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Outline
• Optimal decisions
• α-β pruning
• Imperfect, real-time decisions
Games vs. search problems
• "Unpredictable" opponent specifying a
move for every possible opponent reply
5 7 10 3 1 2 9 9 8 2 9 3
How much do we gain?
Assume a game tree of uniform branching factor b
Minimax examines O(bh) nodes, so does alpha-beta in
the worst-case
The gain for alpha-beta is maximum when:
• The MIN children of a MAX node are ordered in decreasing
backed up values
• The MAX children of a MIN node are ordered in increasing
backed up values
Then alpha-beta examines O(bh/2) nodes [Knuth and Moore, 1975]
But this requires an oracle (if we knew how to order nodes
perfectly, we would not need to search the game tree)
If nodes are ordered at random, then the average
number of nodes examined by alpha-beta is ~O(b3h/4)
Heuristic Ordering of Nodes
Addition assumes
independence
Eval(s) = w1 f1(s) + w2 f2(s) + … + wnfn(s)
Heuristic difficulties
Heuristic counts pieces won
Horizon effect
Fixed depth search
Makes black think
it can avoid the
queening move of
White pawn
Games that include chance
• Left, A1 wins
• Right A2 wins
• Outcome of evaluation function may not change when
values are scaled differently.
• Behavior is preserved only by a positive linear
transformation of EVAL.
State-of-the-Art
Checkers: Tinsley vs. Chinook
Mr. Tinsley suffered his 4th and 5th losses against Chinook
Chinook
5’10” Height 6’ 5”
176 lbs Weight 2,400 lbs
34 years Age 4 years
50 billion neurons Computers 32 RISC processors
+ 256 VLSI chess engines
2 pos/sec Speed 200,000,000 pos/sec
Extensive Knowledge Primitive
Electrical/chemical Power Source Electrical
Enormous Ego None
Deep Junior
Takeshi Murakami
World Othello Champion
Jonathan Schaeffer
– March 2016
• Developed by Google DeepMind in London to
play the board game Go.
• Plays full 19x19 games
• October 2015: the distributed version of
AlphaGo defeated the European Go champion
Fan Hui - five to zero
• March 2016 AlphaGo played South Korean
professional Go player Lee Sedol, ranked 9-dan,
one of the best Go players – four to one.
• A significant breakthrough in AI research!!!
Secrets
Many game programs are based on alpha-beta +
iterative deepening + extended/singular search +
transposition tables + huge databases + ...
For instance, Chinook searched all checkers
configurations with 8 pieces or less and created an
endgame database of 444 billion board
configurations