Accepted Manuscript

EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF A NATURALLY

VENTILATED DOUBLE-SKIN FAÇADE

L.C.O Souza , H.A Souza , E.F Rodrigues

PII: S0378-7788(17)31623-7
DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.01.048
Reference: ENB 8308

To appear in: Energy & Buildings

Received date: 8 May 2017

Revised date: 17 January 2018
Accepted date: 23 January 2018

Please cite this article as: L.C.O Souza , H.A Souza , E.F Rodrigues , EXPERIMENTAL AND NU-
MERICAL ANALYSIS OF A NATURALLY VENTILATED DOUBLE-SKIN FAÇADE, Energy & Buildings
(2018), doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.01.048

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Highlights
 A double skin façade (DSF) applied in a test cell is designed and analyzed.
 Thermocouples K type is used to measure the temperatures and hot wire anemometers for the
air velocity.
 Ansys CFX simulations are made to obtain a better analysis of heat transfer and airflow.
 Results of an uninterrupted 3-day measurement sequence are presented.
 Results show that DSF can contribute to the reduction of the temperature of the wall faces and
contribute with the reducing of the heat gains in the indoor environment.

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EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF A NATURALLY VENTILATED DOUBLE-SKIN
FAÇADE

SOUZA L C O1; SOUZA H A2; RODRIGUES E F2.

1
Civil Engineering Postgraduate Program, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto.
2
Department of Control and Automation and fundamentals techniques, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto.

Keywords: double-skin façade; experimental analysis; numerical simulation; natural ventilation.

Abstract
This paper investigates the efficiency of a naturally ventilated double-skin façade (DSF) built in a test cell focusing on

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the airflow and heat convection of the cavity formed by DSF. The study covers measurements of the test cell and their

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numerical simulation. DSFs have been widely researched worldwide, since they contribute to the thermal performance

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of the internal environment and to energy savings by eliminating mechanical conditioning systems. For data

acquisition, type K surface thermocouples are installed on the wall faces of the test cell and the additional façade, that

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is, on the inner and outer face of the wall of the test cell and the inner face of the external one. Furthermore, hot wire

anemometers are positioned so as to obtain the air velocity in the lower and upper openings of the cavity, which has an
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air layer thickness of 0.1 m. The results show that the DSF presence contributes to a decrease of the temperature inside

the environment because it inhibits the direct solar radiation. Measurement of the faces shows that at 4:00 PM the
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temperature reaches their maximum values. These values are equal to 25.6 °C on the inner face of the façade and
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23.6 °C on the inner face of the test cell, while the outdoor temperature presents values equal to 23.1 °C at this time.

1. Introduction
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Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is a global concern. In order to contribute to the reduction of emissions, projects
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aiming at the efficient use of energy stand out in the current scenario. In the construction sector, current researches are

now proposing strategies to reduce energy demand.

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According to the European Directive 2013/31/EU [1], which concerns the energy performance of buildings, the

buildings in the European Union consume about 40% of the total energy of the block, and this directive obliges

member countries to adopt policies to promote efficient constructions.

Following the same reasoning, Radhi [2] affirms that heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems

are largely responsible for the high-energy consumption of buildings. In countries with hot climates, such as the

United Arab Emirates (UAE), the energy consumption of air conditioning and ventilation represents around 60 to 75%

of the building’s total energy consumption.

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In relation to Brazil, the country shows a vast latitudinal extension, which comprises different climate

conditions, ranging from a cold climate in the southern region of the country to a hot climate in the mid-western,

northern and northeastern regions.

Efficient energy use policies have been present in Brazil since 2003 by means of the Procel Edifica program.

This program develops and support projects for energy conservation in residential, commercial, and public buildings.

According to the program, the potential reduction of consumption is estimated to be around 30% with implementation

of energy-efficient actions for the existing buildings, while for new buildings, the potential reduction is around 50%

[3].

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Thus, the design of an efficient construction takes into account the rational use of energy, emphasizing the

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concept of passive buildings, where the internal environment is regulated by the structure and design of the

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construction and not by the mechanical conditioning or air heating systems [4]. According to Cabeza et al. [5], the

envelopes of the construction present great potential with regard to the reduction of the energetic consumption.

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In the context of passive buildings, double-skin façades (DSFs) have become popular [6]. DSFs consist of a

building with a normal façade and an additional external façade. The space between the façades forms a cavity filled
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with air and openings. Shading devices can also be installed in the cavity when the external façade is made of glass

[7]. Besides DSFs, multiple façades have been developed by researchers, and in this case, the façade displays more
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than one skin [8].

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The basic operation of a DSF is due to the stack effect that occurs in the cavity. Inside the cavity, the air is

heated by a heat transfer phenomena that promotes a difference in the air density that is circulated: the heated air is
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expelled through the upper opening of the device and the fresh air enters the cavity through the lower opening. The

entrance and expulsion of the air in the cavity of the façade can occur naturally or mechanically with the use of fans
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and exhaust fans [9-10].

Therefore, an experimental and numerical study of a naturally ventilated DSF built with an opaque external
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massive cladding installed in a test cell is performed in order to evaluate its thermal behavior and airflow, focusing on

the reduction of the internal temperature of the test cell. According Stazi et al.[11], façades with an opaque external

massive cladding can provide a comfortable indoor environments, without thermal bridging and air infiltration.

2. Experimental and numerical procedure

The work is developed through an experimental study using a test cell, whose dimensions correspond to a room of a

Brazilian popular housing type for the low-income population, and a numerical study starting from the experimental

data realized using software ANSYS® CFX® software.

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2.1. Test cell

The test cell was built in Brazil, in the city of Ouro Preto in the state of Minas Gerais. The city of Ouro Preto is

20º23'08" south latitude and 43º30'29" west longitude, being at an altitude of 1,179 m. It is characterized by a high-

altitude, humid, tropical climate, characteristic of mountainous regions, with rains starting in December lasting until

the month of March and rare frosts in June and July.

The test cell has dimensions of 3.05 × 3.50 m with a ceiling height equal to 3.0 m, roof with ceramic tiles, wooden

door and wooden window measuring 0.8 x 2.10 m and 1.00 x 1.05 m, respectively, that are kept closed during the

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measurements. Furthermore, it is built of masonry with a wall thickness equal to 0.15 m and painted white in order to

improve solar reflection. The experimental procedure is carried out with and without the external façade. The design

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of the test cell is shown in Fig. 1 and the construction materials and proprieties are presented in Table 1.

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Fig.1. Design of test cell (dimensions in meters)

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Table 1. Materials and its properties

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Properties
Material Especific mass Thermal conductivity Especific heat Thickness
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[kg/m³] [W/(m.K)] [kJ/(kg.K)] [m]

Ceramic brick 1600 0.90 0.92 0.09
Commom mortar 2000 1.15 1.00 0.03
Cement sheet 2200 0.95 0.84 0.03
ABNT (2005)[12]

The external façade is a vertical wall installed on outside sur of the test cell surface, directed to the west, so as

to receive direct sunlight in the afternoon. It has dimensions of 3.05 × 2.70 m and is built of cement sheet measuring

0.03 m. The external façade is positioned 0.15 m from the ground and 0.10 m from the test cell wall (thickness of air
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layer) and the lateral openings are closed. As stated by Barbosa and Ip [7] and Pappas and Zhai [13], the thickness of

the air layer of a DSF can vary from 0.1 m to more than 2.0 m according to design differences such as the presence of

shading devices or access for maintenance and cleaning. In the case of this work, the thickness of the air layer is

chosen taking into account the relationship with the size of the test cell and the lower value recommended. Figure 2

presents the test cell and a schematic of the lateral view with the names of the faces, which are essential for

identification of the positions of the sensors.

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(a) Front view (b) Lateral view

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(c) Schematic view

Fig. 2. Test cell with DSF: (a) front view, (b) lateral view, and (c) schematic view

2.2. Data acquisition

The data acquisition is carried out on three consecutive days under the same weather conditions (basically, clear sky

and soft breeze) and takes place during the months of November and first days of December 2016 by measuring the

outdoor temperature, the temperature of the inner face of the façade, and the temperatures of the faces of the test cell
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related to the DSF. It is highlighted that the data acquisition is done with and without the external façade in a non-

simultaneous way, so that with the external façade, the measurement period is November 16, 17 and 18, 2016 and

without the façade is December 1, 2 and 3, 2016. The air velocities in the lower and upper openings of the façade are

also collected. This period of the year is selected due to the high daily temperature averages and absence of the rainy

season in Ouro Preto city.

The outdoor temperature is obtained from a weather station located in the Federal University of Ouro Preto

(UFOP) near to where the test cell is located.

Type K surface thermocouples are installed on the inner face of the façade and on the outer and inner faces of

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the test cell wall. On each face, four thermocouples are placed. They are fixed with two units in the center line and one

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on each side of the center line. Figure 3 shows the exact arrangement of the thermocouples on each face and the

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identification number of each thermocouple.

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(a) Façade inner face (b) Test cell outer face

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(c) Test cell inner face

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Fig. 3. Position of the type K surface thermocouples by face

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The central line defined as reference for the installation of the thermocouples can be visualized in Fig. 3;

however the exact position is defined arbitrarily in order to verify the temperature variation of the same face. The
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installation of the thermocouples is shown in Fig. 4.
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Fig. 4. Surface thermocouples installed on the inner face of the façade and on the outer face of the test cell wall. Inset: the fixing
of a thermocouple

The acquisition of the temperatures provided by the thermocouples is performed at 5-minute intervals using a

Keysight 34970A device that sends the information to Benchlink Data Logger 3 software installed in a

microcomputer.
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The air velocity is measured in the lower and upper cavities opening by means of three Instrutemp model

ITAN-800 hot-wire anemometers, installed as shown in Fig.5. It is also noted that the sensors are positioned centrally

between the façade and the test cell wall. Data collection takes place on the data logger so that samples are registered

at 10-minute intervals. For each sample, the data logger is configured to collect both the mean velocity during 10 s due

to the common buoyancy of the air velocity during the daytime, and the temperature measurements.

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Fig.5. Position of the hot wire anemometers
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2.3. Mathematical model

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In order to calculate the thermal performance of a DSF, Guillén et al. [14] state that the solid and fluid phases need to

be distinguished. So for the solid part, the temperature distribution is provided by the heat conduction equation:
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( ) (1)

where k is the material thermal conductivity (W.m- 1.K- 1), T is the temperature (K), ρ is the specific mass (kg.m- ³), cp
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is the specific heat (J.kg- 1.K- 1), and t is the time (s).
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Considering one dimensional conduction in a plane plate, Eq. (1) can be rewritten as:

( ) ( ) (2)

The radiation from the faces of the DSF in contact with the fluid is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation:

(3)

where E is the rate of radiative energy emitted per unit area (W.m-2), ϵ is the surface emissivity, and σ is the Stefan-

Boltzmann constant with value equals to 5.6704 × 10-8 W.m-²K-4.

The airflow in a DSF can be given by the Navier-Stokes equation (Eq. 4) and continuity equation (Eq. 5).
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( ( ( )) ( ) (4)

( ) (5)

where ν is the kinematic viscosity (m².s-1), p is the pressure (Pa), and f is the body force per volume unit (N.m- 3).

For a DSF, the combined free convection and forced convection can occur in function of local conditions of wind

and cavity depth. The definition of the convection type is given by the Richardson number (Ri) expressed by Eq. (6)

[13].

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(6)

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where Gr is the Grashof number and Re is the Reynolds number, given by expressions Eq. (7) and Eq. (8),

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respectively.

( )

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where g is the gravity acceleration (m.s-²), β is the coefficient of volumetric expansion (K-1), and L is the plate height
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(m). The fluid proprieties are taken from the mean of the temperature of the inner face of the façade, T 1, and the

temperature on the outer face of the wall of the test cell T2.
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(7)
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where V is the fluid velocity (m.s-1) and Dh is the section hydraulic diameter (m)

When Ri << 1, forced convection predominates, and when Ri >> 1, free convection predominates; for Ri ≈1,
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combined convection occurs. So, in this case, it is necessary to evaluate the type of convection present.
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Considering a flow with a Reynolds number above 4000, turbulence is inherent. Thus, it becomes necessary to

use a turbulence model. Among the turbulence models, the k-ε model stands out due to its robustness, precision, and
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stability. The k-ε model is a two-equation model based on the concept of turbulent viscosity, where k represents the

kinetic energy of the turbulence and ε is the viscous dissipation of the turbulent kinetic energy, and then the turbulent

viscosity is introduced to the flow. The turbulent viscosity is given by Eq. (8) [16].

(8)

where μt is the dynamic turbulent viscosity (N.s.m-²), Cμ is a constant with a defined value equal to 0.09, k is the

turbulent kinetic energy (m².s-2), and is the viscous dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy (m².s-3).
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The values of k and ε can be obtained from the differential equation of transport of the turbulent kinetic energy

(Eq. 9) and the transport differential equation of the specific viscous dissipation rate (Eq. 10).

( )
( ) [( ) ] (9)

( )
( ) [( ) ] ( ) (10)

where μt is the turbulent dynamic viscosity (N.s.m-²), Pk is the production of turbulence due to viscous and buoyancy

forces (kg.m-1.s-3), σk is a constant equal to 1.0, σε is a constant equal to 1.3, Cε1 is a constant equal to 1.44, and Cε2 is a

constant equal to 1.92.

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2.4. Numerical simulation

In order to model the heat transfer between surfaces and airflow more reliably, the analysis of CFD (Computational

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Fluid Dynamics) simulations is an alternative to energy modeling programs. Therefore, the numerical simulation is

done through ANSYS®CFX® focusing on the analysis of the airflow and the heat convection process in the cavity of

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the double façade from the presented mathematical model; in this approach, only the analysis with an external façade
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is performed.

After drawing the model, a mesh with hexahedral elements is generated and then the boundary conditions are
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defined. The boundary conditions depart from the experimentally-obtained mean temperatures of the faces and the air

velocity at the inlet (Fig. 6).

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Fig. 6. Boundary conditions for the numerical model

The numerical modeling is done considering simulations at two-hour intervals for one day, that is 12:00 AM,

2:00 AM, 4:00 AM, 6:00 AM, 8:00 AM, 10:00 AM, 12:00 PM, 2:00 PM, 4:00 PM, 6:00 PM, 8:00 PM, and 10:00 PM.

Therefore, this analysis is in the permanent regime for each instant, which may be called pseudo-transient [17].
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The convergence criteria are defined as a standard RMS value of 1 × 10-4 and a minimum of 1 (one), with

maximum of 100 (one hundred) iterations.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Experimental results

The data presented in Fig. 7 show that there is not much variation between the temperatures measured by the

thermocouples positioned on the same surface. Figure 7 takes into account the measurement in one day (16 November

2016) with the DSF as example, but it is emphasized that for the other measurement days, the results also show low

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variation between the temperatures.

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Temperature (°C)

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T.2
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12 T.4
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Time (h)
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(a) Façade inner face

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24
22
20 T.5
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18
T.6
16
14 T.7
12 T.8
10

Time (h)

(b) Test cell outer face

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Temperature (°C)
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18
T.10
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14 T.11
12 T.12
10

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Time (h)

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(c) Test cell inner face

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Fig. 7. Temporal evolution of temperature for each thermocouple

Selecting exact measurement times, Table 2 shows the respective temperature values for each thermocouple and

the standard deviation.

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Table 2. Temperature measurement values on November 16, 2016
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Façade inner face temperature (ºC) Test cell outer face temperature (ºC) Test cell inner face temperature (ºC)
Time Standard Standard Standard
T.1 T.2 T.3 T.4 T.5 T.6 T.7 T.8 T.9 T.10 T.11 T.12
(h) deviation deviation deviation
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12:00 AM 17.99 18.32 18.18 17.72 0.26 18.69 19.53 19.38 18.9 0.39 20.65 20.80 20.84 20.97 0.13
3:00 AM 17.86 18.15 18.01 17.80 0.16 18.39 18.73 18.79 18.7 0.18 20.12 20.08 19.91 20.05 0.09
6:00 AM 16.75 17.00 16.83 16.57 0.18 17.94 18.03 18.07 17.9 0.07 19.44 19.39 19.27 19.43 0.08
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9:00 AM 20.35 20.04 20.25 20.04 0.16 19.60 19.77 19.60 19.6 0.09 19.24 19.22 19.27 19.37 0.07
12:00 PM 24.28 24.09 24.07 24.14 0.09 22.38 22.12 22.41 22.9 0.31 21.24 21.26 20.85 21.17 0.19
3:00 PM 25.86 25.92 25.76 25.83 0.07 24.69 24.37 24.38 24.7 0.17 22.91 23.08 22.99 23.03 0.07
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6:00 PM 26.72 26.59 26.60 26.47 0.10 25.07 24.90 24.79 24.9 0.12 24.06 24.07 24.08 24.38 0.15
9:00 PM 20.98 21.17 20.84 20.82 0.16 22.45 22.79 22.49 22.5 0.16 23.43 23.62 23.68 23.98 0.23
12:00 AM 19.44 19.65 19.36 19.27 0.16 20.74 21.23 20.96 20.9 0.20 22.12 22.41 22.36 22.63 0.21
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As shown in Fig. 6 and Table 2, the temperature values at the measurement points are close together and the

standard deviation presents low values. In this way, it is possible to consider the mean temperature between the

thermocouples of each face in the following analysis.

Taking the mean temperature in each face, the profiles are obtained for three consecutive days (72 hours) as

shown in Fig. 8. For a better analysis of the results, Fig. 8 shows the data obtained without the presence of the external

façade and Fig. 9 shows the data with the external façade setting up a typical DSF.
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Temperarture (°C)
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15
10
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Time (h)

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Test cell outer face Test cell inner face

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External environment

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Fig. 8. Temporal evolution of temperature without external façade
(Period: 1 to 3 December, 2016)

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Temperature (°C)

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15
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Time (h)
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Façade inner face Test cell outer face

Teste cell inner face External environment
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Fig. 9. Temporal evolution of temperature with DSF

(Period: 16 to 18 November, 2016)
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The curves shown in Figs. 8 and 9 demonstrate that the peak temperature occurs in the afternoon at around

4:00 PM and the presence of an external façade contributes to the reduction of temperature in the internal

environment. A more evident thermal inertia of the temperature on the inner face of the test cell is also observed, that

is, the heating of the inner face is slower and this occurs as a function of the material proprieties and thickness of the

wall.

Selecting the 4:00 PM time, which represents approximately the highest temperature on the measurement days

and taking the temperature values in the same sequence of days as presented in Figs 8 and 9 for the configuration with
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and without the external façade, Figure 10 (case 1, 2 and 3) demonstrates the relative difference. Positive values for

the relative difference indicates greater temperature values for the configuration with the external façade. Meanwhile,

negative values indicate greater values for the configuration without the external façade.

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24 Case 3
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15
12
Relative difference (%)

09 Case 2
Case 1
06
External environment
03
00 Test cell outer face

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Test cell inner face
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-15

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-18
-21
-24
-27

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Fig. 10. Relative difference for three days at 4:00 PM
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From Fig. 10, it is possible to observe by means of the relative difference between the configurations for: with

and without an external façade, that when there is no external façade, the higher environment temperature allows a
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greater heating of the outer face of the test cell wall and consequently, a greater heating of inner face of the test cell

wall (case 1). On the other hand, the occurrence of a higher environment temperature when there is the external façade
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leads to less heating of the outer and inner face of test cell wall (case 2 and 3).

The results of the air velocity in the inlet and outlet of the cavity are given in Table 3 as the mean values during
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the measurement period.

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Table 3. Incoming and outgoing air velocity

Mean Mean
Mean velocity standard Mean velocity standard
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of input air deviation of of output air deviation of

(m/s) input velocity (m/s) output
(m/s) velocity (m/s)
0.29 0.07 0.35 0.12

Table 3 shows that the air velocity at the lower opening is smaller than the upper opening and this fact occurs

due the air acceleration when heated in the cavity of the DSF, a fact that is expected with the occurrence of the stack

effect. According Sánchez et al. [10] velocity values of air in the cavity are small but not negligible.
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3.2. Richardson number analysis

Considering all the phenomena of heat transfer present in a double façade, the convection shows greater complexity,

and therefore observation of its behavior is important. Selecting two-hour intervals in one day, the results of the

experimental data are shown in Fig. 11.

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Fig. 11. Richardson number analysis (November 16, 2016)
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It can be seen from Fig. 11 that the values are not far from 1.0 and in some moments are equals to 1.0

(4:00 AM and 4:00 PM), which evidences the occurrence of combined convection; that is, the occurrence of free
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convection and forced convection together at this moment. Other values are different from 1.0, which indicates a

tendency for free convection, if higher than 1.0, or a forced convection, if lower than 1.
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3.3. Verification of numerical model

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To verify the numerical model, the results obtained are compared numerically with the experimental results. Figure 12

shows the time evolution curves of the temperature in one day (November 16, 2016) and it can be noticed that the
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temperature curve of the external face of the wall of the test cell shows a difference between the experimental results

and the numerical ones because these values are not supplied to the software. However, it is most remarkable that
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there is a good agreement between the numerical and experimental values.

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Façade inner face -
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Temperature (°C)
Experimental
24
22 Test cell outer face -
Experimental
20
18 Test cell inner face -
Experimental
16
14 Façade inner face -
12 Numeric
10 Test cell outer face-
Numeric
Test cell inner face -
Numeric
Time (h)

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Fig. 12. Temporal temperature evolution according to the experimental and numerical approaches

3.4. Numerical approach results

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The temporal variation of the heat transfer is shown in Fig. 13, and it is possible to note the temperature gradients

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between the external face of the façade, the air cavity, and the wall of the test cell through the central longitudinal

plane, based on the results of the experimental approach on November 16. For the scheme, the scale of temperature is
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held fixed for the period of one day taking the minimum and maximum values considering all faces. The outdoor

temperature is also entered for each set time. In this way, it is possible to observe an evolution of heat transfer
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throughout the day when considering 2-hour intervals.

In the sequence in Fig. 13, it can be seen that the beginning of the heating of the façade occurs at 8:00 AM, and
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in this case, the maximum value of the façade temperature occurs between 2:00 PM and 4:00 PM, implying a gradual

increase in temperature on the internal face of the test cell wall. At sunset (after 6:00 PM), the temperature of the
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façade begins to fall, but more rapidly than the temperature of the inner face of the test cell. This fact can be explained
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by the material and wall thickness of the test cell, which provides a lower temperature variation when compared to the

external façade, due to its higher thermal capacitance.

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The graph of temperature evolution along the central transverse line in the DSF for the daytime period (between

8:00 AM and 6:00 PM) is shown in Fig. 14.

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12:00 AM 2:00 AM 4:00 AM 6:00 AM

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8:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 PM 2:00 PM

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4:00 PM 6:00 PM 8:00 PM 10:00 PM

Fig. 13. Temporal variation of temperature in the external environment (Outdoor temperature), external façade, air cavity and test
cell wall
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Temperature (°C) 23
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Cavity
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Test cell wall
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Façade
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0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Thickness - Central transversal line (m)

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8:00 AM 10:00 AM 12:00 PM 2:00 PM 4:00 PM 6:00 PM

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Fig. 14. Variation of temperature along the central transversal line of a double façade

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In Fig. 14, it is emphasized that in the regions of solid–fluid contact there is a sudden change of temperature in

most cases. This is due to the thermal boundary layer that occurs close to the walls so that the particles of fluid that
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come into contact with these walls reach thermal equilibrium.

It should be noted that at 4:00 PM , the results show the highest values of temperature, where the inside face
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temperature is around 25.6 °C and the ambient temperature is 23.1 °C. To provide a more detailed description of the

heat exchange at 4:00 PM, the result is illustrated in Fig. 15, but on a local scale, that is, by taking the minimum value
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and the maximum temperature value for the moment.

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Fig. 15 – Temperature variation at 4:00 PM

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From the temperature profile at 4:00 PM shown in Fig. 15, it can be seen that the temperature of the façade

varies more than the air temperature inside the cavity, which demonstrates that there is an effective heat removal in the

interior of the cavity, due to the chimney effect. According results of Giancola et al. [18], the exhaust air flowing

inside the air cavity removes part of the heat loads through the façade, thus reducing the heat gains in the indoor

environment.

The time of 4:00 PM is selected for analysis of the airflow. Thus, Figs. 16 and 17 show the velocity vectors of

the flow and the variation of the velocity at the inlet and outlet of the cavity. It can be seen from the data presented

that the average air velocity at the outlet is higher than that at the inlet, with maximum values between 0.35 and 0.36

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m/s and minimum values between 0.29 and 0.30 m/s. The maximum values of air velocity obtained numerically at the

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outlet are close to the mean value obtained experimentally. It is noted that there is high buoyancy, but all velocity

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values are larger than the input ones. It is also possible to notice the non-slip condition at the ends (zero velocity),

where there is fluid contact with the solid part (in this case lateral closure).

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Fig. 16. Airflow velocity vectors Fig. 17. Variation of velocity in the cavity
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The flow profile in a central transverse line is obtained and shown in Fig. 18, where is possible to note the non-
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slip condition in the fluid–solid contact and the maximum velocity in the center.

Fig. 18. Velocity profile along the central transverse line

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Finally, the tangential velocity vectors are also obtained. Figure 19 shows the tangential velocity vectors at three

different points of the cavity of the double façade: immediately after the input, center, and output. The tangential

velocity is smaller at the input and increases as it travels to the upper opening, developing a circular motion that may

be caused by heat convection.

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Fig. 19. Vectors of tangential velocity along the airflow

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4. Conclusions

From the results presented, it is possible to conclude that the installation of an external façade, configuring a
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DSF, is effective with regard to temperature reduction of the outer face and consequently, of the inner face of the test
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cell wall when compared to the results of the configuration without the external façade in the solar period. This device

was constructed with opaque material that inhibits the direct solar radiation on the external face of the wall and further

creates a layer of circulating air in the cavity formed. Such factors reduce the heat transfer through the external wall,

and are able to reduce the temperature on the inner wall of the construction, and can be applied in regions with warm

climates.

However, attention should be paid to the fact that an optimum cavity depth is dependent on factors, such as

local climatic conditions as well as the characteristics of the double façade, such as the material, size, and distance

from the wall.

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It is important to state that in this case, there is no cross ventilation or air changes with the interior in order to

have better measurement control. As such, when these conditions are applied, they are conducive to heat removal from

the walls under tropical climates, improving the thermal performance.

It can be concluded that double façades can be simple and efficient alternatives to contribute to the thermal

performance of buildings. It should be noted that Brazil is a country with a predominantly hot climate and this

technology can be used to provide energy efficiency in erected environments.

Acknowledgment

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This work was supported by FAPEMIG, CAPES, and UFOP.

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