nue) Dower System Design and Analysis CEU LL Ay /44 CHAPTER IV The Transmission Subsystem 4.1_ INTRODUCTION electric energy produced at generating stations is transported ‘over high-voltage tranemision lines to utilization points. In the early days (until 1917, electric systems were operated as isolated aystems with only point-to-point transmission at voltages that are considered low by today's Standards. Operating voltages increased rapidly from the 3300-V level used in the Willamette-Portland line (1890) to the 11-kV level used to transmit nearly 10 MW from Niagara Falls to Buffalo, N.Y., 20 miles away, in 1896, ‘Two 287-KV circuits were completed in 1996 to transmit a block of 240 MW ‘over a distance of 266 mile from the Hoover Dam acroas the desert to the ‘outskirts of Los Angeles. The first 345-KV line grew out of a test program by the American Electric Power (AEP) system that started in 1946. This Tine- as completed in 1953, and it ushered in the beginning of @ 345:kV system that AEP placed to overlay its extensive 138:KV transmission During the same period the Swedish State Power Board established © AOUKV system between its northem hydroplants and its southern load centers, which wae placed ia operation in 1952 oaThe Transrplsion Subsystem ‘The 345:KV system established the principle of the use of bundle ‘conductor, the V-configuration of insulator strings (to restrain swings), and the use of aluminum in lin structures. "The first 500-RV line was energized in 1964 to tie a minemouth station in West Virginia to load centers inthe eastern part ofthe state. One reason for the preference of this voltage level over the 345-kV level was that ‘upgrading from 230-KV to 345-KV represented a gain of only 140 percent ‘compared to a 400 percent gain when using the 500-KV level. Hydro Quebec inaugurated ita 735-kV, 375-mile line in the same year. Aline voltage of 765 RV venn introduced into service by AEP in 1969. The 1980s are witnessing the introduction of a yet higher voltage level in the Bonneville Power ‘Administration's (BPA) 1100-KV transmission system, "The trend toward higher voltages is mainly motivated by the resulting increased line capacity while reducing line lowes per unit of power trans- mitted. The reduction in losses is significant and isan important aspect of energy conservation. Better use of land is a benefit of the larger capacity. ‘This can be illustrated by a comparison of the right-of-way width of 56 m recqited for an 1100-KY line with a capacity of 10,000 MW, to 76 m required for two double-cirult 500-KV lines to transmit the same capacity of 10,000 MW, "The purpose of this chapter isto develop a fundamental understand: ing of transmission line modeling and performance analysis. This is done for the major configurations in service. We begin by discussing the parameters of transmiasion line. 2 ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS An electric transmission line is modeled using four parameters that affect its performance characteristics. The four parameters are the series resiatance, series inductance, shunt capacitance, and shunt conductance. ‘The line resistance and inductive reactance are of importance in many problems of interest. For some studies it is possible to omit the shunt ‘capacitance and conductance and thus simplify the equivalent circuit con- siderably. ‘We deal here with aspects of determining these parameters on the basis of line length, type of conductor used, and the spacing of the conductors as they are mounted on the supporting structure. We will start bby a discussion of the nature of conductors and introduce tome common terminology. 'A wire or combination of wires not insulated from one another is called a conductor. A stranded conductor is composed of a group of wires, ‘unualy twinted or braided together. 42 Blecire Tranemission Line Parameters $9 TABLE 4-1 American Wire Gage versus Diameters in Mils 0g aaa ates 404006 64859 2.32576 2204 2040 3 9 ¢ 120 eevee Onstage angen) 14431285 144 101920101 Wire sizes have been indicated commercially in terms of gage numbers for many years. Present practice cals for specifying wire sizes in terme of their diameters in mils (unit of length, 1/1000th of an inch). ‘The cross ‘sectional area is given in circular mils A circular mil isthe area of a circle of 1 mil in diameter. This circle has an area of (#/4X1) mil? oF 0.7854 mil? ‘The American wire gage, usually abbreviated AWG, ‘geometric progression. The diameter of No, 0000 is ‘of No, 36 a8 0.005 in. There are 38 sizes between these two; thus the ratio of ‘any diameter to the diameter ofthe next greater number ie oe \™ 0006) = mae 229922 Observing that n§ = 2.005 leads us to conclude thatthe diameter is doubled. for a difference of six gage numbers, Table 4-1 gives a selection of AWG versus conductor diameters in mils for reference purposes. For conductors of is larger than 4/0, circular mils are used in North American practice In a concentrically stranded conductor, each succeaive layer contains six more wires than the preceding one. There are two basic constructions the one-wire core and the three-wire core. The total number of wires (IV) in ‘conductor with n layers over the core is given by N=3n(nt1) 41 N=an(n+2)+3 {or I-wire core for .wire core ‘The wire size din mils and NV wires ie stranded conductor with total conductor area A circula a=(4)"mi ‘Types of Conductors and Conductor Materials Phase conductors in EHV-UHV transmission aystems empl sluminum conductor and aluminum or tel conductor for overhead grindThe Transmission Subsystem wires. Many types of cables are available. These include: ‘A. Aluminum Conductors "There are five designs in common use: 1, Homogeneous designs: ‘These are denoted as All- Aluminum-Conductors (AAC) of All-Aluminum-Alloy Conduc- tors (AAC). 2, Composite designs: These are essentially aluminum-conductor- stel-rinforced conductors (ACSR) with steel core material 3. Expanded ACSR: These use solid sluminum strand with a steel core. Expansion is by open helices of aluminum wie, flexible ‘concentric tubes, or combinations of aluminum wires and fibrous ropes. 4, Aluminum-clad conductor (Alumoweld). 5. Aluminum-coated conductors B. Steel Conductors ‘Galvanized steel conductors with various thicknesses of zine ‘coatings are used Line Resistance "The resistance of the conductor isthe most important cause of power lose ina power line, Direct-current resistance is given by the familiar formula: at chins Rue where p= resistivity of conductor 1 length A= cross sectional aren ‘Any consistent set of unite may be used in the calculation of resis- tance. In the SI system of unite, pis expremed in ohm-meters, length in meters, and area in aquare meters. A aystem commonly used by power systems engineers expresses resistivity in ohms circular mils per foot, length jn feet, and area in circular rile. ‘Table 4.2 gives the value of p for several materials used in power systems networks, The resistance of the conductor is obtained at 20°C when p given in the table is used. The resistance of a conductor at any other temperature may be obtained from R= R14 a(T-T,)] Here Ry is the resistance at temperature T,, and R, is the resistance at 42. Blectrie Transmission Line Parameters TABLE 4.2 Resistivity and Temperature Coefficient of Conductor Materials ‘Resstivty(p) at 20°C Temperature Coefficient (a) ‘Material ___Micro-ohm em Ohma circular mil per ft ‘ar20ee Nunioum 2m 170) ‘0.000 Bra and 002 Bronze 118 (0.0005, Copper rose oonaee ox 2.00393 % Sioa 26 0.0038 26 ise 72-500 001-0005 temperature 7,. The variations of resistance with temperature are usually unimportant (for example, 17 percent increase in copper resistance for @ temperature change from 0°C te 40°C), ‘There are certain limitations in the use of thi equation for calculating the resistance of transmission line conductors: 1. A slight error is introduced when the conductor is stranded rather than solid. Ths is because the individual strands are slightly longer than the length ofthe cable itself 2 When ac flows in a conductor, the current is not distributed uniformly over the conductor cross-sectional area. This is called skin effet and is a result ofthe nonuniform flux distribution in the conductor. This increases the resistance of the conductor by reduc- ing the effective cross section of the conductor through which the current flows. Manufacturer-supplied conductor tables give the resistance at commercial frequencies of 25,50, and 60 He. 3. The resistance of magnetic conductors varies with current magn tude. ‘The flux and therefore the magnetic losses inside the ‘conductor depend on the current magnitude. Tables on magnetic conductors such as ACSR (Aluminum Cable, Steel Reinforced) include resistance tabulations at two current-carrying. levels to show this effect, 4. In m transmiasion line there is # nonuniformity of current distribu ion in addition to that caused by akin effect. In a two-wire line, fewer lines of flux litk the elements nearest each other on opposite sides ofthe line than link the elements farther apart. Thus the near ides will have lower inductance than elements in the far sides. The result is higher current density in the elements of adjacent