ASS STR OTS Chapter 2 Basic Reservoir-Engineering Concepts and Reservoir-Fluid and -Rock Properties 2.1 Introduction Mathematical modeling ofa given system requires understanding of the behavior ofthe different elements that make up the system under study, In reservoir simulation, this system comprises the reservoir rock and the various fluids (oil, water, and pas) flowing through it Reservoir-ock propertis of interest include those related tothe pocity ofthe rock to transmit and store Mui in its pres. The depen- {dence of fui properties on primary simulation unknowns (pressure snd saturation) isrequiredinblack-oil simulation. A droroughunder= sanding ofthe pressure dependence of fluid densities, viscosities, formation volume factors (FVF's), solution-gasMiquidratios, andthe saturation dependence ofrelative permeability andcopillary pressure is very helpful for both model developers and users, ‘Thischapter discusses rock properties, fluid properties, fuid/ock neractions, basic reservoir-engineering concepts (such s fluid po- tential, steady- and unsteady-state phenomena, rock heterogeneity ‘and rock anisotropy) and asic reservoir-engineering laws (such a8 Daroy’s law and the law of mass conservation), 2.2 Basic Reservoir-Engineering Concepts ‘Understanding basic reservoir-engincering concepts for modeling flow ‘problems in porous media i very important. This section includes dis- ‘cussions of fuid-low potential, Darey’s aw, and steady-and unseady- state phenomena, Capillary pressure and relative permeability andthe lew of mass conservation are presented incontext oftheir applications to Single- and multiphase fuid flow in porous mesa. 2.2.1 Fluid Potential In earth sciences other than petroleum engi- neering (for example, geology or hydrology), fluid potential at a definedasthe work quired by africtionless process totrans- itmass of fluid from a state of atmospheric pressure and 2er0 levation (absolute datum) tothe pointin question. Defined this way, ‘uid potential expressed mathematically as the uid head (y) for an incompressible fui is 2 y=B eo, ep Where D is postive inthe vertical upward direction and v= yp8 en is the fluid density in terms of pressure per distance (usually called ‘uid gravity). In Fg. 2.2, ye= gravity conversion factor (Table 2-1 gives unit definitions). Multiplying both sides of Ea 2.1 by y gives hy = p + yD. @3) ‘The term (rh) has pressure nits ands frequnily refered toa the datum pressure. I reservoir simulation and petoleum engineering, this term is refered to as fui potential, , so @=p+yD, ea In reservoir engineering, an arbitrary and convenient datum (other than the absolute datum) is used asa reference forall reservoir pres- sures. Thisarbitrary datum can besealevelor the middle, top, orbase ‘ofthe reservoir. The level ofthis new datum is notimportant because flow ratedepends on potential gradient (see Sec. 22.2)ratherthan a- solute potentials. To demonstrate this point, calculate the potential difference between Points Aand Bin Fig.2.1. By use ofthe absolute datum as reference level, the potentials at Points A and B ate given by applying Eq. 2.4 as = pa Da es) and © = pp + Dp, 26) then ®, ~ ®y = (py — pe) + (Dy — en rom Fig. 2.1, (25 ~ Dy) = Pa ~ 7). e8 ‘Substituting Eq, 28 into Eg. 2.7 yields 1, ~ y= [D4 ~ Ps) ~ 7124 ~ Zs) + 29) Using the new datum asa reference level, 4 — & = (Pap) 124 @10) and p ~ = (pp ~ p*) ey where @ = p° + yD? 2) and p® = pressure atthe new datum. ‘BASIC RESERVOIR-ENGINEERING CONCEPTS AND RESERVOIR-FLUID AND -ROCK PROPERTIES "‘TABLE 2.1—UNITS FOR VARIABLES IN DARCY'S LAW” ‘System of Units Customary Variable Metric ae 5.614563, 1 fe 127 esaxion® re 0.21584x10-S 10-3 @ FeO Pid A te me o BIO) mi(d-m2) k darcy ne k ‘recon fraction M ” Pass ‘ sit kPaim vz ‘um min , aim kam e tora? ain? 9 sec? mist Subtracting Eg. 2.11 from Eq, 2.10, both * and p° drop out, re- salting in @13) Eqs. 2.9 and 2.13 are identical. This implies thatthe potential dif erence between two points does not dependon the datum depth used in the computations. ‘The potential at any arbitrary point with the new datum can be ex- wessed as y= By = (Pg = Ps) — YlZa— Oo = (pp) yz, au ‘where p and 2 pressure and elevation, respectively. athe arbitrary point The potential pradien obtained by diferentating Ea. 2.145 Fo = Hp — piz, where Zs positive inthe dowaward veical direction. ‘Although Eq 2.15 detved for incompressible Mus assumes that thefMuiddensityasedto define the hydrostatic gradient, isconsant, itisappicabletocomprssibefluidsaswellToderivean expression forthe gredient of flow potential ofa slightly compressible or com- pressible flid, write an cnergy-conservation equation for the me- Chanical energy to translate unit mass fom some reference evelto fn arbitrary level. In doing 80, consider the total work done onthe fui thats composed of collection work, potential eneray gained (or lost compression work, andrejction work Sacha treatment yields the definition of Hubben's! potential, , which is valid for both compressible and incompressible fluids, es) a: [ieee } ‘The potential gradient can then be obtained from Ea, 2.16 as 216) ¥o, lip - tz en ‘Then the potential gradient define in By. 2.15 ¥o = yo, = tp - yz, aus) 2-2) Arbitrary new datum [Absolute deta Fig. 2.1—Absolute datum and arbitrary datum, hich simply inicatesthat is related 60, roughy. Ins ston stay. constant asumption may ote applied fo cern lie suchas nol pase with sltion goo gu se, ‘To remove the nonineaity introduced bythe pressure dependent density tenth termi. Sioupdadasthe ne presse val tes betameatalabiara ven timed (orif cess ata given terion ve) to recalculate the fd density. Furthermore, ding ‘the initialization step, y is continuously updated at new depth levels. 2s the hydrosae pressures calelued Allemavelythehydrostatihid gradient, inBg,2.1Siscako- Ite with he average Tid density inthe elevation eral AZ otter words 2 3s appeble for both inompessibc ancom presible ids Whiley constant for an incompressible fis fn average hat esta conseraton he aiton of wth pres Sure over the elvan interval A for a compressible fd. a 2.15, the operon Wis detned by Ea 399. Formulas lowe potenti padet foreach phate (wand ae Vo, = Voy ~ vz, +. @19) where 1=0, w, oF 8 = Yes = 220) and Zis positive inthe vertical downward direction, Note tha, ithe coordinate system used in te computation is chosen tobe positive in the vertical upward direction, the minus sign in Eg. 2.19 must be changed to a plus sign. 2.2.2 Darey’s Law. Darcy's laws nempirical relationship between ‘id flow rate through a porous medium and potential pradient.?For single-phase, one-dimensional (1D) flow, tis law can be expressed ina differential form as 4 A 4 ‘where, unit conversion factor forthe transmissibility coefficient, ‘k=absolute rock permeability inthe direction of flow, = fluid viscos ity, © fluid potential, and w= uid flow rate per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular tothe flow direction (superficial velocity), Forthres- ‘dimensional (3D) flow the differential form of Darcy's lw is ean 2) = ps0 With the definition for potential gradient (Eq,.15) the velocity vec- tor if becomes a= pA (¥ - v2) When using this form of Darcy's aw, engingers shouldbe aware of some implicit assumptions and limitations» 223) BASIC APPLIED RESERVOIR SIMULATION LT |Well 1 Well 2 ensz6n Fig. 2.2—Cross section of reservoir described in Example 2.1. 1. The Muid is homogeneous, single-phase, and Newtonian. 2. There is no chemical eaction between the fluid and the porous medium, 3, Laminat-flow conditions prevail 4, Permeability sa property ofthe porous medium thatisindepen- dent of pressure, temperature, and the flowing fui, '5, There is no slippage effect (Klinkenberg® phenomenon, 6. Theee is no electrokinetic effect. For multiphase flow the extended form of Darey’s law for each phase can be expressed as in ott. ny where !=0,w, oF . Combining with Eq 2.19 gives a= ~p.ltly, ~ yz a, Fi es ~ v2), 225) where =, w, oF gand km, and = relative permeability, vis- cosiy, pressure, and fTuid gravity for Phase l respectively. Darcy's law can be considered an empirial law? or an analytical ‘expression derived from the Navier and Stokes equation. In ether cease, Darcy's law isa comerstone to reservoir simulation, Example2.1 Anoil formation dips witha 10° angle. Is permeabil- ityis 100 md andits thickness is 40 sil density and viscosity are 40lbav/ft? and 0.6 cp, respectively. Two observation wellsare drilled atPoints | and 2. The two points ate separated horizontally by 2,000 ftsFig.2.2 shows where they fall onthe formation. The bottom of Ob- servation Well | is 8,152.6 ft below sea level, and that of Well 2 is 7,800 fbelow sea level. The battombole pressure of Well |i 3,600 a, and that of Well2is3,570psia. Determine the fluid velocity be {ween the two observation points Solution. The postive directions from Point I tPoint2, Fluid ve- locity for single-phase flow is T= ~ pe (> - 2} 25 For 1D flow in thes direton, this equation becomes fl ~o4(% az) 226 CComelating the field units indicated in Fig 2.2 withthe information in Table2 1,8, = 1.127, Iban’, 8232174 is, (o2ises x 10“ S(a0y¢ 510 ~ 3,600. _ = Foner os ~~ 0018 pst, e2n aZ_% and Gg =H RS 7,800 = 8.1526 __ o.r736 gyn 228) 2,000705 10° Substituting into Eq, 2.26 yields _ Lixo 06 (or u= ~0.0063 RB/(D-f2), Because w is negative, the direction of ‘lui flow isin the direction opposite tothe direction of increasing ‘Therefore, cil flows from Point? to Point | and the magnitude ofthe Darey velocity is 0.0063 RBM(D-) or 0.0353 fUD. 0.0148 ~ (0.2776x.— 0.1736)) is important to recognize that Eq, 2.23 inthis example gives the apparent, or Darcy, velocity. Because ofthe tortuosity ofthe flow paths (aresult ofthe conspicuous nature ofthe poe structure), the ac ‘wal fluid velocity wil vary from point to point within the rock and, resultin an average velocity. In other words, the actual fluid velocity, is alocal microscopic velocity as defined atthe microscopic scale. ‘The average velocity, aproperty atthe core scale, can be found by di- viding the apparent velocity by the porosity ofthe rock. The average velocity becomes equal to the actual velocity ifthe porous medium isassumedto consist ofabundle of uniformeapillary tubes (homoge- ‘neous porosity distribution). In reservoir engineering the apparent fluid velocity isusedto calculate the volume of fluid passing through section ofa porous medium, On the other hand, itis essential to use the average velocity to consider the movement of particles and/or fluid interfaces. Because actual velocities are difficult to measure, they are rarely used in eservoir-engineering calculations. 2.2.3Steady-andUnsteady-StateFlow.Steady-andunsteady-state flow are basic concepts required by bothpracticingengineersandstu- ents. For example, the unsteady-state nature ofa waterflood isthe ‘reason that oil production froma reservoir does notrespond immedi- ately to changes in water injection. Fluid compressibility, gj and the ‘manner in which fluid density, p, responds to pressure are the main factors responsible for this behavior. Foran incompressible lui (see Types of Reservoir Fluidsin Sec. 2.3.2), pressure response is felt instantly with equal intensity at any ‘point inthe reservoir, provided that the eservoirrockisincompress- {ble Mathematically stated, 029) or pis constant for all p and 2.300) ’ and 21, 2.300) Interms of fd velocity, ou au, ean Flow problems involving incompressible uids and porous media Ihave solutions that are independent of time (because all derivatives, with respectto timeare zero) and dependent on space only. Such flow is called steady-state flow because all properties are steady, or constant, with time, For slightly compressible and compressible fluids, the pressure shock (ratleast partofit) willbeabsorbed intially by fuid compres- ‘sion until the fluids can no longer compress. The remainder ofthe en- ‘ergy willthen be transmitted tothe ext point in space, andsoon. The energy storedin the compressed uid willbe released ater and rans- ‘mitted from one point to the next. In time, the pressure shock (or at Teastpar oft) willbe felt at any observation point. That isto say that BASIC RESERVOIR-ENGINEERING CONCEPTS AND RESERVOIR-FLUID AND -ROCK PROPERTIES 3