[close]

Joseph Fourier
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Joseph Fourier
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier
Born 21 March 1768(1768-03-21)
Auxerre, Yonne, France
Died 16 May 1830 (aged 62)
Paris, France
Residence France
Nationality French
Fields Mathematician, physicist, and historian
Institutions École Normale
École Polytechnique
Alma mater École Normale
Doctoral advisor Joseph Lagrange
Doctoral students Gustav Dirichlet
Giovanni Plana
Claude-Louis Navier
Known for Fourier series
Fourier transform
Fourier's law of conduction
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (21 March 1768 16 May 1830) was a French mathematic
ian and physicist best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series
and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations. The Fourier
transform and Fourier's Law are also named in his honour. Fourier is also genera
lly credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect.[1]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Life
* 2 Théorie analytique de la chaleur
* 3 Determinate equations
* 4 Misattribution of the "greenhouse effect"
* 5 See also
* 6 Notes and references
* 7 External links
[edit] Life
Fourier was born at Auxerre (now in the Yonne département of France), the son of a
tailor. He was orphaned at age eight. Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of
Auxerre, and through this introduction, he was educated by the Benvenistes of th
e Convent of St. Mark. The commissions in the scientific corps of the army were
reserved for those of good birth, and being thus ineligible, he accepted a milit
ary lectureship on mathematics. He took a prominent part in his own district in
promoting the French Revolution, and was rewarded by an appointment in 1795 in t
he École Normale Supérieure, and subsequently by a chair at the École Polytechnique.
Fourier went with Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in 1798, and was
made governor of Lower Egypt and secretary of the Institut d'Égypte. Cut off from
France by the English fleet, he organized the workshops on which the French arm
y had to rely for their munitions of war. He also contributed several mathematic
al papers to the Egyptian Institute (also called the Cairo Institute) which Napo
leon founded at Cairo, with a view of weakening English influence in the East. A
fter the British victories and the capitulation of the French under General Meno
u in 1801, Fourier returned to France, and was made prefect of Isère, and it was w
hile there that he made his experiments on the propagation of heat.
1820 watercolor caricatures of French mathematicians Adrien-Marie Legendre (left
) and Joseph Fourier (right) by French artist Julien-Leopold Boilly, watercolor
portrait numbers 29 and 30 of Album de 73 Portraits-Charge Aquarelle s des Membres
de I Institute.[2]
Circa 1820 sketching Fourier.
In 1806 he quit the post of full professor at the École Polytechnique because Napo
leon sent him to Grenoble. He was replaced by Siméon Denis Poisson.
Fourier moved to England in 1816. Later he returned to France, and in 1822 succe
eded Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre as Permanent Secretary of the French Academy
of Sciences. In 1830, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Acade
my of Sciences.
Fourier believed that keeping the body wrapped up in blankets was beneficial to
the health. He died in 1830 when he tripped and fell down the stairs at his home
.[3]
Fourier was buried in the Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, a tomb decorated with
an Egyptian motif to reflect his position as secretary of the Cairo Institute,
and his collation of the landmark Description de l'Égypte.

[edit] Théorie analytique de la chaleur

In 1822 Fourier presented his work on heat flow in Théorie analytique de la chaleu
r,[4] in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that t
he flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely
small difference of their temperatures. In this work he claims that any function
of a variable, whether continuous or discontinuous, can be expanded in a series
of sines of multiples of the variable. Though this result is not correct, Fouri
er's observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum of infinite serie
s was a breakthrough. The question of determining when a Fourier series converge
s has been fundamental for centuries. Joseph Louis Lagrange had given particular
cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that the method was general, but
he had not pursued the subject. Johann Dirichlet was the first to give a satisf
actory demonstration of it with some restrictive conditions. A more subtle, but
equally fundamental, contribution is the concept of dimensional homogeneity in e
quations; i.e. an equation can only be formally correct if the dimensions match
on either side of the equality. Fourier also developed dimensional analysis, the
method of representing physical units, such as velocity and acceleration, by th
eir fundamental dimensions of mass, time, and length, to obtain relations betwee
n them.[5]
[edit] Determinate equations
Fourier left an unfinished work on determinate equations which was edited by Cla
ude-Louis Navier and published in 1831. This work contains much original matter
in particular, there is a demonstration of Fourier's theorem on the position of
the roots of an algebraic equation. Joseph Louis Lagrange had shown how the root
s of an algebraic equation might be separated by means of another equation whose
roots were the squares of the differences of the roots of the original equation
. François Budan, in 1807 and 1811, had enunciated the theorem generally known by
the name of Fourier, but the demonstration was not altogether satisfactory. Four
ier's proof is the same as that usually given in textbooks on the theory of equa
tions. The final solution of the problem was given in 1829 by Jacques Charles Fr
ançois Sturm.
[edit] Misattribution of the "greenhouse effect"
Fourier is also credited with the idea in 1824 that gases in the atmosphere migh
t increase the surface temperature of the Earth [6]. However the assertion of Ar
rhenius (1896) that Fourier thought that the atmosphere acted like the glass of
a greenhouse is factually incorrect. Fourier (1827)[7] did refer to the invisibl
e rays that occasion heat as "chaleur obscure" or "dark heat" without attributio
n to Herschel. However, Fourier (1827, p. 586) makes it very clear that in order
for the atmosphere to act like the glass of a greenhouse, it must become immobi
lised to stop convection.
In effect, if all the levels of the air of which the atmosphere is formed we
re to retain their density and transparency, and lose only their mobility, this
mass of air thus becoming solid, being exposed to the rays of the sun, would pro
duce an effect of the same type as that which one has just described.
As this "solid" air is an impossible proposition, Fourier (1827, p. 597) conclud
es that the earth's heating comes from penetration by solar heat, without refere
nce to the insulative properties of air, but in addition to contributions from t
he earth's interior and from stars other than the sun. While this reinforced Fou
rier's concept of heat transfer, Fourier (1827, p. 598) suggests that we may yet
discover an alternative mode of heat transfer in space. While planets only lose
energy to space by infrared radiation, it was not until the discovery of electr
omagnetic radiation by Maxwell in 1864, that a separate mode of heat transfer wa
s proven. Until then, the term "radiation" was used to describe the indirect pro
pagation of light and heat through intermediary mediums such as liquids, gases a
nd the luminiferous aether.
Bust of Fourier in Grenoble
According to Fourier (1827), his calculations yielded a sensible temperature for
the surface of the earth provided the assumption that the luminiferous aether o
f space was roughly the same temperature as the poles. In his method of calculat
ing heat transfer, Fourier did not differentiate molecule to molecule heat trans
fer from internal radiation processes, such as the loss of orbital potential by
the emission of a photon subsequently absorbed by another molecule that is not i
n direct contact. Fourier's law only governed bulk heat transfer and so includes
any amount of internal radiation and internal backradiation in addition to kine
tic transfer mechanisms shared by bodies in thermal contact. The definitive quan
tification of purely radiative transfer is the Stefan Boltzmann law which gives th
e exact form of this dependency (a fourth-power law), but was not discovered unt
il five decades later, while Planck's law, which refines this dependency to incl
ude wavelength, took a further twenty years. Until then, only bulk heat transfer
between bodies in thermal contact could be calculated, using Fourier's Law. As
such, Fourier's calculations were independent of any purported "greenhouse" effe
cts.
Fourier's grave, Pere Lachaise
Fourier (1827) referred to an experiment by G. B. de Saussure, who exposed a woo
den box lined with black cork to sunlight. Three panes of glass were inserted in
to the cork an inch and a half apart. The temperature became more elevated in th
e more interior compartments of this device. Against this, Fourier (1827, p. 587
) contrasted the turbulent convecting atmosphere, to explain that the heat gain
in the partitions of the box with proximity to the blackened cork core is due to
the fact that the partitions trap the air and prevent its replenishment. In doi
ng so, the partitions prevent the normal thermal gradient of the air from being
steepened by convection. Svante Arrhenius later misunderstood Fourier's explanat
ion and then misattributed his own misunderstanding of how greenhouses work to F
ourier (Arrhenius, 1896). Uncritical acceptance of such claims (without checking
the source texts) is how the misconception that Fourier discovered the "greenho
use effect" made it's way into modern literature. For historical details see Jam
es Rodger Fleming, Historical Perspectives on Climate Change (Oxford, 1998).
[edit] See also
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Joseph Fourier
* Fourier analysis
* Fourier number
* Fourier Deligne transform
* Fourier's Law
* Heat equation
[edit] Notes and references
1. ^ Cowie, J. (2007). Climate Change: Biological and Human Aspects. Cambridg
e University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0521696197.
2. ^ Boilly, Julien-Leopold. (1820). Album de 73 Portraits-Charge Aquarelle s d
es Membres de I Institute (watercolor portrait #29). Biliotheque de l Institut de Fr
ance.
3. ^ "Fourier, Joseph (1768-1830)". Science World Wolfram. http://scienceworl
d.wolfram.com/biography/Fourier.html. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
4. ^ Jan Gullberg: Mathematics: from the birth of numbers, W.W. Norton, 1997,
ISBN 039304002X
5. ^ Mason, Stephen F.: A History of the Sciences (Simon & Schuster, 1962), p
. 169.
6. ^ Weart, S. (2008). The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect. Retrieved on 27
May 2008
7. ^ Fourier J (1827). "Mémoire Sur Les Températures Du Globe Terrestre Et Des Es
paces Planétaires". Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences 7: 569 604.
* Initial text from the public domain Rouse History of Mathematics
* Fourier, Joseph. (1822). Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur. Firmin Didot (r
eissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00180-9)
* Fourier, Joseph. (1878). The Analytical Theory of Heat. Cambridge Universi
ty Press (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00178-6)
* Fourier, J. B. J. (1824) [1]Remarques Générales Sur Les Températures Du Globe Te
rrestre Et Des Espaces Planétaires., in Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. 27,
pp. 136 167.
* Fourier, J.-B.-J. Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de
France VII. 570 604 (1827) (greenhouse effect essay)
* The Project Gutenberg EBook of Biographies of Distinguished Scientific Men
by François Arago
* Fourier, J. Éloge historique de Sir William Herschel, prononcé dans la séance pu
blique de l'Académie royale des sciences le 7 Juin, 1824. Historie de l'Académie Roy
ale des Sciences de l'Institut de France, tome vi., année 1823, p. lxi.[Pg 227]
[edit] External links
* O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Joseph Fourier", MacTutor Histor
y of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-an
drews.ac.uk/Biographies/Fourier.html .
* Fourier, J. B. J., 1824, Remarques Générales Sur Les Températures Du Globe Terre
stre Et Des Espaces Planétaires., in Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Vol. 27, pp
. 136 167 - translation by Burgess (1837).
* Fourier 1827: MEMOIRE sur les températures du globe terrestre et des espaces
planétaires
* Université Joseph Fourier, Grenoble, France
* Joseph Fourier at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Preceded by
Pierre-Édouard Lémontey Seat 5
Académie française
1826 1830 Succeeded by
Victor Cousin
Persondata
NAME Fourier, Joseph
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION Mathematician, physicist, and historian
DATE OF BIRTH March 21, 1768
PLACE OF BIRTH Auxerre, Yonne, France
DATE OF DEATH May 16, 1830
PLACE OF DEATH Paris, France
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Fourier"
Categories: 1768 births | 1830 deaths | People from Auxerre | Joseph Fourier | F
rench mathematicians | French scientists | Members of the Académie française | Mathe
matical analysts | French Roman Catholics | Members of the French Academy of Sci
ences | Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences | 18th-century mathemat
icians | Foreign Members of the Royal Society | 19th-century mathematicians | Co
mmission des Sciences et des Arts members | Barons of the First French Empire
Personal tools
* New features
* Log in / create account
Namespaces
* Article
* Discussion
Variants
Views
* Read
* Edit
* View history
Actions
Search
Search
Navigation
* Main page
* Contents
* Featured content
* Current events
* Random article
Interaction
* About Wikipedia
* Community portal
* Recent changes
* Contact Wikipedia
* Donate to Wikipedia
* Help
Toolbox
* What links here
* Related changes
* Upload file
 * Special pages
* Permanent link
* Cite this page
Print/export
* Create a book
* Download as PDF
* Printable version
Languages
* ???????
* Aragonés
* ?????
* Bosanski
* Brezhoneg
* ?????????
* Català
* Cesky
* Cymraeg
* Dansk
* Deutsch
* Eesti
* ????????
* Español
* Esperanto
* Euskara
* ?????
* Fiji Hindi
* Français
* Galego
* ???
* ??????
* Hrvatski
* Bahasa Indonesia
* Íslenska
* Italiano
* ?????
* Basa Jawa
* Kiswahili
* Kreyòl ayisyen
* Latina
* Latvie u
* Lëtzebuergesch
* Lietuviu
* Lumbaart
* Magyar
* ??????????
* ??????
* ?????
* ????
* ??????
* Nederlands
* ???
* ?Norsk (bokmål)?
* ?Norsk (nynorsk)?
* Piemontèis
* Polski
* Português
 * Româna
* ???????
* Scots
* ???????
* Simple English
* Slovencina
* Sloven cina
* ?????? / Srpski
* Srpskohrvatski / ??????????????
* Suomi
* Svenska
* Tagalog
* ?????
* ??????
* ???
* Türkçe
* ??????????
* Ti?ng Vi?t
* Volapük
* Winaray
* emaite ka
* ??
* This page was last modified on 25 August 2010 at 11:13.
* Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike Licens
e; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a no
n-profit organization.
* Contact us
* Privacy policy
* About Wikipedia
* Disclaimers
* Powered by MediaWiki
* Wikimedia Foundation