ARNOLD T.

ZULU R166523C
VALENTINE TADZAUSHE R169879E
WILLIE MAPOSA R167407R
DIANA V. DZIKITI R169891Y
TAKUDZWA MATANGIRA R163521A
MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING ENGINEERING
LEVEL 3.1
MINING GEOLOGY: HMIE 312
GROUP ASSIGNMENT 2
TASK: PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS
LECTURER: DR. A. MAMUSE
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Porphyry Copper deposits form along convergent plate margins or more specifically, ancient
subduction zones. As the dense oceanic crust becomes consumed by the mantle it begins to
melt. This melting or “partial melting” of the crust creates magma that is less dense and
begins to intrude into the overlying continental crust. Intrusions navigate and interact
through large conduits known as faults, assimilating or absorbing material from the Earth’s
crust along the way.
Porphyries are formed in tectonic plate convergent zones where oceanic crust has
subducted beneath the continental crust, and in some cases the oceanic crust. As the plate
subducts, the overlying upper mantle partially melts and the liquid magma rises to the
surface. Hot fluids rise to the surface by flowing through cracks and fissures. Metals
precipitate out of the solution as fluid cools and moves away from the heat source and
pressure.
The resulting intrusion may be further subdivided by geologists based on the chemical
composition of the magma and this composition can have an influence on the exploration
methods and deposit characteristics. Calc-alkaline and alkaline porphyry copper deposits are
identified by the ratios of sodium and potassium to magnesium and iron in the rock. While a
discussion of these two types is beyond the scope of this article, it should be noted that the
two types of magma can produce significantly different types of copper deposits. Alkaline
porphyry deposits produce small alteration footprints which makes exploration a challenge.
Calc-alkaline deposits can have very large alteration halos increasing the size of the deposit.
Magma can produce hydrothermal fluid that interacts with the surrounding rocks and rises
to the surface. This hydrothermal fluid changes the chemistry of the surrounding rock either
by adding new elements, or removing elements. This addition and subtraction creates an
alteration pattern within the host rocks. The mineralogical composition of the alteration is
based on the temperature and pH of the conditions from which the minerals were created.
Parts of the intrusion that are enriched in fluid can produce the “porphyritic” rocks for
porphyry deposits are named.
The same hydrothermal fluids that alter the rocks of a magma body may also contain
dissolved metals which can be deposited within the surrounding rocks either by replacing
minerals within the rock – creating disseminated or dispersed mineralization – or by forming
within small fractures that develop within the rock – creating veins and smaller veinlets.
Rock conduits exposed to great pressure from hydrothermal fluids may also form zones of
intensely broken up rock called “breccia pipes” (either within the intrusion or the country
rock). Porphyry copper deposits can also be associated with epithermal gold deposits
formed by the same volcanic complex above the deeper-seated porphyry. If alteration
occurs in carbonate-rich (or volcanic) rocks, then skarn mineralisation may also develop.
STYLE OF MINERALIZATION
In porphyry mineralization, there are many economic minerals that can be found: copper,
gold, molybdenum, silver, lead, zinc, tin, and tungsten. There are also associated mineral
deposits that can form that depend on the host rock and the distance from the heat source.
These include skarn, epithermal, and breccia type deposits.
Each porphyry is unique and holds different concentrations of minerals. Some deposits have
such high concentrations of gold that they may be considered gold deposits rather than
copper deposits. Others have barely any gold at all but may have plenty of molybdenum.
Porphyries typically have 100 million to 5 billion tonnes of ore with a lower grade (0.2% to
>1% copper). It is the size of these deposits that allow for bulk mining and economies of
scale.
Copper in these deposits generally occurs in copper-iron sulphide minerals such as
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and bornite (Cu5FeS4). Over time, and depending on the local
environment, weathering of the near-surface rocks and the infiltration of surface water
secondary copper-bearing minerals may form. Covellite (CuS), chalcocite (Cu2S), azurite
(Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 and cuprite (Cu2O) are examples of secondary minerals. The striking blue-
green and iridescent colours of some of these ore minerals also can serve as a useful
indicator of a copper mineralization for geologists and prospectors.

A LIST OF TOP FIVE DEPOSITS IN TERMS OF ORE TONNAGE AND CONTAINED METAL, AND
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF EACH LISTED DEPOSIT
1. Chuquicamata, Atacama, Chile: The world’s largest copper mine, Chuquicamata, has
been in production since 1910. Located in the high plain of the Atacama Desert
(1500km north of Santiago, Chile). Chuquicamata is, one of the driest places on
earth. Operated by nationally held Codelco, Chuquicamata may have contained as
much as 9000 million tonnes of ore and reserves and has produced 500,000 tonnes
of copper and over 10,000 tonnes of molybdenum. Plans are now to extend the life
of the operation by starting underground mining operations in 2018. The nearby,
and geologically similar, Escondida mine is now the world’s largest copper producer.
2. Grasberg, Irian Jaya, Indonesia: The enormous and remote Grasberg mine, is located
in the western half of the island of Papua New Guinea, in the Indonesian province of
Irian Jaya. The operation has developed from the ground up with all facilities,
including transport links and town infrastructure being built by the American owner
Freeport McMoran Copper and Gold (67%) and Rio Tinto (13%).
Grasberg is the world’s largest gold mine and third largest copper mine. It was
originally discovered by geologists looking for the source of the rich alluvial gold
deposits in the lowlands of Irian Jaya. Reserves are estimated to include 2.8 billion
tonnes of ore with grades of 1.1% copper 1.04 g/t gold 3.87g/t Ag. The main pit is
now a mile wide, and current operations are being extended underground as the
 open pit reaches the end of life. An extensive underground mine 400m below the pit
bottom is being developed using block caving techniques.
3. Alkalic Porphyry Deposits of British Columbia, Canada: British Columbia’s alkalic
deposits occur along a package of Paleozoic to Mesozoic rocks known as the Quesnel
terrane, and the Stitine terrane. These terrains consist a wealth of economic
deposits and continue to be actively explored today. Mt Polley is a copper deposit
that has a reserve of 2.5 billion lbs. of 0.280% Cu, 0.294 g/t Au.
4. Cadia-Ridgeway Mine, New South Wales: copper-gold deposit mined by open pit
and block caving. Northparkes copper porphyry deposit, New South Wales, with 63
million tonnes at 1.1% Cu and 0.5 ppm Au.
5. Bingham Canyon Mine: Located in Utah and owned by Rio Tinto and in production
since 1906, produces approximately:
300,000 tons of copper
400,000 oz. of gold
4,000,000 oz. of silver
30,000,000 lbs. of molybdenum
The value of the resources extracted to date from the Bingham Canyon Mine is
greater than the Comstock Lode, Klondike, and California gold rush mining regions
combined.

REERENCES
Müller D., Groves D.I. (2019) Potassic igneous rocks and associated gold-copper
mineralization (5th ed.). Mineral Resource Reviews. Springer-Verlag Heidelberg, p. 398
Sillitoe, R.H., Characteristics and controls of the largest porphyry copper-gold and
epithermal gold deposits in the circum-Pacific region. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences:
An International Geoscience Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 1997. 44(3): p.
373-388.
Bruce L. Reed (1986) Descriptive model of porphyry Sn, in Mineral Deposit Models, US
Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, p.108
Kesler, S.E. and B.H. Wilkinson, Earth's copper resources estimated from tectonic diffusion
of porphyry copper deposits, Geology, 2008, 36(3): pp. 255-258.