1.

8 Carbon Monoxide To receiver

r. J. gordon (1974, 1982) B. g. lIPták (1995, 2003, 2017) AT

co
Flow sheet symbol

Detector types A. Nondispersive infrared (NDIR); see Table 1.7b for IR analyzer designs and applications
A1. Gas filter correlation (GFC)
B. Mercury vapor
C. Gas chromatography
D. Electrochemical fuel cell
E. Catalytic oxidation
F. Others include, from color change badges, dosimeter tubes, and radon canisters to mass spectrometers

Reference method Infrared

Inaccuracy For NDIR sensors, ±1% of full scale for up to 1000 ppm and ±2% to 3% of full scale for higher ranges. For infrared stack
gas analyzers, 2%–4% of reading can be expected, whereas for electrochemical ambient monitors, 1%–3% of full scale
is usual.

Sensitivity Generally 1 ppm; chromatographs can provide 0.1 ppm and mercury vapor analyzers 0.05 ppm.

Application For ambient air monitoring, electrochemical sensors are used most often; for detecting stack gas concentration, infrared
sensors are the most popular.

Ranges (see Table 1.8a) A. From 0 to 1, 0 to 5, 0 to 10, 0 to 20, 0 to 50, and 0 to 100 ppm for ambient and 0 to 200, 0 to 500, 0 to 1000, 0 to 2000,
0 to 5000, and 0 to 10,000 ppm for other applications, including stack gas. (See Table 8.9b for overall range capability.)
A1. 0–100 ppb to 0–1,000 ppm.
B. 0–50 ppm
C. 0–200 ppm
D. 0–50 to 0–500 ppm or more
E. 0–500 ppm

Response times Infrared units are usually adjustable down to a few seconds, whereas electrochemical sensors require 30–60 sec.

Costs Manual spot sensor tubes: Under $100. Pocket-size, battery-operated personal toxic gas monitor—$200–$700; continuous
industrial electrochemical or infrared monitor/alarm/transmitter— $400–$2000; portable, battery-operated flue gas
analyzer—$2000–$5000; mercury vapor analyzer—$7500; NDIR with recorder included—about $10,000; and gas
chromatograph (see Chapter 227)—$25,000 and up.

Partial list of suppliers Alnor, http://www.tsi.com/alnor-cga-801-carbon-monoxide-analyzer/

AMC (Armstrong Monitoring Corp.) (http://www.armstrongmonitoring.com/cm2.cfm?fid=2&&extranet=0&sid=1&lang=
1&html=carbon-monoxide-gas-detection-equipment.html)
Ametek/Thermox (http://www.ametekpi.com/searchresults.aspx?Keywords=carbon%20monoxide)
Bacharach, http://www.mybacharach.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Snifit-50/Snifit50%20datasheet.pdf
Bran & Luebbe (http://www.spx.com)
CEA Instruments (http://www.ceainstr.com/CO.html)
Ecotech (http://www.ecotech.com.au/gas-analyzers-categories/stack)
EMS (Environmental Monitoring Systems) (http://www.emssales.net/store/cart.php?m=product_detail&slug=extech-
co10-carbon-monoxide-meter)
(Continued)

132
 1.8 Carbon Monoxide 133

Enviro Technology (http://www.et.co.uk/products/scientific-research/los-gatos-research-lgr-off-axis-icos-analysers/

trace-gas/carbon-monoxide-co-analyser/)
Fluke (http://www.fluke.com/fluke/usen/electrical-test-tools/gas-measurement-testers/fluke-co-220.htm?PID=56159)
Horiba Instrument Inc. (http://www.horiba.com/us/en/process-environmental/products/ambient/details/
apma-370-ambient-carbon-monoxide-monitor-270/)
Inspector Tools, http://www.inspectortools.com/CO-Detectors-s/48.htm
Ketech, http://ketech.hu/non-destructive-equipments-and-materials/hands-free-single-gas-monitor/3120
MSA Instrument Div. (http://ca.msasafety.com/Fixed-Gas-%26-Flame-Detection/Gas-Detectors/
Chemgard%26reg%3B-Photoacoustic-Infrared-Gas-Monitor-Series/p/00007000050000610)
Nova, http://www.nova-gas.com/analyzers/carbon-monoxide
OxyCheq, http://www.oxycheq.com/analyzers-sensors/analyzers/carbon-monoxide-analyzers.html
Sensidyne Inc. (http://www.sensidyne.com/colorimetric-gas-detector-tubes/detector-tubes/sensidyne_gas_detector_tube_
number-106SC_CARBON_MONOXIDE1-50ppm.php)
SensIt, http://www.gasleaksensors.com/products/sensit_co.html
Servomex Co. (http://www.servomex.com/servomex/web/web.nsf/en/ir1520)
Siemens Energy & Automation (http://www.industry.usa.siemens.com/automation/us/en/process-instrumentation-and-
analytics/process-analytics/continuous-gas-analytics/flk-probe/Pages/flk-probe.aspx)
Sierra Monitor Corp. (http://www.sierramonitor.com/gas/about/Gas-Detection/Carbon-Monoxide-CO-gas-detection.php)
Teledyne/API (http://www.teledyne-api.com/manuals/04033A_300M.pdf)
Thermo Scientific (http://www.thermoscientific.com/ecomm/servlet/
productscatalog?categoryId=89577&storeId=11152&from=search&taxonomytype=4)
Topac (http://topac.com/safetypalmt.html)
TPI, http://www.testproductsintl.com/707.html#.ViQKVcsrpF0
Yokogawa Corp. of America (http://www.yokogawa.com/an/nr800/an-nr-01en.htm)

IntroduCtIon Carbon monoxide is also an indicator of incomplete com-

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless
gas that is slightly less dense than air. It is toxic to humans
and animals because it interferes with the normal hemoglo-
bin function of carrying oxygen to body tissues.
Chapter 1.26 discusses the measurement of all toxic and
hazardous gases while the coverage of this chapter is limited
to the monitoring of carbon dioxide.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas and, as such, it is
monitored in the ambient air for personal safety reasons.
The threshold limit value (TLV) adopted by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists for CO is
50 ppm. In industrial applications, lower limits are often used
for alarm set points. Electrochemical and catalytic sensors
are used in personal toxic gas monitors.
bustion and, therefore, it is measured to optimize boilers
and other combustion processes. For these applications, the
most frequently used analyzer is the nondispersive infrared
(NDIR) sensor (Chapter 1.33).
In the chemical processing industries, when higher sensitiv-
ity (0.1 ppm) measurements of carbon monoxide are required,
mercury vapor (Chapter 1.37) and gas chromatographic ana-
lyzers (Chapter 1.10) are also used. Each of these techniques
will be briefly described in the discussion that follows.
CAlIBrAtIon teChnIQues
Ambient carbon monoxide analyzers (Table 1.8a) are cali-
brated with gas mixtures of known concentrations. Such
mixtures may be prepared by volumetric dilution of pure

Table 1.8a
Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide Analyzers
Detection Method Range, ppm Sensitivity, ppm Advantages Disadvantages
NDIR 0–25, 50, 100 0.5–1 U.S. reference method, Sensitive, water, and CO2 interferences
accurate, stable, dry gases (correctable), zero gas problems
Mercury vapor (hot HgO + CO 0–50 0.05 Sturdy, accurate, dry gases, Interferences by water and other gases
releasing Hg vapor) high sensitivity
Gas chromatography (reduction of CO 0–200 0.1 Accurate, high sensitivity, Complex and expensive
to CH4, flame ionization detection) also read CH4, dry gases
134 Analytical Measurement

carbon monoxide with nitrogen or helium, which are free A schematic diagram of a typical NDIR analyzer is shown
of  carbon monoxide. If the volumes used in dilution are in Figure 1.8a. Infrared radiation from a hot filament is chopped
accurately known, the concentration may be calculated. to pass alternately through sample and reference cells, to be
A known small volume of pure carbon monoxide is absorbed in the detector cell divided by a pressure-sensitive
placed in an evacuated tank of known volume, and the tank diaphragm. If the sample contains carbon monoxide, it will
is then filled with the dilutor gas. The pressures of the carbon absorb part of the radiation, causing that half of the detector to
monoxide volume and the final mixture must be known (or exert less pressure on the diaphragm, whose distortion is con-
else known to be equal). Smaller samples may be prepared verted to an electrical signal for rectification and amplification.
in plastic bags by injecting pure carbon monoxide from a gas
syringe into a stream of dilutor gas metered accurately into Amplifier
the bag with a flow device such as a wet test meter.
Meter R
Because cylinder nitrogen commonly has small amounts of
carbon monoxide present in it, it must not be assumed to be pure
Condenser
without verification. Pure helium is reliably free of carbon mon- Radiation microphone
oxide. A useful procedure is to zero the detector using helium. source
After that, one can measure the CO content of the available Filter Sample
cylinder nitrogen and can make the required correction. This cell cell
permits using the less expensive nitrogen for most calibrations.
M Chopper
A reference gas mixture whose carbon monoxide
content is not accurately known can also be analyzed gravi-
metrically or volumetrically by various methods, but these Filter Reference
cell cell
techniques are usually less convenient and often require
large amounts of gas. Radiation
Receiver
source

AnAlyzer tyPes Fig. 1.8a

Carbon monoxide analyzers can be distinguished by their
applications and by their operating principles. Their main
applications in the industry serve personal protection and
combustion process optimization, and these analyzers most
often utilize infrared detectors.
In nonindustrial applications, their purpose is personal
protection, and the operating principles used include bio-
medical (a gel changes color when it absorbs carbon mon-
oxide, and this color change triggers the alarm) metal oxide
semiconductor (a silica chip’s lowers its electrical resistance,
and this change triggers the alarm) and electrochemical (an
electrode in a chemical solution senses the change in electri-
cal current and triggers the alarm.
In the discussion in this chapter, all of these designs will
be discussed, but the reader is reminded that separate chap-
ters are also provided in this volume giving more detailed
descriptions of each of these instruments.
NDIR carbon monoxide analyzer.
Sample airflow is continuous at or sometimes above
atmospheric pressure. The cell is commonly 0.5 m long.
The measuring range usually extends from a minimum of
0.5–1 ppm up to a full-scale range of 25–100 ppm. Response
times are in the range of less than 1–5  min. Although the
NDIR response is nonlinear, it is assumed to be linear over
the limited calibration range in use. Some instruments cor-
rect for nonlinearity in the output amplifier. These analyzers
can be operated by nontechnical personnel.
Infrared carbon monoxide analyzers are also avail-
able for direct duct mounting in industrial combustion
processes as long as the gas temperature is under 600ºC
(1112ºF) and the concentration of CO is between 100 and
10,000 ppm (Figure 1.8b)

nondispersive Infrared (ndIr)

NDIR analysis* is the reference method for the U.S. National

Air Quality Standard for carbon monoxide and is discussed in
detail in Chapter 1.33. It allows continuous analysis, because
carbon monoxide absorbs the infrared radiation at a wave-
length of 4.6 µm. Because infrared absorption is a nonlinear
measurement, it is necessary for the analyzer to accurately
linearize its output signal.
Fig. 1.8b
* EPA, Carbon Monoxide (CO) Standards, (2015) http://www3.epa.gov/ttn/ Direct duct mounted infrared analyzer to monitor combustion
naaqs/standards/co/s_co_index.html. processes. (Courtesy of Emerson.)
 1.8 Carbon Monoxide 135

Interferences In addition to being unaffected by the presence of

Carbon dioxide and water vapor in the sample interfere with
the measurement. Filter cells filled with these gases, or optical
filters when placed in front of the cells, can minimize effects of
normal atmospheric levels of these interfering gases. The con-
trol of water vapor interference by its removal with desiccants
(e.g., silica gel) or by a refrigerator condenser is preferable in
many cases, even at the cost of some increase in response time.
background gases, both the accuracy and the response time
of these instruments are better than those using filters. If
GFC is used in combination with single-beam, dual-wave-
length technology, it is virtually immune to obstruction of
the optics. This in turn prevents drift and thereby reduces the
frequency at which recalibration is needed.
Mercury Vapor Analyzer

gas filter Correlation (gfC) Carbon monoxide is oxidized by hot mercuric oxide as
follows:
When very accurate low-level measurements are needed,
or when background gases that have the potential to inter-
210° C )
fere with the measurement are present, gas filter correlation CO + HgO (s) ¾(¾¾¾ ® CO2 + Hg (g) 1.8(1)
(GFC) is used (Figure 1.8c). In these designs, the measuring
and reference filters are replaced by gas-filled cuvettes. The
The mercury vapor released may be measured photo-
reference cuvette is filled with CO and the measuring cuvette
metrically. An analyzer based on this principle (Figure 1.8d)
usually with nitrogen.
can be operated continuously. It has higher sensitivity than

Model 300E schematic IR source

IZS option
Gas filter wheel
Sample Sample cell
Sample Flow
filter (white cell) transducer
Bandpass
Catalytic filter

Orifice
Room air
scrubber Detector

Vent/ Exhaust
calibrator Preamp/
demodulator Pump
Orifice

Shutoff Display
Spangas CPU RS-232
valve Analog data

Fig. 1.8c
GFC-type carbon monoxide analyzer. (Courtesy of Teledyne Technologies Co.)

Sample
in Charcoal
filter

Micron Diaphragm
filter pump Dryer Flow
Sampling system regulator

Sample Reacter
optical path (Red HgO, 200°C)
Sample
out
Preheater

Iodine Mercury
lamp Reference
charcoal optical path
filter 2537 Å
analyzer

Fig. 1.8d
Mercury vapor carbon monoxide analyzer.
136 Analytical Measurement

does the NDIR type, but it also suffers from some interference.
Detection levels go down to 0.025 ppm, and changes of a
tenth of that can be observed. Oxygenated hydrocarbons, ole-
fins, and hydrogen interfere with the measurement, but all
are normally at much lower concentrations in air than carbon
monoxide. Water also interferes and should be removed by a
dryer. This instrument has found particular use in nonurban
measurements where carbon monoxide levels are low.
gas Chromatograph
Gas chromatographs are discussed in detail in Chapter 1.10.
Figure 1.8e illustrates an automated gas chromatograph
that is the heart of a high precision and specificity system
measuring methane and carbon monoxide.
A precolumn prevents carbon dioxide, water, and hydro-
carbons other than methane from reaching the molecular
sieve separation column. After separation, a catalytic nickel
reactor converts carbon monoxide to methane, which is
detected by flame ionization. The system permits determi-
nation of both methane and carbon monoxide about once
every 5  min. The output is linear for both components
and can be read from 0.1 to 200 ppm. The instrument is
relatively complex and expensive, however, and requires
technically trained operators.

Total
CH4 – CO hydrocarbon
sample sample
loop loop
5 μm filter Solenoid
valve

Exhaust

Air
Sample pump Inject
air in valves Holding
Backflush amplifiers Recorders
Solenoid
valve valve
CH4

CO
Calibration Pre-
Exhaust
gas column
Separation
Total
column Flame hydrocarbon
ionization
detector
0–10 MV
Catalytic
reactor Output
Electrometer

Fig. 1.8e
Methane and carbon monoxide analyzer.
 1.8 Carbon Monoxide 137

electrochemical

A galvanic cell for continuous carbon monoxide analysis* is

based on the reaction of carbon monoxide with iodine pentoxide:

150° C )
5CO + I 2O5 ¾(¾¾ ¾ ® 5CO2 + I 2 1.8(2)

The iodine liberated is absorbed by an electrolyte and

reaches the cathode of a galvanic cell where it is reduced.
The  resulting current is measured by a galvanometer.
Interference by mercaptan, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, ole-
fins, and acetylene may be minimized by sampling through
an absorption tube of mercuric sulfate on silica gel. Water
vapor interference can be eliminated by the use of a drying
column.
The same reaction is used in a coulometric method with
a modified Hersch-type cell. The iodine is passed into the
cell, and the current flow is measured by an electrometer.
The interference possibilities are the same as those for the
galvanic analyzer. Fig. 1.8f
The minimum detectable concentration is 1 ppm with Typical pocket-size portable electrochemical detector
good precision if flow rates and temperature are controlled. configured for four individual channels of detection. (Courtesy
Careful column preparation is required, and the response of Sensidyne Inc.)
time is relatively slow.

PortABle MonItors

For purposes of personal protection, battery-operated por-

table units are available. These units are usually provided
with one or two alarm set points and with memory for
some thousands of data points, together with their times
and dates.
These pocket-size, battery-operated, portable electro-
chemical detectors are usually provided with digital displays
and audible alarms. They can be configured for one or more
monitoring channels. Figure 1.8f illustrates a unit with four
individual channels of detection.
For industrial applications, carbon monoxide alarms
are also available in microprocessor controlled “hands
free” designs (Figure 1.8g), that can be worn on the wrist
like a watch or attached to the belt or hard hat. They pro- CO H2S O2
vide distinctive audible and visual alarms when the presence
of carbon monoxide or other dangerous gases are detected.
They are battery operated for about 3000 hr or about 1 year
of normal use.
Red Orange Blue

* EPA, Air Quality Criteria for Carbon Monoxide, http://nepis.epa.gov/ Fig 1.8g
Exe/ZyNET.exe/9100E2UA.TXT?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client= “Hands free” alarm monitors for carbon monoxide or other
EPA&Index=Prior+to+1976&Doc. dangerous gas applications. (Courtesy of Ketech.)
138 Analytical Measurement

Catalytic Analysis

The catalyst Hopcalite will oxidize carbon monoxide to car-

bon dioxide. The resultant temperature rise may be recorded
continuously as a measure of carbon monoxide concentration.
The catalyst temperature and residence time must be con-
trolled to avoid interference by hydrocarbons. The method is
not suitable for most air monitoring applications because of
low sensitivity.

sPot sAMPlIng of AMBIent AIr

When only intermittent analyses are required, it is convenient

to collect samples in the field for later analysis in the labora-
tory. Rigid glass bulbs or stainless steel tanks may be evacu-
ated and then simply opened briefly to collect the air sample.
Plastic bags may be filled by means of a small air pump.
The samples may be analyzed later by various means,
including use of a continuous analyzer at some other loca-
tion. The samples may be analyzed in a central laboratory by
an infrared spectrophotometer with a long-path gas cell or by
suitable gas chromatographic apparatus.
Some colorimetric methods are also available for carbon
monoxide analysis, although in general, their sensitivity and Fig. 1.8i
precision are low for atmospheric work. An NBS colorimet- Commercial breath CO monitor, displaying a breath concentration
ric indicating gel, if freshly prepared, will limit errors to together with the corresponding blood concentration.
5%–10%, with detectability down to 0.1 ppm. The technique
is simple but time consuming and tedious, with interference These monitors typically incorporate an LCD display that
by oxidizing and reducing gases. provides a concentration level in a numeric format and/or
colored indicators that correspond to various concentration
ranges (Figure 1.8i).
ConClusIons For continuous and higher precision measurements,
nondispersive infrared analysis is the most common.
As discussed in more detail in Chapter 1.26, for simple and If it is necessary to also measure methane, the combi-
less accurate measurements of short-term carbon monoxide nation gas chromatograph with carbon monoxide analyzer
levels, gel tubes can be used (Figure 1.8h). is worthy of consideration, but this is an expensive choice.
Similarly, simple devices are the breath CO monitors which The mercury vapor analyzer is suitable where the carbon
detect carbon monoxide gas by an electrochemical  sensor. monoxide levels are low.

sPeCIfICAtIon forMs

For the specification of carbon monoxide analyzers, the

forms prepared by the International Society of Automation,
Fig. 1.8h (Forms 20A1001 and 20A1002) can be used to describe the
Carbon monoxide measuring tube with a range of 1–50 ppm. details and operating conditions of the application. These
(Courtesy of Sensidyne Inc.) forms can be found on the next pages.
 1.8 Carbon Monoxide 139

1 RESPONSIBLE ORGANIZATION ANALYSIS DEVICE 6 SPECIFICATION IDENTIFICATIONS

2 7 Document no
3 Operating Parameters 8 Latest revision Date
4 9 Issue status
5 10
11 ADMINISTRATIVE IDENTIFICATIONS 40 SERVICE IDENTIFICATIONS Continued
12 Project number Sub project no 41 Return conn matl type
13 Project 42 Inline hazardous area cl Div/Zon Group
14 Enterprise 43 Inline area min ign temp Temp ident number
15 Site 44 Remote hazardous area cl Div/Zon Group
16 Area Cell Unit 45 Remote area min ign temp Temp ident number
17 46
18 SERVICE IDENTIFICATIONS 47
19 Tag no/Functional ident 48 COMPONENT DESIGN CRITERIA
20 Related equipment 49 Component type
21 Service 50 Component style
22 51 Output signal type
23 P&ID/Reference dwg 52 Characteristic curve
24 Process line/nozzle no 53 Compensation style
25 Process conn pipe spec 54 Type of protection
26 Process conn nominal size Rating 55 Criticality code
27 Process conn termn type Style 56 Max EMI susceptibility Ref
28 Process conn schedule no Wall thickness 57 Max temperature effect Ref
29 Process connection length 58 Max sample time lag
30 Process line matl type 59 Max response time
31 Fast loop line number 60 Min required accuracy Ref
32 Fast loop pipe spec 61 Avail nom power supply Number wires
33 Fast loop conn nom size Rating 62 Calibration method
34 Fast loop conn termn type Style 63 Testing/Listing agency
35 Fast loop schedule no Wall thickness 64 Test requirements
36 Fast loop estimated lg 65 Supply loss failure mode
37 Fast loop material type 66 Signal loss failure mode
38 Return conn nominal size Rating 67
39 Return conn termn type Style 68
69 PROCESS VARIABLES MATERIAL FLOW CONDITIONS 101 PROCESS DESIGN CONDITIONS
70 Flow Case Identification Units 102 Minimum Maximum Units
71 Process pressure 103
72 Process temperature 104
73 Process phase type 105
74 Process liquid actl flow 106
75 Process vapor actl flow 107
76 Process vapor std flow 108
77 Process liquid density 109
78 Process vapor density 110
79 Process liquid viscosity 111
80 Sample return pressure 112
81 Sample vent/drain press 113
82 Sample temperature 114
83 Sample phase type 115
84 Fast loop liq actl flow 116
85 Fast loop vapor actl flow 117
86 Fast loop vapor std flow 118
87 Fast loop vapor density 119
88 Conductivity/Resistivity 120
89 pH/ORP 121
90 RH/Dewpoint 122
91 Turbidity/Opacity 123
92 Dissolved oxygen 124
93 Corrosivity 125
94 Particle size 126
95 127
96 CALCULATED VARIABLES 128
97 Sample lag time 129
98 Process fluid velocity 130
99 Wake/natural freq ratio 131
100 132
133 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 137 MATERIAL PROPERTIES Continued
134 Name 138 NFPA health hazard Flammability Reactivity
135 Density at ref temp At 139
136 140
Rev Date Revision Description By Appv1 Appv2 Appv3 REMARKS

Form: 20A1001 Rev 0 © 2004 ISA

140 Analytical Measurement

1 RESPONSIBLE ORGANIZATION ANALYSIS DEVICE 6 SPECIFICATION IDENTIFICATIONS

2 COMPOSITION OR PROPERTY 7 Document no
3 Operating Parameters (Continued) 8 Latest revision Date
4 9 Issue status
5 10
11 PROCESS COMPOSITION OR PROPERTY MEASUREMENT DESIGN CONDITIONS
12 Component/Property Name Normal Units Minimum Units Maximum Units Repeatability
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
Rev Date Revision Description By Appv1 Appv2 Appv3 REMARKS

Form: 20A1002 Rev 0 © 2004 ISA

 1.8 Carbon Monoxide 141

Abbreviations Emerson-Rosemount: Continuous emission monitoring, (2013)

http://www2.emersonprocess.com/siteadmincenter/PM%20
GFC Gas filter correlation Rosemount%20Analytical%20Documents/PGA_AN_42-
NDIR Nondispersive infrared PGA-AN-POWER-CEMS-Cogen.pdf.
TLV Threshold limit value EPA, Air quality criteria for carbon monoxide, http://nepis.epa.gov/
Exe/ZyNET.exe/9100E2UA.TXT?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&
Client=EPA&Index=Prior+to+1976&Doc.
EPA, Ambient air sampling, (2011) http://www.epa.gov/region4/
organizations
sesd/fbqstp/Ambient-Air-Sampling.pdf.
EPA, An introduction to indoor air quality (IAQ), (2015) http://
ACGIH American Conference of Governmental
www.epa.gov/iaq/co.html.
Industrial Hygienists EPA, Carbon monoxide (CO) standards, (2015) http://www3.epa.
AIHA American Industrial Hygiene Association gov/ttn/naaqs/standards/co/s_co_index.html
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, Nova, Carbon monoxide, (2015) http://www.nova-gas.com/
and Air-Conditioning Engineers analyzers/carbon-monoxide
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials OSHA, Carbon monoxide in workplace atmospheres, (1991) https://
www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/inorganic/id210/id210.html.
Siesler, H. W., Near-infrared spectroscopy: Principles, instru-
Bibliography ments, applications, (2008) http://www.amazon.com/Near-
Infrared-Spectroscopy-Principles-Instruments-Applications/
(For a more complete listing of reading material on toxic and dp/3527301496.
Smith, A. L., Applied infrared spectroscopy, http://books.google.
hazardous gas detection refer to Chapter 1.26)
com / books / about/Applied_infrared_spectroscopy.html? id =
Bittoun, R., Carbon monoxide meter, (2008) http://www.bedfont. yiRRAAAAMAAJ.
com/file.php?f=ZmlsZSMjMTAzNQ==. Thermo Electron, Near infrared sensor for online measurement,
Burns, D. A., Handbook of near-infrared analysis, (2001) http:// (2005) http://www.thermo.com/eThermo/CMA/PDFs/Various/
books.google.com/books/about/Handbook_of_Near_Infrared_ File_27448.pdf.
Analysis_Secon.html?id=XkALgZVXxQQC. Van der Maas, J. H., Basic infrared spectroscopy, London:
Dwyer, Leatherman, Manclark, Kimball, and Rasmussen, Carbon Heyden & Sons, Ltd., 1972. https://archive.org/details/
monoxide: A clear and present danger, ( 2004) http://www. BasicInfraredSpectroscopy.
amazon.com/Carbon-Monoxide-Clear-Present-Danger/ Yokogawa, Carbon monoxide measurement in coal-fired power boilers,
dp/1930044208. (2008) http://cdn2.us.yokogawa.com/TDLS_A_001.pdf.