So the Pa is not very big is it? You will note that pressure has the same units as those for stress, namely the Pascal (or psi). However, it is likely that you will also come across another unit of pressure - the bar. / The following conversions are useful as most calculations, in science anyway, are carried out in Pa. 1 Pascal 1 N/m? and i bar 105 N/m? Pressure in fluids is of particular importance. Both liquids and gases are considered as fluids and as previously stated, a fluid has the ability to flow and occupy any shape. Whether in a liquid or gaseous state, certain properties are attributed to fluids and these are: fi) The pressure exerted at a point within a fluid is the same in all directions. -32-(ii) The pressure exerted by a fluid is at right angles to the surface in which it is in contact (figure 34). (i) For all practical purposes the pressure is felt throughout the fluid without loss, (vi) The force (F) exerted by a fiuid is calculated as the pressure (P) times the area (A) (F = Px A), Items (}) to (iii) above are often referred to as Pascal’s Law. Pressure acts at right angles toall surfaces, PRESSURE VESSEL, Fig. 34 FLUID PROPERTIES e t SMALL FORCE LARGE FORCE F 4 PISTON SEALS. smal movement Large movement CYLINDER | | _Equat pressure & same —~ volume displacement in each cylinder, SMALL PISTON ‘x! LARGE PISTON 'y’ Fig. 35 BRAMAH’S PRESS Practical arrangements that use the transmission of fluid pressure for their operation often involve linked cylinders as shown in figure 35. Joseph Bramah English inventor invented the press in 1796. -33-It consists of two cylinders connected together by a pipe. Each cylinder has a close fitting piston (which in 1797 was extremely difficult to manufacture) that provides a leak proof piston and cylinder arrangement. The system is filled with a liquid which is considered as incompressible. In actual fact it is not, but for practical purposes it is considered to be incompressible, it is only at very high pressures that liquids compresses and behave like a gas. As the piston in cylinder ‘x is moved in, the fluid is pressurised to pressure (P = f/a, where P = pressure, f= force and a = area of small piston). This pressure is felt throughout the fluid so that cylinder ‘y’ experiences the same pressure. However, since the area (A) of the piston in cylinder ‘y’ is larger than that of the piston in cylinder ‘x, the force F exerted by piston ‘y’ is larger than the applied force at cylinder ‘A’ (F = P x A, where F = force of large piston, P= pressure and A = area of large piston). - It is this principle that is used with hydraulic lifting jacks. As the liquid is assumed to be incompressible, then the volume displaced from cylinder “x? is the same volume moved to cylinder “y’. So volume 1 x a= volume Lx A, where | = amount of movement of small piston and a is the area and L = the amount of movement of the large piston and A is the area. The result is a smaller movement of piston “y’ as compared to piston movement “x” (A being large so L must be small). The important thing to remember is that the pressure is the same throughout the system and the volume displaced from one cylinder is the same put into the other. Aircraft make extensive use of hydraulic systems where the principles discussed above are put to use. Pressure Due to Depth Pressure is also related to the depth of the fluid. This is evident when considering the depth of the atmosphere which creates a pressure of approximately 101.3 kN/m? (1013.2 mb, or 14.7 psi) at sea level, and as altitude increases so the pressure reduces. In liquids the pressure created due to depth, is more obvious. When a diver descends in the water so the pressure builds up quickly the deeper he/she gets. This is a problem for submarines as they have to withstand considerable pressures and all have a limit on how far they can descend ~ otherwise the pressure of the water would crush them. -34-Many pressure measuring instruments make use of the fact that the air exerts pressure due to the height of the column air above it. The mercury (Hg) in glass barometer being a good example. This instrument consists, basically, of a glass tube 1m long, and sealed at one end. By completely immersing it in a bath of mercury all the air is expelled. When held upright, but keeping the open end in the mercury bath, it is seen that the mercury will fall a little from the sealed top end leaving a ‘vacuum’. The column left in the tube is supported by the air pressure acting on the surface of the mercury in the bath (figure 36). ‘The rise and fall of the mercury column, as the air pressure changes, provides a direct relationship and allows accurate readings of atmospheric pressure which helps in weather forecasting. Low atmospheric pressure usually indicates wet or stormy weather and high pressure, fine weather (cold in the winter - warm in the summer) The standard atmospheric pressure at sea level is 29.9in Hg anid many Pitot static instruments are calibrated using this standard os The formula for calculating pressure due to depth is pgh (N/m?) where ¢ = density of the fluid (kg/m*) pee § = gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)__ and _h = height or depth of liquid (m) Example 1, Given that the density of mercury is 13600kg/m® calculate the height of a mercury column supported in the barometer when the air pressure is 101.3 kN/m? (1,013 bars}. vacuum ou 7] ASS TUBE eRcuRY ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ‘CONTAINER Fig. 36 MERCURY BAROMETER -35-PRESSURE pgh Pressure pe 101.3 x 10°N/m? 13600 x 9.81 h = = 0.759m = 75.9em The pressure measured from an absolute vacuum is known as ‘ABSOLUTE PRESSURE’ whereas all other pressures are called ‘GAUGE PRESSURES’. For example, taking a car tyre pressure reading might give a value of 30psi - that’s the reading on the gauge. But the tyre is in an atmospheric pressure of 14.7psi, so its pressure in relation to a vacuum is 30 + 14.7= 44.7psi. A reading of gauge pressure may be converted into one of absolute pressure by simply adding the atmospheric pressure, ie ABSOLUTE PRESSURE = GAUGE PRESSURE + ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Another simple instrument that uses height of a liquid to determine pressure is the Piezometer. This is a tube inserted into the container carrying the liquid under pressure. Liquid will rise up the tube until the pressure due to its height equals the pressure in the pipe so the height of the liquid column is an indication of the pressure in the vessel. — = PIEZONETER TUBE uauID PIPELINE Fig. 37 PIELOMETER TUBE Such a piezometer has restrictions in that it can only be used for liquids and for liquids of low density the height of the piezometer tube can also be very long. - 36-Example 2. To what height would water rise in a piezometer tube if the gauge pressure in the pipe was 19.62kN/m?? (Density of water = 1000kg/m*) Pigauge| = pgh . ae PE - 19.62x10* 1000x9.81 = 2m ‘The use of a U-tube can overcome the problems associated with the simple piezometer. Figure 38 shows a U-tube attached to a pipe carrying fluid under pressure The U-tube contains a liquid which will not react with the gas or liquid in the pipe. The pressure of the fluid in the pipe forces the liquid around the U-tube, until the height ‘h’ produces a pressure which equates with the pressure in the pipe, ie the pressure at ‘x’ is the same in both branches of the U-tube. PIPE FULL OF Gas. OR LiauIo Fig. 38 MANOMETER For a gas the pressure at ‘x’ is considered to be the pressure used to measure the pressure of a liquid in the pipe, a correction should be made for the pressure of the liquid column occupying the left hand branch, from ‘*’ to the pipe centre. -37-BUOYANCY If a body is placed in water it will either sink or float, but whatever it does, it will experience an up-thrust equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. This is known as Archimedes’s Principle (Archimedes Greek mathematician 287- 212be). With a sinking body the weight of the body is greater than the up-thrust exerted on it, but with a floating body the up-thrust is equal to its weight. The resultant force on the body, in this case, is therefore zero, This is the ‘principle of floatation’, which sates that a floating body displaces its own weight of fluid 4 up-rurusr up-tHRUST FLUID weiokt —~ ’ : WEIGHT UP-TARUST EQUAL TO OR GREATER ‘THAN WEIGHT - BODY FLOATS. WEIGHT GREATER THAN 1 UP-THRUST - BODY SINKS. Fig. 39 FLUID DISPLACEMENT This is statement is true when applied, not only to bodies in liquids, but also to bodies in air. A balloon, for example, in flight displaces its own volume of air and experiences and up-thrust equal to the weight of the air displaced. If it can reduce its own mass ~ by reducing the density of the air inside the balloon and hence reducing its mass ~ then the balloon will rise. A value known as ‘relative density’ or ‘specific gravity’ is often used when making comparisons between the density of a substance and the density of water. As a formula’ density of substance Relative Density = = density of water (density of pure water is 1000kg/m) - 38 -An instrument which makes use of Archimedes Principle and which provides a direct reading of relative density of liquids is the hydrometer. This instrument is shown below in figure 40. It consists of a weighted tube calibrated such as to give a direct reading. It floats upright with the immersed volume representing the volume of liquid having an equal mass to that of the hydrometer. The greater the density of the liquid, the smaller is the volume displaced, and the hydrometer will ride high. With low density liquid a larger volume has to be displaced and the hydrometer will sit lower in the liquid. ‘GRADUATIONS LIQUID LEVEL SEALED GLASS CONTAINER Fig. 40 HYDROMETER -39-Book 2 Module 2 Peso Memeo annem PHYSICS MOTION VIBRATION POWER ENERGY GYROSCOPES Licence By Post "The daples a tie ah ngs Not sae rsa children, Care when handling. Licence By Post © copyright ALL EASA 66 2.2.2 2.2.3 ISSUE 7 64CONTENTS Linear motion Acceleration Free falling bodies Rotational movement Centripetal force Periodic motion Vibration Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage Dynamics Power Energy Newton's laws of motion Gyroscopic principlesHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK ‘The same applies to this book as to book 1 in the (physics) series. That is to say, it is written for the category B technician and he/she should study the subjects such as to have a thorough knowledge to the level stated in the syllabus (mostly level 2 for the B1 person and level 1 for the B2 person - except for gyros and momentum etc which is all to level 2). For the A line mechanic the subjects should be studied to level 1. Details of scientists/inventors are included for interest only and need not be committed to memory.KINEMATICS (The study of motion) LINEAR MOTION This is motion in a straight line and it is important to understand the difference between speed and velocity. These have already been stated respectively as being scalar and vector quantities. Consider a body (figure 1), moving from A to B (distance in metres) in a time ” (seconds). DISPLACEMENT (x) ,7" DISTANCE ‘TRAVELLED (3) Fig. 1 LINEAR MOTION Average speed is defined as the distance travelled by a body along the path of its motion divided by the time taken. Thus if the curved path AB is denoted by ‘s’ and the time taken is ‘t’. distance travelled then average speed = coe ‘time taken s = m/s zm If the distance travelled is the same in successive intervals of time then the speed is said to be constant. Speed, as a scalar quantity possesses magnitude only, velocity however being a vector quantity possesses both magnitude and direction. In figure 1, although the distance travelled by the body is ‘s’ along the curved path from A to B, the displacement is a straight line from A to B. If ‘x is the displacement, then since average velocity is defined as the displacement divided by the time taken. displacement Average velocity = oe ime x/t m/s Its direction is along AB and its sense is from A to B. oatThe following examples should reinforce the difference between speed and velocity. Example 1. A helicopter leaving point ‘A’ travels due east, a distance of 18km. It then makes a 90° turn and continues its journey due north to point B, a further 40km. The whole journey from A to B taking 15 minutes. Determine (a) The average speed for the whole journey. (b) The average velocity. DISPLACEMENT, 40k a ae aa VECTOR DIAGRAM = total distance covered d WTTages ores ~~ total time taken = 58x10? m 15x60 js (b) average velocity = {oteldisplacement 8 y “total time taken 40? +18? using Pythagoras theorem = ¥1600 +324 = 43.86km Total displacement AB 43,86 x10? m Average velocity = 7S = 48.7 m/s opposite and since TAN 6 adjacent40 18 = 2,22 then @ = 65.8° average velocity = 48.7 m/s acting from A to B at 65.8° N of E. Note. The compass reading on the aircraft (and hence the aircraft heading) would be read as 65.8 degrees. Travelling due east the heading would be 90°, travelling due south it would be 180° and travelling due west it would be 270°. When a body moves in a straight line then the calculation of speed and velocity will be the same. Example 2. An aircraft travels from one DME marker to another, a distance of 88km (about 50 miles) in 15 minutes. (DME ~ Distance Measuring Equipment, a ground based radio navigation aid.) \ \ i i total distance covered | | Average speed = abe total time taken = 88x10 7g ; 15x60” | =. SL.Tm/s (about 218 mph) In this example the displacement would be the same as the distance covered and so the magnitude of the average velocity would also be 97.7 m/s. However, for it to qualify as a vector quantity the direction (from A to B) must also be stated. ACCELERATION Acceleration is defined as ‘the rate of change of velocity’ or ‘the change of velocity in unit time’, In terms of a formula, acceleration (a) change of velocity time ifu = initial velocity in m/s andv= final velocity in m/s v-u then acceleration = rolethe units would be 2/8 (ie metres per second per second). 3 : m a Can be written as = or m/s? or ms? (metres per second squared). s Ifa body is slowing down, or decelerating, the value of v will be less than u, resulting in a negative value of acceleration. The following equations relate to acceleration, velocity ete: yeu From at=v-u or _ Equation 1 The second equation is derived from the graphical representation of » acceleration, often referred to as a velocity-time diagram. For a body | accelerating uniformly, the velocity-time diagram would be as shown in figure 2. VELOCITY (mis) A UNIFORM ACCELERATION, ‘TIME (secs) Fig. 2: VELOCITY-TIME DIAGRAM The shaded area is that of a trapezium whose area is calculated from the equation: % (sum of parallel sides) x perpendicular distance between them = Av + ultConsidering the units, we have ™ xs. As the ‘s’ on the top line cancels with 8 the ‘s’ on the bottom line, it leaves ‘m’ the units of distance. That is, the shaded area represents the distance travelled during the acceleration. The symbol given to distance is ‘s’. Do not confuse this with the abbreviation for seconds. Equation 2 ‘The third equation is obtained by substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2. ie s = '4l(utat) + ult s= %[2u + at}t +%at? : Equation 3 ‘The fourth and final equation of this set is obtained by re- arranging Equation 1 and Equation 2 and then multiplying them together. ty ie from Equation 1 v-u=at_ 2s and from Equation 2v+u= So eultvna) = 78at vou2= Equation 4 Example, A large aircraft has a take-off velocity of 59m/s (about 132 mph). It starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 30 seconds before becoming airborne (a) What is the value of the acceleration in m/s?? (b) What take-off distance is required? fa) u-0 v= 59 m/s t = 30 seconds aa? using v= u + at_ 59-0 30 = 1.97 m/s? (b] using s = %(u + vjt ‘(0 + 59)30 885m FREE FALLING BODIES Between all masses there is a natural force of attraction. This force depends mainly on the size of the two masses involved and their distance apart (called Newton’s universal law of gravitation. Sir Isaac Newton English physicist 1642 ~ 1727). When one of the masses is the Earth, then its large mass produces a large force of attraction between it and other masses on or near ité surface. This force, known as a ‘gravitational force’ will cause bodies, entering its sphere of influence, to accelerate towards the earth. A body falling freely from a great height will initially be accelerated but will gradually lose this acceleration until it falls with constant velocity, ie zero acceleration. This is known as the body's terminal velocity and depends, amongst other things, on air resistance (drag force). ‘The body will continue to accelerate will the force of attraction is greater than the drag force, but drag increases as the square of speed. When the drag force eventually reaches the same value as the force of gravity the body has reached its Terminal Velocity. For a streamline shape such as a bomb this is about 1000mph (1600km/h), for a human body it is about 100mph (160km/h). However, for most general calculations related to free falling bodies, air resistance is ignored and the body is considered as falling in a vacuum, where its acceleration is uniform having a value of 9.81 m/s®, ie an increase of velocity of 9.81m/s every second. Gravitational acceleration is given the symbol ‘g’. ‘The preceding equations 1 to 4 may be used to solve problems involving free falling bodies by substituting ‘g’ for ‘a’ in the previous equations. Example, An aircraft ejector seat is projected vertically upwards, rising freely, after the initial explosive charge has been fired. The initial velocity of the seat is 40m/s as it leaves the aircraft. Determine (a) The maximum height that the seat will reach. (b) The time taken to reach this height (ignore air resistance). -6-u=40m/s v=0 g = -9.81 (deceleration) _ (a) v? =u? + 2gs 0 = 402 + (2.x-9.81)s 2 - Oo - osm 2x9.81 (b) veutet 0=40-(.81)t t= a =-4.1 seconds ROTATIONAL MOVEMENT A linear distance is measured in metres i). However, when a body tioves in a circular path its angular distance is measured in ‘radians’. A radian is the angle produced when the radius of the circle ig drawn around its circumference. eee ey ARC. LENGTH (1) CIRCLE Fig. 3 THE RADIAN The number of radians in a circle is 2x radians (since x = 3.142 then there are just over 6 and each one is about 57°).Angular distance may be envisaged as ‘wedges’ and a body moving in a circular path would move through a number of these wedges. The number moved through would provide a measure of the angular distance the body had moved. In figure 4, a circle is divided into six to roughly represent its division into radians (rads). Consider the movement of two points ‘a’ and ‘b’, moving in a circular path from OX, to OY. Both will move through the same number of wedges and hence through the same number of radians, here, approximately 4. Fig. 4 THE CIRCLE WITH RADIANS ‘The symbol given to angular distance, is the Greek symbol 6 (theta). If the time taken to move through this angular distance is now considered, then this allows for the angular velocity ‘a’ (omega) to be calculated: rads 8 o= s1o Angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity and is given the symbol a (alpha). If @: = initial angular velocity (rad/s) and o2= final angular velocity (rad/s) 2-0; then a = tt rad/s? Again, as with linear motion, it is usefull to have a set of equations for solving problems of angular motion. The format of these is identical to those of linear motion, only the symbols have changed. o2 = 01 + at Equation 1@= Yar + oa}t Equation 2 = ost + Yat? Equation 3 or? - w? = 208 Equation 4 In figure 4, both points ‘a’ and ‘b’ cover the same angular distance, but the linear distance (arc length) of point ‘a’ is greater than that of b. Had they been moving together, perhaps as points on a circular disc or arm, then the time taken to move from OX to OY would have also been the same. It follows that although the angular velocity of points ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the same, the linear velocity of ‘a’ is greater than ’ since the linear distance covered is greater, but covered in the same time. The two velocities are therefore related by the radius such that: Linear velocity = angular velocity x radius v = er (m/) Linear acceleration = angular acceleration x radius a ar (m/s?) 4 Example. A propeller 3m in diameter rotates at 2,850rpm. Determine its angular velocity in rad/s and the linear speed of the propeller tip. 2850 rev/min = 2850 x = rad/s angular velocity o = 298.45 rad/s v = or = 298.45 x 1.5 = 447.68 m/s CENTRIPETAL FORCE Newton’s First Law states that ‘unless there is a resultant external force acting upon it, a body will move with constant speed in a straight line’. It follows that to cause a body to deviate from this straight line path and move in a circular one, that a force must be present.One only has to whirl something around on the end of a piece of string to understand the need for this force which at all times is directed towards the centre of rotation. To think of it another way ~ it is you holding onto the end of the string that keeps the body going round. Let it go and it will fly off in a straight line. This force in the piece of string is known as ‘centripetal force’ (figure 5), and may be calculated using either the linear velocity (v m/s) of the rotating body or its angular velocity (o rad/s). 2 ie centripetal force = — mo’ror a (Newtons) ‘em’ kg Mass CENTRIPETAL FORCE v mis Oradis CENTRE OF ROTATION Fig. 5 CENTRIPETAL FORCE Ignoring frictional and gravitational forces, the centripetal force is the only force acting on the rotating body. No outward force acts on the body... This is easily understood by releasing the string - the body moves in a straight line tangential to the circle at which it was rotating. It does not fly outward from the centre of rotation. om’ kg Mass CENTRIPETAL FORCE \ CENTRIFUGAL. a vimis FORCE CENTRE OF ROTATION Fig. 6 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE -10-Another force known as ‘centrifugal force’ is also present in the system but it does not act on the rotating mass. Instead it acts at the centre of rotation and acts in the opposite direction to centripetal force ~ ie outwards (see figure 6). 2 ro v Its magnitude is also equal to mor or ™Y— Newtons. r A centripetal force is required to make any object go round a bend. For a vehicle to go round a corner frictional force is required (usually from the front tyres). When the vehicle is steered from a straight line the front wheels turn towards the centre of the bend creating a frictional force in that direction. This causes the vehicle to go in a circular path. If there is no frictional force (as when driving on ice) the vehicle does not respond. For a flying aircraft the pilot cannot rely on this force. Instead he/she uses the most powerful force available for control of the aircraft. That is the lift force. On a large aircraft (A380 for example) this would be in the region of 300 tonnes (about 300 tons) or 2.9MN force. If the pilot banks the aircraft then the lift force is inclined to the vertical (as viewed from the front) and the horizontal component of this force (W TAN 6) is the centripetal force to bring the aircraft round the bend (figure 7). 7 \ “OLD'LIFT VECTOR = W "NEW' LIFT VECTOR ‘ANGLE OF BANK 8 (THETA) CENTRIPETAL FORCE = W TANS, (dependant on W & angle of bank) WEIGHT VECTOR (W) Fig. 7 CENTRIPETAL FORCE ON AN AIRCRAFT PERIODIC MOTION A body that moves to and fro, so that every part of its motion recurs regularly is said to have periodic motion. An example of this would be the movement of a piston along the cylinder of an internal combustion engine (figure 8). -li-‘CYLINDER Fig. 8 RECIPROCATING MOTION As the crank revolves with constant angular velocity (constant rpm), the piston moves backwards and forwards along the cylinder. Its linear velocity, through one complete revolution of the crank varies from zero at both bottom (BDC) and top dead centre (TDC) (both ends of the cylinder), to a maximum at the mid- point of its travel, ie the linear velocity is continuously changing, it is never constant. The acceleration of the piston also changes continually throughout the stroke. At the extremes of travel, ie at BDC and-TDC, the acceleration is a maximum, that is when the velocity is zero. At mid travel the acceleration is zero, ie when the velocity is at a maximum. : Simple Harmonic Motion ‘The periodic reciprocating motion of the piston is complex but if the connecting rod is long when compared to the crank, then it approximates to a simpler, but important motion known as Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM). | SHM is defined by two conditions: 1. The acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point in the path of the object. 2. The acceleration is proportional to its distance from that point. Other systems which approximate to SHM include a vertically oscillating mass at the end of a spring and the simple pendulum. The pendulum arrangement is one with which we are all familiar with. It consists of a body of mass ‘m’ attached to the end of a light cord of length ‘. The cord is supported at a point Q (figure 9). By displacing the mass a small amount and allowing it to swing to and fro, the motion approximates to SHM. In figure 9 the vertical projection of point P onto line AB, as it revolves in a circular path, satisfies both the required conditions of SHM, ie its acceleration is always directed to point O, and the acceleration is proportional to the displacement x, being zero at O and a maximum at both A and B. -12-This provides true SHM, and it can be seen that the movement of the pendulum approximates to the movement of point P as it moves across the diameter AB. VIBRATION Vibration is the rapid to and fro motion in a fluid or elastic solid whose equilibrium has been disturbed from its original position of rest by some forcing function. Vibrating particles have motion and therefore possess kinetic energy - the energy of motion. Aircraft structures (which have mass and elastic properties) are capable of vibration in response to dynamic inputs from rotating masses such as engines and other inputs such as aerodynamic loads. If this motion repeats itself after a given interval of time then vibration is present in the arrangement. On aircraft, vibration can come from many sources includiny engines to give the flight crew indications of engine vibration levels. It is kept to a minimum by dynamic balancing of propellers and * The engines - piston or jet. Vibration monitors may be fitted to jet rotating parts of the engine. | -13-Anti-vibration mountings are fitted to most piston engines and also to sensitive equipment fitted to the aircraft such as instrument panels etc. Aircraft wheels. These are balanced before fitment. In sever cases can cause structural damage. Nose and tail wheels are susceptible to this. When it occurs it is called Shimmy. Aerodynamic loads. The airframe/flying controls are buffeted by the air as it flows passed. This can set up a vibration known as Flutter, which in its most severe form can destroy the aircraft in seconds. Static balancing (mass balancing} of the control surfaces and correct airframe design can help reduce this. On helicopters the rotor head and blades (as well as the tail rotor) are a source of vibration, which require monitoring and certain maintenance practices to keep to an acceptable level. Vibration monitoring equipment is fitted to many engines and some helicopters, The wave form signal produced from the transducers is put through band filters (electronic) to filter out the various frequencies so that indications are provided to the pilot of which rotating mass is vibrating. Vibration is usually considered to be a form of wasted energy and is generally to be avoided. This is particularly true in engines, rotating assemblies and structures where noise, which is the result of irregular vibrations may cause components to fail as well as transmitting unwanted forces. Usually associated with vibration is thé term ‘frequency’. Frequency is the number of complete vibrations or cycles that occur in one second. Frequency is given the unit of Hertz, (German physicist Heinrich Hertz 1857 - 1894). One cycle per second is equal to one Hertz (Hz). To reduce vibration to an acceptable level, rotating components can be both statically and dynamically balanced. To reduce vibration in non-rotating systems such as structures some form of damping is used. Damping may come from friction damping or inertia loading, Friction is, of course, present in all moving systems (flying control systems, engines etc), and this will cause a damping force for vibration, gradually slowing down the vibration causing it to stop eventually - provided the friction is high enough. Some parts of the structure (and flying control surfaces) may be damped by the use of mass balance weights. Freely vibrating systems, considered as being without friction, vibrate with a frequency known as ‘the natural frequency’. This natural frequency is generally dependant on the mass of the vibrating item. -14-Systems that vibrate freely in air are generally considered to be un-damped unless they are particularly sensitive (as the air will cause resistance and damping). When friction is considered, then the frequency of vibration, is referred to as ‘damped natural frequency’. Harmonics As has been mentioned, any elastic structure, which is deformed and released, will vibrate about a mean position. If the frequencies of vibration are in the audible frequency range, between approximately 20 and 20,000 Hz, then a range of sounds will be produced - the slower vibrations producing low pitch sounds and higher vibrations high pitch sounds. This type of vibration is described as harmonic. A whole series of harmonics exists. The series is infinite, but starts with the fundamental frequency which is equivalent to plucking an open string on a musical string instrument. The harmonic series is a sequence of frequencies which is all whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency; the second harmonic being twice the frequency of the first, and so on. V\ Resonance This, in engineering terms, is a critical condition and a potential hazard. It occurs when the frequency of the exciting vibration (the forcing function that causes the vibration in the first place) coincides with the natural frequency of the item, often as a result of the damping forces being small. | If resonance occurs, the vibrations grow to catastrophically large values, resulting in the build up of excessive noise and extreme vibration. If uncorrected this may, in turn, lead to possible failure of the part often by fatigue. It is essential therefore that a knowledge of the natural frequencies of a system is known at the design stage. VELOCITY RATIO, MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE AND EFFICIENCY We all understand the meaning of work in the general sense, however in engineering, work is related to force and distance such that work is done when a force moves through a distance in the direction of the force. Work = force (N)_x distance (m) (in the direction of the force) The units of work are joules (J) (James Prescott Joule - English physicist 1818 = 1889). -15-The following section deals with the relationships that emanate from devices that help man to do work more easily. Such devices are called machines. One useful task that a machine is able to achieve is to move a large force by the application of a relatively small effort. This can be of great advantage and subsequently the relationship between load and effort is known as the Mechanical Advantage (MA) or Force Ratio. Mechanical Advantage = Load (or Force Ratio) Effort The greater the MA the greater is the load that can be moved by a given effort. For any particular machine this ratio will not be constant. This is partly because, except in an ideal machine (no friction), the effort required to overcome frictional forces varies with the magnitude of the load applied. For very small loads, the effort required to overcome friction may be greater than that required to move the load itself, whereas for large loads, the effort to overcome friction is a small percentage of the whole and may be ignored. Figure 10 shows a simple lever and the MA can be worked out by the ratio of the length of the lever from the pivot to the small force to the length of the lever from the pivot to the end lifting the heavy load (in this case about 4:1). Lever systems are used in many applications, good examples include tyre levers (removing tyres from a wheels) and formula 1 racing cars - when doing a wheel change ~ the whole of one end of the car is lifted by one person with a lever. What you should note from figure 10 is that the amount of movement of the input force is larger than the amount of movement of the load. ‘SMALL FORCE Fig. 10 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE, A high MA can only be obtained by designing a machine in such a way that the input displacement (movement) of the effort is much greater than the output displacement (movement) of the load. -16-The ratio of input movement to output movement is called the Velocity Ratio (VR) or ‘Movement Ratio’. In figure 10 the effort will move a long way compared to the movement of the load, but the load can be very heavy compared to the input effort. Velocity Ratio (VR) _ input distance moved or (Movement Ratio) output distance moved Since both movements occur in the same time this is also the ratio of the input and output velocities. The VR is governed by the physical form of the machine and for a specific machine remains constant for all loads. Any practical machine will have energy losses’, often occurring in the form of heat (friction for example). The energy that is ‘lost’ from the machine is ‘gained’ by the surroundings. As a result of this the work output from a machine will always be less than the work input. mm _ aN Comparing ‘work-in’ to ‘work-out’ gives the efficiency of the machine. | | _ Work output _/ / efficiency (n) Spor inate (the symbol n is pronounced eta) efficiency may be expressed as / Jt MA VR This must always be less than unity (1), or less that 100% expressed as a percentage, since energy will always be used to overcome friction and other losses. MA vn = MA x 100 Dive it Since the MA varies with loading, the efficiency will reflect this. -17-DYNAMICS For something to exist it is usual to assume that it possesses ‘mass’, Mass is defined as the amount of matter contained within a body. The basic unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram (kg) (about 2.2Ibs). When larger quantities are involved the mass may be quoted in terms of ‘tonnes’ ~ called the metric tonne. where 1 tonne = 1000kg Incidentally the imperial ton is similar to the metric tonne - it is only 40 Ibs ‘heavier’. The mass of a body, once stated, is considered to be constant no matter where it is located, or what state it is in. A mass of, say 5kg, on Earth will also have a mass of Skg in'space. If this Skg mass is a solid, it will also be Skg when melted to a liquid and if heated to a vapour state, will produce 5kg of vapour. Between all masses a force of attraction exists, this force is dependent on the size of masses involved and the distances their centres are apart. This force of attraction is known as ‘gravitational force’. When one of the masses is the Earth itself, then its large mass produces large gravitational forces between it and bodies near or on its surface. it is this force of attraction acting on these bodies that give them weight. Unlike the mass of the body, the weight of a body varies with any changes in distance between the centres of the bodies involved. As the earth is not truly spherical, being flatter at the poles, then the weight of a body varies around the Earth’s surface. Taken to the moon the weight of a body becomes approximately one-sixth of that experienced on Earth, due to the moons lesser mass and hence lower attractive force. To determine the weight of a body the following formula is used. Weight = Mass x gravitational acceleration (g) Units kgx 3 =N 5 On the Earth’s surface, gravitational acceleration ‘g’ is taken as 9.81m/s?. -18-QUESTION Terms have been used to describe “weight” such as weight, mass, and force. Describe the differences between these terms (10 mins). ANSWER Mass is the amount of substance within a body. Weight and force are units of measurement used to describe the force that that mass will exert. For example - take a 1kg bag of sugar - it has a mass of ikg. Place it on your hand and it will exert a force downwards of about 10N. Take the same bag of sugar to the moon, it will still have a mass of 1kg but the force it will exert on the hand will be about 2N Weighing machines are often designed around this force of attraction which produces an extension or compression of a spring (Hooke’s law). This, in turn, is calibrated to read the weight (or more correctly the mass) of the body being measured (figure 11). POINTER: mass i Fig. 11 MASS ATTACHED TO A SPRING BALANCE Attaching a mass of one unit to the spring balance will cause the spring to extend one unit of length. Doubling the mass will cause double the extension. By calibrating the spring balance using known masses the unit can be used to measure the mass of any object/s. -19-A balance scale (figure 12) compares an unknown mass to a known mass. In this arrangement ‘g’, the gravitational acceleration, acts on both masses and thus is not a consideration when determining ‘mass’. Kowa mass unknown Mass Q scaue Pan ewer Fig. 12 BALANCE SCALE Inertia - cB oe All bodies seek a state of equilibrium and are reluctant to change their present state of rest or uniform motion. A body moving with uniform velocity in a straight line, will only change from this state if a force is applied to it. Only the application of a force-will cause it to accelerate, decelerate or change direction. This reluctance to change its current state is called INERTIA. Inertia is dependent on the mass of the body, the larger the mass the greater the inertia, ie the more difficult it is to move when at rest or to stop when in motion. You will probably experience this effect during the take-off and landing of an aircraft, being respectively, pushed back into your seat when taking-off or ‘thrown forward’ when the aircraft brakes on landing, ACCELERATION DRAG (0) —_ ‘THRUST (7) Poet INERTIA FORCE (ma) ——— Fig. 13 TAKE-OFF On the take-off run the thrust of the engines must overcome the inertia of the aircraft. Initially the drag component will be small but as the aircraft gathers speed so the drag increases (increases with the square of speed). Equating these forces T = D + ma. -20-ACCELERATION —_——— BRAKES (8) jaittnncaLREnae REVERSE THRUST (Ta) — DRAG (0) — INERTIA FORCE (ma) —_——_ Fig. 14 LANDING On landing the inertia of the aircraft is considerable and to bring it to a stand- still many factors are brought into play - the main ones include the aerodynamic drag on the aircraft; the reverse thrust of the engines and the wheel brakes. Zquating these forces ma = Tr + D + B. Several forces help slow the aircraft down once on the runway. The most effective being the wheel brakes, the next being reverse thrust (putting the propeller into reverse pitch and rewing up the engine/s, or moving cowlings into the jet efflux of a jet engine to direct the thrust rearwards and opening up the throttles). The weakest force slowing the aircraft down is aerodynamic drag. This may be increased by the use of flaps, spoilers, airbrakes and parachutes (parachutes on military aircraft only), <\ ay 7 eee The ‘inertia force’ will always ‘act’ to balance the resultant force on the body, ie in a direction opposite to that of the acceleration ‘a’. Note that in figure 14 that the word “acceleration” is used and not “deceleration”. In scientific terms thereis tio such thing as deceleration, only acceleration with “slowing down” being called negative acceleration (reference the linier displacement formulas discussed earlier in this book. POWER Power is defined as ‘the rate of doing work’. As a formula Power = Work done time taken = joules = ~— Watts seconds -21-