ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

1. LINE
An element of art used to define shape, contours, and outlines; also to suggest mass and volume. It
may be a continuous mark made on a surface with a pointed tool or implied by the edges of shapes and
forms. Line is an element of art defined by a point moving in space. It is first and most basic of the
elements of design as it is usually the starting place for much of artistic creation. As a geometric
conception, a line is a point in motion, with only one dimension - length. Line has both a position
and a direction in space. The variables of line are: size, shape, position, direction, number, interval
and density. Points create lines, lines create shapes or planes and volume. Lines enclose and
contain the parts of a design by creating outlines.
In drawing, a line is the stroke of the pen or pencil but in graphic design, it’s any two connected points.
Lines are useful for dividing space and drawing the eye to a specific location. For example, think about
how a magazine uses lines to separate content, headlines and side panels. Lines can be vertical,
horizontal, diagonal, or curved. They can be any width or texture and can be continuous, implied, or
broken.
Lines also send subliminal messages. A diagonal line, for example, has kinetic energy and movement,
while a straight line is more ordered and clean.
Lines can be used to emphasize, setting particular information off in a busy composition and drawing
the eye to a particular area. They can be formed into shapes or frames (more on both of those a bit
further down). The eye will also see lines in other places—think buildings, branches of a tree, a horizon,
or a set of train tracks—that offer a natural edge or borders.
Characteristic of Line are:
 Width - thick, thin, tapering, uneven
 Length - long, short, continuous, broken
 Direction- horizontal, vertical, diagonal, curving, perpendicular, oblique, parallel, radial, zigzag
 Focus- sharp, blurry, fuzzy, choppy
 Feeling- sharp, jagged, graceful, smooth
Types of Line:
1. Outlines- Lines made by the edge of an object or its silhouette.
2. Contour Lines- Lines that describe the shape of an object and the interior detail.
3. Gesture Lines- Lines that are energetic and catch the movement and gestures of an active figure.
4. Sketch Lines- Lines that capture the appearance of an object or impression of a place.
5. Calligraphic Lines- Greek word meaning "beautiful writing." Precise, elegant handwriting or lettering done by
hand. Also artwork that has flowing lines like an elegant handwriting.
6. Implied Line- Lines not actually drawn but created by a group of objects seen from a distance. Implied line is
the direction an object is pointing to, or the direction a person is looking at.

7. Vertical lines of varying lengths and weights.

 8. The appearance of line in a three-dimenionsal form: a wire sculpture (Alexander
Calder, Joan Miroó, c. 1930. )

9. Line is not just an artificial tool of the artist.

10. Lines that are grouped together often create a sense of value, density or texture.

Expressive Qualities of Line

Certain arrangements of line are commonly understood to carry certain kinds of information.

For example, calligraphy is recognizable as a representation of words, even when we

do not know the language. Calligraphic imagery is often used by modern artists
simply because of the mysterious messages implied in the "code" of unknown
language.
 Line in the form of maps is readily recognized as a symbolic
representation of a place. The place may be a local neighborhood,
or the entire world. It may be a carefully measured representation,
or a stylized diagram, such as a subway map. In either case, we
understand it to be a device by which we can understand the
relationship between places; how to get from "here" to "there."

Floor plans are a specialized kind of map, a commonly understood

device which describes a building. This linear language can be
understood even when the building is as unusual as this one, which was to be constructed of a
sprayed foam material in a decidedly unconventional form.

Graphs are another readily recognizable linear device. They are

widely used to communicate quantitative information and
relationships in a visual way. From the time we first meet them in
basic algebra, to the last time we picked up a copy of USA Today,
we encounter and interpret graphs.

Line also communicates emotion and states of mind through its character and direction. The
variations of meaning generally relate to our bodily experience of line and direction.

Horizontal line suggests a feeling of rest or repose. Objects

parallel to the earth are at rest in relation to gravity. Therefore
compositions in which horizontal lines dominate tend to be quiet
and restful in feeling. One of the hallmarks of Frank Lloyd
Wright's architectural style is its use of strong horizontal elements which stress the relationship of
the structure to the land.
 Vertical lines communicate a feeling of loftiness and spirituality. Erect lines seem
to extend upwards beyond human reach, toward the sky. They often dominate public
architecture, from cathedrals to corporate headquarters. Extended perpendicular
lines suggest an overpowering grandeur, beyond ordinary human measure.

Diagonal lines suggest a feeling of movement or direction. Since objects in

a diagonal position are unstable in relation to gravity, being neither vertical
nor horizontal, they are either about to fall, or are already in motion, as is
certainly the case for this group of dancers. In a two dimensional
composition diagonal lines are also used to indicate depth, an illusion of
perspective that pulls the viewer into the picture-creating an illusion of a
space that one could move about within. Thus if a feeling of movement or
speed is desired, or a feeling of activity, diagonal lines can be used.

Horizontal and vertical lines in combination communicate stability and

solidity. Rectilinear forms stay put in relation to gravity, and are not likely
to tip over. This stability suggests permanence, reliability and safety. In the
case of the man in this family group, the lines seem to imply stability to the
point of stodginess.

Deep, acute curves, on the other hand, suggest confusion, turbulence, even frenzy, as in the
violence of waves in a storm, the chaos of a tangled thread, or the turmoil of lines suggested by the
forms of a crowd. The complicated curves used to form the mother in the family group shown
above suggest a fussy, frivolous personality.

Curved lines do vary in meaning, however. Soft, shallow

curves suggest comfort, safety, familiarity, relaxation. They recall the
curves of the human body, and therefore have a pleasing, sensual
quality.
 The quality of the line is in itself a fundamental visual language, to
an extent that cannot be claimed for any other single element. Its use
is so universal that we are all profoundly sensitive to it. Even without
an artist's training, we can extract considerable meaning from the kind
of line used in a drawing. It is possible to recognize the soft, irregular
lines of a quick sketch from life, as seen in this study of a lion.

On the other hand, the crisp, carefully placed lines of the rhinocerous
are typical of a more studied, scrupulously worked studio drawing.
The lines suggest that this was not drawn from life, but from hearsay.
This is also evident from the fact that Durer drew this rather
inaccurate image in fifteenth century Europe when he could only have
known of this African animal from travellers' tales.

The quality of line in itself contributes to the mood of the work, and for the master
artist, the quality of line is a fundamental expression of his/her style. This drawing of
a nude by Matisse demonstrates his ability to create his image through a minimal
number of expertly placed lines-lines that by their placement and movement on the
page identify this work with this artist as surely as a signature.
 2. COLOR

 typically known as hue. This word represents a specific color or light wavelength found in the color
spectrum, ranging circularly from red to yellow, green, blue and back to red. Color is one of the most
obvious elements of design, for both the user and the designer. It can stand alone, as a background, or be
applied to other elements, like lines, shapes, textures or typography. Color creates a mood within the piece
and tells a story about the brand. Every color says something different, and combinations can alter that
impression further. Color is not the main role in the elements of design with the color wheel being used as
a tool, and color theory providing a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the visual impacts of
specific color.
Color comes from light - if it weren’t for light, we would have no color. Light rays move in a straight path from a light
source. Within this light, rays include all of the colors in the spectrum or rainbow. Shining a light into a prism will
create a rainbow of colors because it separates the color of the spectrum. When the light rays hit an object, our eyes
respond to the rays that are reflected back and we see only the reflected color(s). For example, a red ball reflects all
the red light rays. As artists, we use pigments in the form of powder or liquid paints to create color.

Categories of Color
A Color Wheel is a tool used to organize color. It is made up of:
 Primary Colors - Red, Yellow, and Blue. These colors cannot be mixed, they must be bought in some form.
 Secondary Colors - Orange, Violet, and Green. These colors are created by mixing two primary colors.
 Intermediate Colors - Red Orange, Yellow Green, Blue Violet, etc.; mixing a primary with a secondary creates
these colors.
 Complementary Colors - Colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel. When placed next to each
other they look bright and when mixed together they neutralize each other.
Color Harmonies
Color Harmonies are certain combinations of colors that create positive looks or feelings.
 Analogous Colors are colors that are next to each other on the color wheel. Examples include red, red orange,
and orange.
 Triadic Harmonies are three equally spaced colors on the color wheel. For example, yellow, Red, and Blue are
a triadic harmony color scheme.
 Monochromatic is one color used with different values and intensity. For example, light brown, brown and dark
brown are monochromatic colors.
 Warm colors are on one section of the color wheel and give the felling of warmth. For example, red, orange,
and yellow are the colors of fire and look warm.
 Cool colors are on the other side of the color wheel from the warm colors. They give the feeling of coolness.
For example, blue and violet are the colors of water, and green is the color of cool grass.

Often designs are undone by sloppy, careless or inappropriate color choices. Color is incredibly important
and should never be an afterthought. Even a design set entirely in grayscale needs to be balanced and
contrasted appropriately. In addition to hue (red versus blue), consider the saturation and brightness (or
“value”) of each color. Learn the basics of color theory to be sure a composition has the right mood,
temperature and tone. Finally, consider what color space (CMYK or RGB) is best for the printer or screen
where the design will be seen.

Uses

 Color can aid organization to develop a color strategy and stay consistent with those colors.[6]
 It can give emphasis to create a hierarchy to the piece of art.
 It is also important to note that color choices in design change meaning within cultural contexts. For
example, white is associated with purity in some cultures while it is associated with death in others.
 3. TEXTURE
Texture is the surface quality of an object. A rock may be rough and jagged. A piece of silk may be soft and smooth,
and your desk may feel hard and smooth. Texture also refers to the illusion of roughness or smoothness in a picture.

Categories of Texture
 Real Texture is the actual texture of an object. Artists may create real textures in art to give it visual interest
or evoke a feeling. Real texture occurs only in a three-dimensional sculpture or a collage. A piece of pottery
may have a rough texture so that it will look like it came from nature or a smooth texture to make it look
burnished.
  Implied Texture in two-dimensional art is made to look like a certain texture but in fact is just a smooth piece
of paper. Like a drawing of a tree trunk may look rough but in fact it is just a smooth piece of paper.
A technique used in two-dimensional design to replicate three-dimensional surfaces through various
drawing and media techniques. On three-dimensional surfaces, it is experienced by touch or by visual
experience. Meaning the way a surface feels or is perceived to feel. Texture can be added to attract or repel
interest to an element, depending on the pleasantness of the texture. Textures can create a more three-
dimensional appearance on this two-dimensional surface. It also helps build an immersive world.
Types of texture

 Tactile texture is the actual three-dimension feel of a surface that can be touched. Painter can
use impasto to build peaks and create texture.[8]
 Visual texture is the illusion of the surfaces peaks and valleys, like the tree pictured. Any texture shown in
a photo is a visual texture, meaning the paper is smooth no matter how rough the image perceives it to
be.[8]
Most textures have a natural touch but still seem to repeat a motif in some way. Regularly repeating a motif will
result in a texture appearing as a pattern.
4. SCALE
Scale refers to the size of an object (a whole) in relationship to another object (another whole). Overall
size; such as the largeness or smallness of a room, object or pattern. In art the size relationship between an
object and the human body is significant. In experiencing the scale of an artwork we tend to compare
its size to the size of our own bodies. Without consideration of scale, in particular, human scale, our
everyday activities would be more difficult. Scale refers to the relationship between two or more objects,
one that has a commonly known size. In most cases, the size of objects is compared to our own human
scale. Humans judge the scale of something according to body size. Some of the most common
adjectives that apply to scale include:
• Life-sized
• Miniature
• Oversized
• Enormous
When an artist or designer chooses to make particular objects oversized or miniature, it is often to
emphasize their importance or encourage a new perspective.
An artwork has a physical size; when referring to an artwork's size, we use the term scale. Scale is
more than simply the object's size, however. It is the size of the art object in relation to another object.
The relative size of the artwork is always compared to the size of the human body--life-sized, miniature,
enormous--are all terms that use the human body as a size reference.

We can find examples of this in our homes and workplaces; for instance, standardized heights have
been created for countertops, chairs have been scaled to fit our bodies, the widths of hallways allow for
people to comfortably pass one another. You can see that the way we build our environment is based
on the commonly known anthropometric data of human scale. Playing with the scale and size of your
objects, shapes, type and other elements add interest and emphasis. The amount of variation will
 depend heavily on the content within. Subtle differences suit professional content, while bold ones
prefer creative enterprises. The relationship of the area occupied by one shape to that of another.

5. SPACE
A two- or three-dimensional element defined by other elements of design. In design, space is concerned
with the area deep within the moment of designated design, the design will take place on. For a two-
dimensional design, space concerns creating the illusion of a third dimension on a flat surface:

 Overlap is the effect where objects appear to be on top of each other. This illusion makes the top element
look closer to the observer. There is no way to determine the depth of the space, only the order of
closeness.
 Shading adds gradiation marks to make an object of a two-dimensional surface seem three-dimensional.
 Highlight, Transitional Light, Core of the Shadow, Reflected Light, and Cast Shadow give an object a three-
dimensional look.[8]
 Linear Perspective is the concept relating to how an object seems smaller the farther away it gets.
 Atmospheric Perspective is based on how air acts as a filter to change the appearance of distant objects.

Negative space is one of the most commonly underutilized and misunderstood aspects of designing for the
page. The parts of the site that are left blank, whether that’s white or some other color, help to create an
overall image. Use negative space to create shapes as you would any other element.
Negative space surrounds a sculpture or object. A person can walk around sculptures and objects, look above them,
and enter them. Space refers to the space inside, around, and above a sculpture or object. A three-dimensional object
with positive space will have height, width, and depth.

Space in a two-dimensional drawing or painting refers to the arrangement of objects on the picture plane. The picture
plane is the surface of your drawing paper or canvas. You can have a picture plane that is a crowded space with lots
of objects or an empty space with very few objects. A two-dimensional piece of art has height and width but no depth.
The illusion of depth can be achieved by using perspective. Perspective is the technique that is used to create the
illusion of depth in your picture. Perspective makes your picture look like it is moving to the distance like in a
landscape or cityscape.

Categories of Space
 Positive space – Similar to a positive shape, it is the actual sculpture or building.
 Negative space – Similar to a negative shape, it is the space around the sculpture or building.
 Picture Plane is the flat surface of your drawing paper or canvas.
 Composition is the organization and placement of the elements on your picture plane.
 Focal Point is the object or area you want the viewer to look at first.
Types of Perspective
Nonlinear Perspective is the method of showing depth that incorporates the following techniques.
 Position – Placing an object higher on the page makes it appear farther back than objects placed lower on the page.
 Overlapping - When an object overlaps another object it appears closer to the viewer, and the object behind the
object appears farther away.
 Size Variation - Smaller objects look farther away in the distance. Larger objects look closer.
 Color - Bright colors look as if they are closer to you and neutral colors look as if they are farther away.
 Value - Lighter (not brighter) values look as if they are farther back and darker values look as if they are closer. For
example, in a landscape the mountains often look bluish and lighter than the trees or houses that are closer to you.
 Linear Perspective is the method of using lines to show the illusion of depth in a picture. The following are types of
linear perspective.
 One-point perspective - When lines created by the edge of an object or building look like that are pointing to the
distance and these lines meet at one point on the horizon. To see an example, stand in the middle of the hallway and
look at the horizontal lines in the brick or the corner where the ceiling meets the wall. See how they move to one
point on the horizon line.
 Two-point perspective – An additional line added to one-point perspective that goes to a different point on the horizon
line.

Space, or depth, is the eponymous property of our 3-dimensional world. It refers to the area that a shape
or form occupies. Space can be defined as positive or negative.

 Positive space is the filled space, the object(s) or element(s) in the design.
 Negative space is the empty space, or the open space between design elements or objects, such
as a background.

 Positive and negative space, white or black.

 Areas of a design that contain "nothing" (negative space) are important visual
elements that provide balance.

 Reducing (or increasing) negative space can affect the impact of a design.

Designers can create the illusion of physical space and spatial relationships through:

 Linear Perspective
 Size & Vertical Location
 Overlapping
 Detail (Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective)
 Linear perspective in a photorealistic image.

 Shapes that contrast negative and positive space can create the illusion of perspective.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
1. Balance
It is a state of equalized tension and equilibrium, which may not always be calm. The elements of design
converge to create a design or arrangement of parts that appear to be a whole with equilibrium. A large
shape close to the center can be balanced by a small shape close to the edge. A large light toned shape
will be balanced by a small dark toned shape (the darker the shape the heavier it appears to be)
Types

The top image has symmetrical balance and the bottom image has asymmetrical balance

 Symmetry
 Asymmetrical balance produces an informal balance that is attention attracting and dynamic.
 Radial balance is arranged around a central element. The elements placed in a radial balance seem to
'radiate' out from a central point in a circular fashion.
 Overall is a mosaic form of balance which normally arises from too many elements being put on a page.
Due to the lack of hierarchy and contrast, this form of balance can look noisy but sometimes quiet.
 Balance is the concept of visual equilibrium, and relates to our physical sense of balance. It
is a reconciliation of opposing forces in a composition that results in visual stability. Most
successful compositions achieve balance in one of two
ways: symmetrically or asymmetrically. Balance in a three dimensional object is easy to
understand; if balance isn't achieved, the object tips over. To understand balance in a two
dimensional composition, we must use our imaginations to carry this three dimensional
analogy forward to the flat surface.


 Symmetrical balance can be described as having equal "weight" on equal sides of a

centrally placed fulcrum. It may also be referred to as formal balance. When the
elements are arranged equally on either side of a central axis, the result
is Bilateral symmetry. This axis may be horizontal or vertical. It is also possible to build
formal balance by arranging elements equally around a central point , resulting
in radial symmetry.



There is a variant of symmetrical balance called approximate

symmetry in which equivalent but not identical forms are arranged
around the fulcrum line.


Asymmetrical balance, also called informal balance, is more complex and difficult
to envisage. It involves placement of objects in a way that will allow objects of
varying visual weight to balance one another around a fulcrum point. This can be
best imagined by envisioning a literal balance scale that can represent the visual
"weights" that can be imagined in a two dimensional composition. For example, it is
possible to balance a heavy weight with a cluster of lighter weights on equal sides of
a fulcrum; in a picture, this might be a cluster of small objects balanced by a large
object. It is also possible to imagine objects of equal weight but different mass (such
as a large mass of feathers versus a small mass of stones) on equal sides of a fulcrum.
Unequal weights can even be balanced by shifting the fulcrum point on our imaginary scale.
 Whether the solution is simple or complex, some form of balance can be identified in most
successful compositions. For a further discussion of balance in design see these sites:
Symmetrical balance
Asymmetrical balance
 Balance is the idea that any given design has the appearance of being weighted equally. It is easy to comprehend that if
something three dimensional is not balanced correctly it will topple over. Obviously a two dimensional canvas or
brochure design is not going to fall over but the general principle of equilibrium is the same. A designer can achieve
this balance either symmetrically or asymmetrically.

 With symmetrical balance (also known as formal balance) the shape and form of the design is evenly balanced on both
sides. Imagine a line running vertically down the centre of the artwork or horizontally through the middle. The two
halves of the design should contain the same amount of shape, color and/or movement in order to achieve balance.
 Asymmetrical balance (also know as informal balance)
works on a comparable solid design principle to the imaginary line mentioned above but differs in that the line can run
diagonally or on an axis. The concept is similar i.e. that the two halves of the design should be weighted equally
however asymmetrical balance is a little more complicated. Imagine if you can one large sunflower in the bottom right
hand corner of a creative design. This large sunflower could be balanced out by placing multiple smaller sunflowers in
the top left hand corner to achieve asymmetrical balance.

2. Rhythm

3. Rhythm can be thought of as a pattern in movement. You can hear it in varied sounds to create music or
in the steady drip of a faucet. It can also be seen; think about lines in the sidewalk and how your
footsteps relate to the regular breaks. Rhythm can be seen and heard throughout nature and in our built
environment through repetition, alternation and progression. These three methods of achieving rhythm
can be applied to interior spaces as a way to introduce order, interest and focus, and to help lead your
eye through a room.

4. Unlike repetition and pattern above, rhythm has slightly more complexity to it. Where repetition and pattern
require the same design element to be repeated throughout the design in the same way, rhythm requires the
repetition of a variety of design elements in a specific order. As a result, individual design elements may not
repeat or be the same at all points; rather, their repetition is adaptive and changes throughout the design.
5.
6. Rhythm can be observed in architecture design such as Australia Opera House (photo by: unknown)

7. This approach to design can be viewed as the musical approach to design: individual notes are arranged in
different orders at different points, but the overall finished piece retains design coherence. Alternatively, a set
of waves crashing against the shore might be said to follow a design rhythm. While each, individual wave is
unique, the overall process has a design rhythm.

8. Owing to its complexity, rhythm has a number of sub-divisions in how it can be conceived or implemented.
Regular rhythm is similar to the idea of a pattern: the design elements are repeated in the same manner
throughout the design. Flowing rhythm allows for a greater diversity of design elements, but with great
diversity in the elements’ size, sequence, nature, and so on. Lastly, progressive rhythm allows for the greatest
amount of diversity. Elements are repeated, but there is variation in any of the elements throughout.

9.

10. Rhythm can be described as timed movement through space; an easy, connected path along
which the eye follows a regular arrangement of motifs. The presence of rhythm creates
predictability and order in a composition. Visual rhythm may be best understood by relating
it to rhythm in sound. This link will take you to a video clip and explanation of how the
sound of a Nigerian "talking drum" follows the intonation and rhythm of speech.
11. Rhythm depends largely upon the elements of pattern and movement to achieve its effects.
The parallels between rhythm in sound/ music are very exact to the idea of rhythm in a
visual composition. The difference is that the timed "beat" is sensed by the eyes rather than
the ears.
12. Visual rhythm can be created in a number of ways. Linear rhythm refers to the
characteristic flow of the individual line. Accomplished artists have a recognizable manner
 of putting down the lines of their drawings that is a direct result of the characteristic gesture
used to make those lines, which, if observed, can be seen to have a rhythm of its own. Linear
rhythm is not as dependent on pattern, but is more dependent on timed movement of the
viewer's eye.
13. Repetition involves the use of patterning to achieve timed movement and a visual "beat".
This repetition may be a clear repetition of elements in a composition, or it may be a more
subtle kind of repetition that can be observed in the underlying structure of the image.
14.
15.
Alternation is a specific instance of patterning in which a sequence
of repeating motifs are presented in turn; (short/long; fat/thin;
round/square; dark/light).
16.

17. Gradation employs a series of motifs patterned to relate to one

another through a regular progression of steps. This may be a gradation
of shape or color. Some shape gradations may in fact create a sequence
of events, not unlike a series of images in a comic strip.

18. REPETITION
19. Repetition is the simplest way to attain rhythm and can be achieved by repeating any of the elements of
design (line, colour, texture and pattern, light, and scale and proportion) or other design concepts in an
organized and regular way.

ALTERNATION

Alternation is used to create rhythm by alternating two or more elements in a regular pattern. The pattern may
be ABCABC or ABBABB, but always repeating in the same order.

PROGRESSION

Rhythm can also be achieved through progression. Examples are a gradation of colour or a series of objects that
start small and become large in a very regular manner.

Random rhythm – Repeating elements with no specific regular interval creates random rhythms. The
spacing could be a millimeter here, a centimeter there, while the elements could be all over the place.
Think of falling snow, pebbles on a beach, traffic movements: they are all examples of random
rhythms in action.

It’s also worth noting that a rhythm may appear random if you examine a small section of the rhythm.
However, if you step back and examine a larger section, it may be that there is a regular but complex
rhythm applied to the design. Remember that you have positive and negative images, which you can
use so that both the elements and the spaces between them make your design hard to “predict”. By
using a larger series of elements, you’ll have virtually limitless possibilities to play with. The artist
René Magritte made particularly interesting use of random rhythm.
Regular rhythm – Like the beating of a heart, the regular rhythm follows the same intervals over and
over again. You can easily make a regular rhythm just by creating a grid or a series of vertical lines.
The user’s eye will instantly recognize a regular rhythm, scanning it for any irregularities in the
process. Remember, the eye “likes” to be drawn to outstanding elements. Therefore, there is a risk
that when you’re using a regular rhythm in a design that it can become monotonous (like the dripping
of a tap).

Alternating rhythm – You can repeat more than one element in a design. In an alternating design,
you use a 1-2-1-2-1-2 pattern. Think of the black and white squares on a chessboard: that’s an
alternating rhythm in play. An alternating rhythm is, in fact, a regular rhythm with more complexity. It
could be as straightforward as our chessboard, or we could envision something more intricate. Some
fantastic alternating rhythms include rows of fish, birds, or other animals. Taking fish as an example,
we can see that each identical fish is following another. Below, the sequence is repeated; however,
the negative space between the rows shows fish of the other color (which we take to be the background)
swimming the other way, the fine lines of their fins and tails interlocking with those of the first pattern
of fish. M.C. Escher’s Lizard (1942) is another great example of this, incorporating three colors of
lizards with a pair of lizards of each color facing away from each other, tail to tail. As simple or
complex as we want to make an alternating rhythm, it can be an easy way to break up the monotony
of a regular rhythm.

Flowing rhythm – A flowing rhythm shows the repeated elements following bends, curves, and
undulations. In nature, you can see this in the waves on a beach or sand dunes. As designers, we
can mimic nature by making wonderful patterns of elements with flowing rhythm. We can show
clumps of seaweed underwater, their strands gently facing in a series of directions. The user
imagines them washing against each other.

Progressive rhythm – We can make a progressive rhythm simply by changing one characteristic of a
motif as we repeat it. We could draw a series of circles, one above the other, making each lower one
larger. Do you see how the largest one at the bottom looks like it’s closest to you? We can make a
progressive rhythm change subtly or dramatically. You could add shade to the smaller circles
progressively so that the smallest one at the top is dark, the middle one in partial shade, and the
biggest one only slightly shaded. Progressive rhythms surround us. If you were to video someone
dancing and then examine that video frame-by-frame, you would have a progressive rhythm.

20. Proportion
The size relationship or ratio of parts to whole, such as the size of a chair in relation to the size of its arms.
It is closely related to scale. When the relationship/ratio is pleasing to the eye, it is well proportioned.
Proportion refers to the relative size of parts of a whole (elements within an object). We often think of
porportions in terms of size relationships within the human body. Using the relative size of elements
against each other can attract attention to a focal point. When elements are designed larger than life,
scale is being used to show drama. A two- or three-dimensional element defined by other elements
of design.

Proportion is an element of design that pertains to the relative size of the components that
compose an object. Again, the human body is the standard by which people judge proportion.
An eye should be smaller than a face, for instance, and a male’s shoulders should be wider
than his hips.
The golden ratio is a mathematical method for determining proportion. Based on the number
pi, this ratio has been the standard for artists and designers since the ancient Egyptians used
it in designing the pyramids. Also, the golden ratio is applicable to the natural proportions of
the body. The more closely a person’s proportions conform to this ratio, the more classically
beautiful they are likely to appear.

Proportion is an important element that can impact the feeling of a design whether it is on a canvas, clothing or architecture.

Think about the way that a boardroom in a law firm with high ceilings, expansive windows and an oversized timber desk could

intimidate a defendant. Or the way a large floral print could overwhelm a small mini skirt. Alternatively, a small den could

instantly feel cozy just based on its size. In design proportion can be used to illicit feelings of expanse and depth as well as

warmth and comfort.

Proportion refers to the relative size and scale of the various elements in a design. The issue is
the relationship between objects, or parts, of a whole. This means that it is necessary to discuss
proportion in terms of the context or standard used to determine proportions.

Our most universal standard of measurement is the human body; that is, our
experience of living in our own bodies. We judge the appropriateness of size of
objects by that measure. For example, a sofa in the form of a hand is startling
because of the distortion of expected proportion, and becomes the center of attention
in the room. Architectural spaces intended to impress are usually scaled to a size
that dwarfs the human viewer. This is a device often used in public spaces, such as
churches or centers of government. The same principle is often applied to corporate
spaces through which the enterprise wishes to impress customers with its power and
invincibility.

In contrast, the proportions of a private home are usually more in scale with human measure, and as
a result it appears more friendly, comfortable, less intimidating.
Use of appropriate scale in surface design is also important. For example, an
overly large textile design can overwhelm the form of a garment or a piece of
furniture.

A surprising aspect of proportion is the way ideal proportions can vary for the human body
itself. Styles change in bodies as they do in clothing. Prior to the 16th century, for example, the
female body ideally had large hips and belly. Only later was a small waistline
stressed.

In the 17th century and many other periods, the ideal body was much heavier than
we would accept today.

Of course, in the last 35 years the ideal personified by the fashion model has fostered a
standard which idealizes exceptionally slender body proportions for women. In this
century, sports have provided models for ideal male body proportions. Beginning with
the rise of televised football in the 1960's, and the subsequent fitness boom, an
increasingly exaggerated muscular silhouette, corresponding to that of the uniformed
and padded football player, was presented as the ultimate male form. Only in this period could
Arnold Schwartzenegger have represented the heroic ideal body image. This trend reached its most
extreme form in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Since that time the emergence of basketball as the
predominant American sport has led to a more naturally proportioned fit body ideal for men.

In addition, artists frequently take liberties with the natural proportions of the
human body to achieve their expressive goals. A well known classic example
is Michaelangelo's David, in which distortions of proportion are used by the artist
to depict both the youthfulness of the boy David, together with the power of the
hero about to conquer the giant Goliath. The surrealist painter Magritte often used
distortions of proportions to create striking effects.

21. Emphasis
Also known as dominance. This condition exists when an element or elements within a visual
format contain a hierarchy of visual importance. Dominance is created by contrasting size,
positioning, color, style, or shape. The focal point should dominate the design with scale and contrast
without sacrificing the unity of the whole. While you can talk about emphasizing one thing or another,
the element of emphasis has more to do with an object, color or style dominating another for a
heightened sense of contrast. Dominance gives a painting interest, counteracting confusion and
monotony. Dominance can be applied to one or more of the elements to give emphasis.

Emphasis pertains to the focal point of the design. This is the part of the design that demands the most attention from the viewer
and the component of the composition that should ‘hook’ the viewer. Movement and rhythm will guide the viewer around the
artwork, but ultimately they will return to where the most emphasis is placed in the design. Creating the focal point can be
achieved using many techniques including contrasting colors, proportion or repetition.

Emphasis is also referred to as point of focus, or interruption. It marks the locations in a

composition which most strongly draw the viewers attention. Usually there is a primary, or main,
point of emphasis, with perhaps secondary emphases in other parts of the composition. The
emphasis is usually an interruption in the fundamental pattern or movement of the viewers eye
through the composition, or a break in the rhythm.

The artist or designer uses emphasis to call attention to something, or to vary the composition in
order to hold the viewers interest by providing visual "surprises."

Emphasis can be achieved in a number of ways. Repetition creates emphasis

by calling attention to the repeated element through sheer force of numbers. If
a color is repeated across a map, the places where certain colors cluster will
attract your attention, in this instance graphing varying rates of mortality from cardiovascular
disease.

Contrast achieves emphasis by setting the point of emphasis apart

from the rest of its background. Various kinds of contrasts are
possible. The use of a neutral background isolates the point of
emphasis.

Contrast of color, texture, or shape will call attention to a specific point.

Contrast of size or scale will as well.

Placement in a strategic position will call attention to a particular

element of a design.
 Prolonged visual involvement through intricacy (contrast of detail)
is a more unusual form of emphasis, not as commonly used in Euro-
American design, though it is common in many other cultures. In this
case, many points of emphasis are created that are to be discovered
through close attention to the intricacies of the design.

22. Contrast
The "automatic principle." Whenever an element is placed within a format, contrast is created in
refers to the arrangement of opposite elements (light vs. dark colors, rough vs.
smooth textures, large vs. small shapes, etc.) in a piece so as to create visual
interest, excitement and drama. the various elements. Can be emphasized with contrast in
size, shape, color, texture, etc., etc. Offers variety within a visual format. Contrast is the
juxtaposition of opposing elements eg. opposite colours on the colour wheel - red / green, blue /
orange etc. Contrast in tone or value - light / dark. Contrast in direction - horizontal / vertical.
The major contrast in a painting should be located at the center of interest. Too much contrast
scattered throughout a painting can destroy unity and make a work difficult to look at. Unless a
feeling of chaos and confusion are what you are seeking, it is a good idea to carefully consider
where to place your areas of maximum contrast.

Contrast is where two or more elements that have opposite qualities are placed together.

We can think about contrast in terms of the tension created between opposites: such as

 black versus white

 fine lines versus solid shapes
 thick and thin lines
 organic and geometric shapes
Using any of the elements of design we can create a dynamic composition through using contrast.

Contrast is a useful design principle that can make a visual communication more effective. Contrast can assist
in attracting the target audience and can lead their eye through a visual communication.
 Contrasting fonts may be used in the one presentation to assist in separating information
 a contrasting colour scheme may be used to make something stand out.
 Fine, tightly drawn vertical lines may be used with a smooth white shape or colourful circles tightly packed together with a white
square.
Contrast can be:
• strong versus weak
• bright versus dull.
Serif versus sans serif:
• big versus small
• light versus dark
• organic versus geometric
• feminine versus masculine

Below are a few examples of how contrast can be used in design:

Contrast in Shape

Here we have two shapes almost identical in scale but they both vary in characteristic. One
has a smooth surface and the other has a pointed surface. Now, what shape is your eye
drawn to? In this case it may be the shape with the smooth surface is so simple it makes us
want to look at the other shape more because it’s more complex.
Contrast in Colour

The next example demonstrates contrast in colour and as well as shape. Even though we
have a mixture of shapes, they appear in various degrees of colour. Regardless of contrast
between shapes here, there is a clear contrast of colour or tone. The darker the shape, the
more attention it commands.
Contrast in Scale
Here we have eight strokes but in different stroke sizes and a grid of circles. Again, we can
see how context is integral to contrast here. It’s the visual elements around each other that
give meaning to one another.
Contrast in Layout

Next we have contrast in layout. The top composition appears regimented and structured.
The lower layout seems more free and random.
Contrast in Type

In type, contrast is commonly used to create hierarchy and structure. There are many
methods for creating contrast in typography: alignment, typeface, type size, colour and
weight can be all considered.
Contrast in Type and Colour

In this next example we can see a word pop out from a block of type by simply being of a
darker shade.
Contrast in Type and Alignment

Here we can see contrast in type in a more dramatic way. We have type in various sizes,
weights and alignments. The type is mostly dark but but there is some white cutting
through the dark solid bar and we have type cutting off and onto the page from top to
bottom.
Contrast in Type and Colour

Next we have some similar type contrast but also contrasting with other visual elements.
The main focus is on the title word which creates it’s own dynamic as it crosses over from a
light space into a dark space which our eye is mostly drawn to.
Contrast in Shapes and Colour

Contrast is such a strong method of communication that it is used on some of the most
important visual communication like road signs.
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