PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 37, Issue 4, August 2010

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2010, 37(4): 385–396. RESEARCH PAPER

Petroleum exploration and development practices of

sedimentary basins in China and research progress of
sedimentology
Sun Longde1, Fang Chaoliang1, Li Feng1, Zhu Rukai2,*, He Dongbo2
1. China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC)，Beijing 100724, China;
2. PetroChina Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Beijing 100083, China

Abstract: Based on the characteristics of recent discoveries in China, continental clastic reservoirs are the most important area for re-
serves and production growth. Significant progress has been made in exploration of carbonates reservoirs, for example, platform-margin
reef complexes and platform interior reefs and banks. Volcanic reservoir exploration in sedimentary basins is feasible now. Mature oil-
fields with high water cut are predominant in the oil production in China. Some technological problems facing the stable production of
mature oilfields have been solved by fine characterization of reservoirs, improving water flooding conditions, and EOR techniques.
CNPC makes progress on studies of the sedimentary pattern of continental lacustrine basin shallow water delta, the origin and distribution
of sandy debris flow, the mechanism and distribution prediction of deep favorable reservoirs, the sedimentary facies evaluation and res-
ervoir prediction of low-porosity and low-permeability conglomerates, the lithofacies palaeogeography reconstruction of marine carbon-
ates, the fine characterization of carbonates platform margins, the mechanism of carbonate reservoir superposition and rework, the origin
classification of karst reservoirs, unconventional reservoir evaluation, reservoir improvement techniques, etc. These provide important
theoretical and technical support for the exploration and development of oil and gas.

Key words: exploration and development; sedimentology; reservoir geology; prospect

Practices in exploration and development of petroleum and
other mineral resources in sedimentary basins have put for-
ward many new tasks, such as the genesis interpretation and
distribution pattern analysis of newly discovered oil and gas
reservoirs, the high-precision lithofacies palaeogeographic
reconstruction of sedimentary basins, the evaluation and pre-
diction of deeply buried favorable reservoirs, the genesis
mechanism and distribution pattern analysis of unconven-
tional reservoirs, as well as the fine characterization and de-
scription of reservoirs. All of these have driven review of the
petroleum exploration and development practices in sedimen-
tary basins in the past and outlook of the directions in sedi-
mentology development in the future[1,2].
1 Recent global practices in petroleum
exploration & development and implications
The reservoirs in oil and gas bearing basins in the world
consist of clastic and carbonate rocks primarily, and volcanic
and metamorphic rocks secondarily. In terms of the forma-
tions enriched with petroleum, most of the global oil and gas
resources are reserved in the marine formations, of which the
recoverable resources are about 6 451×108 t, or 72% of the
total recoverable resources; the recoverable resources con-
tained in the continental formations are about 2 491×108 t，or
28% of the total[3−10]. In 2009, the proved oil reserves in the
world were estimated at 1 855.04×108 t, up 0.89% year-on-year,
and the proved gas reserves were estimated at 187.16×1012 m3,
up 5.68% year-on-year[5,6]. The remaining reserves and pro-
duction keep growing in recent years in the world, and the
reserves-production ratio stays rather stable. Currently, the
annual oil production of the world is about 40×108 t, and the
reserves-production ratio remains at 45 or so; the annual gas
production of the world is about 3×1012 m3, and the re-
serves-production ratio is as high as over 60. In 2008, the oil
production of the world reached 36.5×108 t, up 0.8% over the
previous year, and the gas production was around 30 501×108
m3, up 6.7% over the previous year. This is mainly attributed
to the new advances and breakthroughs in petroleum explora-
tion and development in the world in recent years[7−10].
Viewed from the characteristics of petroleum discoveries
made in recent years, carbonate rocks are still very important
places to find giant and super giant fields, and the marine area

Received date: 25 Mar. 2010; Revised date: 27 May 2010.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: zrk@petrochina.com.cn
Copyright © 2010, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina. Published by Elsevier BV. All rights reserved.
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
has been the most important place to find giant fields. The
new discoveries made in carbonate petroleum exploration are
still concentrated in the Caspian Basin and the Middle East
Gulf region. There are four major marine prospects in the
world, including the Mexico Gulf, the Brazil Coast, the West
African Coast and the North West Shelf of Australia (water
depth exceeding 300 m). According to statistics, 18 big oil-
fields (of which the recoverable reserves exceed 5×108 bbl or
6 850×108 t) and 15 big gas fields (of which the recoverable
reserves exceed 3×1012 ft3 or 850×108 m3) were discovered in
these four deep water regions from 2000 to 2007, accounting
for 42% of the total discovered resources in the same period
in the world[11]. For instance, a number of giant fields have
been discovered in Santos Basin in the west coast of Brazil
since 2006: the recoverable reserves of Tupi Oilfield discov-
ered in 2006, Carioca Oilfield, Caramba (1-SPS-51 discovery)
Oilfield, Guara Oilfield, Jupiterr Oilfield and Lara Oilfield
discovered in the 2007 are estimated at 50.07×108 bbl,
8.67×108 bbl, 9.34×108 bbl, 8.81×108 bbl, 5×108 bbl and
29.56×108 bbl, respectively[8,11]. The breakthroughs made in
offshore petroleum exploration in recent years are attributed
to the innovations in deepwater deposition theories such as the
proposal of sandy debris flow theory and the research on the
geometries of the deepwater sand bodies on the one hand, and
benefit from the progress achieved in geophysical exploration
and deepwater drilling technologies on the other hand.
Remarkable discoveries made in foreland thrust belt petro-
leum exploration are mainly distributed in Zagros, the Andes
and other regions, where the traps are primarily huge anti-
clines and blocks; a series of new discoveries are also made in
exploring lithostratigraphic reservoirs in West Siberia, north-
ern Venezuela, Maracaibo Basin, the North Sea Basin, and
subtly exploring the mature areas. Others that deserve atten-
tion include exploration and development of tight sandstone
gas, coal bed methane and shale gas. Rapid advances in engi-
neering technology have already been achieved in these areas
(Table 1)[9].
2 Practices of petroleum exploration and
development in China
Many sedimentary basins are developed in China, including
424 continental, 12 marine, 69 marine and continental super-
imposed basins, among which, small to mid-sized basins
dominate. According to the latest resource evaluation results,
China has about 430×108 t of onshore recoverable resources
and 95×108 t of offshore recoverable resources[12].
Table 1 Unconventional gas production in major countries (by
the end of 2009)
Tight sandstone gas Coal bed methane Shale gas
Country
(108 m3) (108 m3) (108 m3)
U.S. 1 775 500 500
Canada 500 80 10
Australia 35
China 16
In recent years, China’s petroleum discoveries are mainly
made in seven basins including the Songliao, Bohai Bay, Or-
dos, Sichuan, Tarim, Junggar and Qaidam basins. Ten oilfields
each with the proved reserves exceeding 100 million tons are
discovered lately, including the Gulong, Daqingzijing and
Honggang-Daan oilfields in Songliao Basin, the Jidong Nanpu,
Bozhong 25-1S and Penglai 19-3 oilfields in Bohai Bay Basin,
the Xifeng and Jiyuan oilfields in Ordos Basin, the Luliang
Oilfield in Junggar Basin and the Tahe-Lunnan Oilfield in
Tarim Basin. Seventeen gas fields with the proved reserves
exceeding 500×108 m3 are discovered, including the Xushen
and Changling gas fields in Songliao Basin, the Sugeli,
Daniudi, Shenmu and Zizhou gas fields in Ordos Basin, the
Guang’an, Hechuan, Puguang and Luojiazhai gas fields in
Sichuan Basin, the Tainan gas field in Turpan-Kumul Basin,
the Tazhong 1, Kela 2, Di’na 2 and Dabei 1 gas fields in
Tarim Basin, the Kelameili gas field in Junggar Basin and the
Liwan 3-1 gas field in the South Sea Basin.
Viewed from the characteristics of the petroleum discover-
ies, petroleum exploration in onshore clastic rocks are still the
most important for increasing reserves and production. For
instance, three oilfields, including Xifeng, Jiyuan and
Huaqing, with the proved reserves ranging from 5×108 t to
10×108 t are discovered during exploring the Mesozoic
lithostratigraphic reservoirs in Ordos Basin; exploration
shows the Paleozoic lithologic gas reservoirs contain OGIP
over 2.2×1012 m3. These achievements are attributed to many
factors such as the establishment of the genesis models of
sand bodies deposited in lake basins, the new understanding
of reservoir distribution patterns, the analysis of genesis
mechanism of tight reservoirs and evaluation of favorable
reservoirs, the application of new exploration & development
technologies including high resolution seismic acquisition in
large area, seismic reservoir prediction under sequence con-
straint, full digital 2D seismic reservoir prediction, horizontal
wells and fracturing stimulation techniques.
Petroleum exploration in carbonate rocks has many discov-
eries in China in recent years. Significant discoveries are
made in platform margin reef complexes, platform margin
reefs and oolitic beaches. Three carbonate petroleum prov-
inces including Tarim, Sichuan and Ordos have been found.
Volcanic reservoirs in sedimentary basins have become a
new field for petroleum exploration in China. Exploration of
volcanic reservoirs has been carried out across the country.
Specifically, activities of volcanic reservoir exploration have
been conducted in the Bohai Bay, Songliao and Junggar ba-
sins since 2002, and a series of achievements and break-
throughs have been reached. These areas have become a high-
light in China’s petroleum exploration. The deep layers in
Songliao Basin and the Carboniferous formations in Junggar
Basin have respectively become the 5th and the 6th continental
gas provinces in China.
The mature oilfields with high water cut are the main body
in China’s oilfield development. Among the oilfields con-
trolled by China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), the
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
oilfields with water cut beyond 60% contribute 70% of the
production. The continuous fine reservoir characterization
research, the improvement of water flooding conditions and
the progress in EOR technology have broken the bottle neck
of stable production in mature oilfields. The recovery factor of
the old oilfields which were put into production before 1998
has increased from 34.8% in 1998 to 38.1% in 2008, and the
recoverable reserves of these fields have increased over
5 000×104 t annually. China’s oil production and gas produc-
tion are 1.89×108 t and 775×108 m3, respectively in 2008, up
2.0% and 11.6% over 2007, respectively.
3 Advances in study on sedimentary reservoirs in
the oil and gas bearing basins in China
In recent years, CNPC has continually made new advances
in the research on continental lake basin deposition and ma-
rine carbonate deposition, the evaluation of unconventional
reservoirs, the study on reservoir sedimentology, the devel-
opment of new techniques and technologies for reservoir
sedimentology and sedimentary reservoir research, the im-
provement of reservoir stimulation and so on. These advances
have provided important theoretical and technical supports for
petroleum exploration and development.
3.1 New viewpoints and achievements in study on
continental clastic rocks
China is characterized by abundance of continental oil and
gas bearing basins. China’s research level of land sedimentary
reservoirs is in a leading position in the world. Systematic
models of onshore sedimentary systems and sand body types
have already been built[1,2,13−15]. In recent years, many innova-
tive achievements have been made in the sedimentary pattern
prediction of shallow water deltas in depression lake basins,
the sedimentary pattern prediction of sandy debris flows in the
deep water area of lake basins, the water-rock reaction
mechanism and secondary pore development and distribution
research, development mechanism and distribution pattern
prediction of deep favorable reservoirs, the quantitative
evaluation of diagenesis of sandy conglomerate reservoirs
with low permeability and low porosity, as well as the predic-
tion of the favorable reservoirs with low permeability and low
porosity. These achievements have provided accurate basic
geologic data for the division and evaluation of lithologic
belts, and forcefully promoted the development of petroleum
exploration.
3.1.1 Sedimentary patterns of shallow water deltas and
sandy debris flows in deep water areas
The clasolite filling patterns of continental lake basins can
be classified into eight categories via analysis of the Mesozoic
and Cenozoic lake basins in China[13,14]. Previously, the petro-
leum exploration practices focused on the reservoirs around
the peripheries of lake basins, guided by the thoughts that
sandstone reservoirs are not developed in the deep water re-
gions of lake basins thus they are a forbidden area for petro-
leum exploration. However, in recent years, the in-depth pe-
troleum exploration practices carried out in the continental
lake basins have revealed that sand bodies with big gross
thickness, large area and good physical properties are also
developed in the centers of large scale depression lake basins.
As a result, the scope of exploration has been continually
enlarged and the reserves have been increased. Two types of
sand bodies are developed in the lake basin centers, one type
is of traction current genesis, including river, shallow water
delta, lake current and density underflow sand bodies; the
other type is of gravity flow genesis, including flood turbidites,
slump gravity flow and sandy debris flow deposits. This
knowledge has changed the viewpoint that the lake basin cen-
ters are dominated by mudstone and no effective reservoirs
are developed there[13,14]. A whole new field for petroleum
exploration is thus opened up.
Through the outcrop observation and remote sensing image
analysis of the typical shallow water deltas in lake basins in
the world[16,17], combining the geologic research on the large
Mesozoic and Cenozoic depression lake basins in China, in-
cluding the Mesozoic Xujiahe formation in Sichuan Basin and
the Mesozoic Yanchang Formation in Ordos Basin[18−20], the
authors believe that the end distributary channels and the end
crevasse fans are typical microfacies for shallow water deltas
to develop in lake basins, the existence of open flow lake ba-
sins is an important condition for shallow water delta sand
bodies to develop in the centers of lake basins, and the open
flow channels exert important control on the distribution of
sand bodies in the centers of lake basins.
The latest results of research on the gravity flows of deep-
water sediments in the world show that[21,22] there are few
typical turbidites in deepwater sediments, and the sandy de-
bris flows are important mechanism for thick sand bodies to
form. The authors think, through comprehensive analysis of
the Triassic Chang 6 Formation’s sandstones containing mud
and gravels and the massive sandstones without any stratifica-
tion taken from the Baibao area of Ordos Basin, that they are
formed by sliding delta front sand bodies under external trig-
ger force after these sand bodies accumulate rapidly, and are
typical sediments of sandy debris flows. Under the effect of
trigger force, the loose sand layers slide and collapse, and then
slump, when a sand layer may break into many blocks from a
whole unity, accompanied by large number of soft sediment
transformation. As water flows in continually, the sand blocks
break down and get roiled, forming lamellated debris flows
and large area of tongue like sandy debris flow bodies on the
slope of delta front platforms and the deep lake plains. A small
number of turbidite sediments may be developed in the front
or on the top of the debris flow deposition locations. The
sandy debris flow sand bodies do not stretch far along the
water flow directions (Fig. 1), and are important reservoirs in
the deepwater areas of the lake basin centers (Fig. 1)[23,24]. The
sandy debris flows in the region are of gravity flow genesis
“without root”, which are dramatically different from the under-
water fan sand bodies formed by the gravity flows “with root”.
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
Fig. 1 Plane distribution of sedimentary facies of Chang71 of
Yanchang Formation in Heshui area of Ordos Basin
3.1.2 Diagenetic evaluation of tight sand reservoirs with
low permeability
Tight sand gas reservoirs exist in almost all petroleum
provinces, and their resource potential is huge[25]. The tight
sand gas reservoirs with low permeability are distributed
widely in Sichuan, Ordos, Turpan-Kumul, Songliao, the south
Junggar, the southwest Tarim, Chuxiong and the East Sea
basins or regions in China and display as various types. The
predictive evaluation of the “sweet spots” in thick sand bodies
with low permeability is the key to exploration of petroleum
reservoirs covering large areas. For example, the Xujiahe sand
bodies in Sichuan Basin are generally thick 250−300 m, and
the reservoir thickness is generally 50−90 m, accounting for
20%−30% of the total thickness. Therefore, how to find rela-
tively favorable reservoir zones in the thick sand bodies cov-
ering large areas has become the key to exploration of such
kind of reservoirs.
Based on measurement of the paleotemperatures and anion
concentrations of the clastolite inclusions in different layers
and areas in the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation of Sichuan
Basin, the law for anion concentration variation versus pa-
leo-fluid evolution is revealed, the relationship between fluid
evolution and genesis of tight reservoirs, and the relationship
between them and the reservoir capability are further studied.
In addition, the process of quantitative evaluation of the
diagenesis of sandy conglomerate reservoirs and prediction of
favorable reservoirs are determined: step I, decide the
diagenesis sequence to determine the diagenesis environment
and the diagenesis evolution process; step II, decide the types
of diagenesis, which is done by analysis of cores, thin sections,
physical properties and control factors; step III, decide the
distribution patterns of diagenesis, which is done through
combining sedimentary facies, logging facies and seismic
facies; step IV, assess comprehensively, during which the fa-
vorable reservoirs and diagenesis traps are predicted based on
integrated mapping. Integrated mapping the diagenesis of the
lower Xu 6 in the Guang’an region of Sichuan Basin indicates
that, horizontally, the favorable diagenetic zones control the
distribution of the belts with abundant petroleum resources
and high productivity (Fig. 2). This is of great theoretical and
practical implication for evaluation of petroleum reservoirs
and exploration and development of tight sand gas reser-
voirs[26,27].
3.1.3 Research on the genesis of effective deep to super
deep clasolite reservoirs
Scientific research and exploration practices related to deep
petroleum have been increasing in recent years. For instance,
USGS has ever carried out resource evaluation of the forma-
tions deeper than 4 572 m in the regions in its territory where
petroleum was yet to discover; Russian geologists argue that
when predicting the petroleum resources in Russia, the whole
sedimentary formations (including covers) should be regarded
as petroleum plays and prospects, rather than just the forma-
tions not exceeding 7 000 m in terms of burial depth[28]. In
East China, deeper formations have increasingly become the
petroleum exploration targets; in Tarim Basin of West China,
reservoirs deeper than 5 000 m have been produced. What’s
more, Well Dabei 3 in Kuqa Depression shows that good res-
ervoirs are developed in the formations deeper than 7 000 m.
In a word, there are various indications showing it is impera-
tive to strengthen the deep oil and gas research and explora-
tion. The core of deep petroleum exploration and research
includes areas such as the phase state of deep oil and gas, the
mechanism of deep reservoir development and preservation,
as well as the conditions for deep oil and gas to accumulate.
In-depth study on the genesis of effective deep reservoirs in
sedimentary basins indicates that the genesis mechanisms for
effective deep reservoirs to develop include: protected by the
clay film, buried slow in the early and fast in the later stages,
charged with hydrocarbon in the early stage, experienced
secondary corrosion and tectonic faulting and fracturing. This
has provided theoretical basis for discovery of deep oil and
gas, and increased the exploration depth by nearly 2 000 m.
3.2 Marine carbonatites
The marine carbonatites in China are characterized by be-
ing old in era, deep in burial depth, mature in hydrocarbon
source rocks, strong in reservoir heterogeneity, and compli-
cated in oil and gas accumulation and distribution, which
makes petroleum exploration facing a series of challenges[29].
Fortunately, achievements have been made continually in
recent years in the fields such as the reconstruction of lithofa-
cies and palaeogeography, the fine depiction of carbonate
platform margins, the detailed description of the structures
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
within the platforms, the mechanism of multi-stage superposi-
tion and transformation of carbonate reservoirs, the genesis
categorization of karst reservoirs, the description and evalua-
tion of heterogeneous carbonate reservoirs. These achieve-
ments have set a solid foundation for confirming hydrocarbon
source rocks and distribution of effective reef flat reservoirs,
evaluating oil and gas resource potentials and selecting fa-
vorable belts and zones, and promoted significant discoveries
in carbonate petroleum exploration in China.
3.2.1 Reconstruction of lithofacies and palaeogeography
and fine depiction of carbonate platform margins
New advances have been achieved in the stratigraphic divi-
sion and distribution of marine formations, the reconstruction
of lithofacies and palaeogeography, and the distribution and
evaluation of marine carbonate zone with high energy in the
three large basins in China, including Tarim, Sichuan and
Ordos Basins. The internal structures of the carbonate plat-
form margins and the differentiation characteristics inside the
Fig. 2 Superposition of Changxing sedimentary facies and reef flats in Sichuan Basin
platforms are depicted in detail, based on industrial mapping
of the lithofacies and palaeogeography of the Cambrian-
Ordovician formations in Tarim Basin [30,31] , the Per-
mian-Triassic formations in Sichuan Basin[32,33], and the Cam-
brian-Ordovician formations in Ordos Basin[34,35] (Fig. 2).
This has provided basic geologic data for analysis of the basin
evolution and hydrocarbon source rock distribution, and fur-
ther defined the distribution of favorable reservoirs, making
the petroleum exploration extend to both platform margin
reefs and inside platform reefs.
3.2.2 Genesis and distribution analysis of karst, reef and
dolomite reservoirs
Through analysis of the characteristics and genesis of ma-
rine carbonate reservoirs in Tarim, Sichuan and Ordos Basins,
the authors think that, carbonate reservoirs are generally con-
trolled by the multi-stage superposition transformation and
quasi-syngenetic deposition - diagenesis, pores are developed
in the early stage, the development of karst holes and
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
fractures in multi-stages is controlled by the tectonic-pressure
coupling forces, the development of caves and pores in the
deep formations is controlled by the reactions between fluid
and rocks, but the development of effective reservoirs is not
completely controlled by the burial depth. Based on such
knowledge, reef flat, karst and dolomite reservoirs are classi-
fied into nine sub-categories, and a new karst genesis classifi-
cation system is put forward, which categorizes the karst
genesis into five types: karst developed by the weathered
crusts of buried hills located on the core and top of the pa-
leo-uplifts, karst developed between the core and the inside
parts of the paleo-uplifts, karst developed by the deep under-
currents along the layers located on the slope and in the inside
parts of the paleo-uplifts, karst developed by the vertical deep
undercurrents formed by the downward seepage of fresh water
in the atmosphere, and karst developed by the upward flow of
hot fluid along the fractures. The presentation of karst devel-
oped by the deep undercurrents along the layers indicates a
new exploration field. For instance, the exploration break-
throughs made in the Halahatang depression and Yingmai 2
structure located in the Tabei uplift of Tarim Basin have at
least doubled the exploration range of karst reservoirs[36−41].
3.3 Evaluation of unconventional reservoirs
Evaluation of petroleum resources in unconventional res-
ervoirs such as volcanic oil and gas, coal bed methane, tight
sand gas and shale gas reservoirs has been developed rapidly.
Progress in volcanic reservoir studies is mainly displayed in
the analysis of tectonic settings for volcanic development, the
building of volcanic lithology and lithofacies models, the re-
construction of volcanic lithofacies and palaeogeography, the
analysis of major factors controlling the reservoirs, the predic-
tion of volcanic reservoirs by integrating gravity, magnetic,
electric and seismic exploration, and the prediction of favor-
able reservoir distributions. Such progress has laid a founda-
tion for evaluation of the potential of petroleum resources in
volcanic reservoirs and evaluation of favorable volcanic res-
ervoirs, and contributed to the continual breakthroughs in
exploration of volcanic reservoirs in China[42,43]. According to
the genesis, the pores in volcanic reservoirs can be divided
into primary pores (air pores, intergranular pores and inter-
crystalline pores), secondary pores (dissolved pores and dis-
solved caves) and fractures (contracted fractures, burst frac-
tures, sheered fractures and weathered fractures). The
diagenesis has dual influences on volcanic reservoirs. The
properties of the reservoirs are directly affected by the match-
ing relationship between the filling and the dissolution in each
diagenetic stage and the strength of the diagenesis. The
weathering and leaching effect during the diagenesis is the
key to improving reservoir properties. Meanwhile, the devel-
opment of reservoirs is also impacted by the lithofacies, rock
types, and so on. In summary, the volcanism, tectonic move-
ments, weathering and leaching actions as well as the fluid
action are the major geologic factors influencing and control-
ling the development degree of volcanic reservoirs.
All the volcanic reservoirs have experienced epigenesis
during the period when they are formed, and the volcanic
reservoirs can be categorized into two types: one is with
weathered crusts, and the other is primary volcanic reservoirs.
The volcanic reservoirs with weathered crusts are related to
the structural unconformity surfaces formed by exposure and
corrosion in a long period. Under the weathering and leaching
actions exerted by the air and freshwater, the exposed volcanic
rocks have formed weathered volcanic formations which are
thick in vertical and distributed widely in horizontal. Secon-
dary pores are developed in the high tectonic positions be-
cause of long period of weathering and leaching actions by air
and fresh water; in contrast, most of the pores formed by dis-
solution are filled with chlorite and calcite in the low tectonic
positions. The strength of weathering is the critical factor af-
fecting the porosity of the reservoirs with weathered crusts.
The primary volcanic reservoirs have not experienced expo-
sure, weathering and leaching, since they have been buried
deeply. As a result, most primary pores in such reservoirs have
been preserved after the burial, the compaction, the corrosion
and filling by hot fluid, and the dissolution by formation water
and organic acid during the epigenesis period. Therefore, pri-
mary pores dominate the reservoirs pores.
When it comes to coal bed methane reservoirs, research
done lately indicates that structure uplift has different influ-
ences on the properties of the high rank coal bed methane
reservoirs and the low rank coal bed methane reservoirs. The
low rank coal bed methane reservoirs are dominated by matrix
pores, while the high rank coal bed methane reservoirs are
dominated by fractured pores. The structure uplift has distinct
influence on the physical properties of the high rank coal bed
methane reservoirs, reflected in reservoir pressure drop, cleat
and fracture open, along with significant increase in fracture
permeability. Dramatic uplift of high rank coal bed methane
reservoirs can increase the permeability, causing a lot of
methane loss, which is unfavorable to the accumulation of
coal bed methane. In contrast, the structure uplift does not
have strong influence on the physical properties of the low
rank coal bed methane reservoirs. What’s more, for low rank
coal bed methane reservoirs, the reservoir pressure drop be-
cause of the structure uplift can increase the speed of coal bed
methane migration, which is favorable to the production of
coal bed methane[44].
3.4 Advances in research on reservoir sedimentology for
development purpose
To produce the remaining reserves in the mature onshore
oilfields and enhance the recovery of the complex oil and gas
fields, a lot of work has been done in fine and quantitative
reservoir sedimentology, and significant achievements are
made, displaying in the establishment of quantitative geologic
knowledge base, the depiction of single sand bodies, the com-
prehensive application of logging seismic technology and
progress in geologic modeling. Specifically, reservoir descrip-
tion techniques for 4 types of oil and gas reservoirs are de-
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
veloped, which have played a very important role in efficient
development of oil and gas fields and enhancement of oil and
gas recovery.
3.4.1 Reservoir prototype models and geologic knowledge
bases
A reservoir prototype model refers to a physical reservoir
model with high precision. Targeting at a certain sedimentary
type, the model is set up under the control of dense enough
data by using outcrops, modern sediments, dense well spacing
and sedimentary physic modeling and experiments. With this
model, a series of geologic knowledge bases are summarized,
including the lithology and lithofacies knowledge base, the
sedimentary microfacies knowledge base, the morphology and
scale knowledge base of sand body assemblies, the physical
parameter knowledge base and the parameter knowledge base
of geologic statistics. The prototype model is a fine model for
prediction of reservoirs of the same sedimentary type, and is
able to effectively predict the lateral variation in reservoirs
between wells. China started to research the prototype models
of reservoirs during the ninth 5-year plan, and has set up pro-
totype models and quantitative geologic knowledge bases for
the braided river and fan delta sedimentary types. The knowl-
edge bases include the width-thickness ratio, the length-width
ratio, the probability distribution function and other parame-
ters of different kinds of sand bodies. At the same time, a set
of geologic modeling approaches have been developed and
successfully used in the fine reservoir description and re-
maining oil production in the Daqing, Shengli, and Turpan-
Kumul Oilfields[45].
3.4.2 Description of single sand bodies
The description of single sand bodies under the guidance of
theories on reservoir sedimentology and sand body geometry
has become an effective technique for reconstructing the un-
derground knowledge system in the secondary recovery of
mature oilfields. Remarkable progress has been achieved in
fine description of the single sand bodies of the Minghuazhen
reservoirs with high water cut in Dagang Oilfield and produc-
tion of the remaining reserves. The technique for identifica-
tion and division of the lateral accretionary bodies within the
meandering river point bar sand bodies is built by using seis-
Fig. 3 Models of point bar structures of braided rivers[46]
mic, well test and production performance data, based on the
achievements of modern sediments, outcrops and laboratory
sedimentary experiments. With the technique, the structure
characteristics of each sand body is described; the method for
modeling the internal structure of point bar sand bodies is
developed (Fig. 3)[46]; the flooding patterns for five types of
sand body groups are summarized; the inter-well connectivity
and injection-production relations are analyzed once more; the
fine geologic models for optimum grouping layers and wells
are built. The water flooding recovery can be enhanced by
over 7% due to the fine description of single sand bodies.
3.4.3 Four types of reservoir description techniques
As the reservoir description technology is used widely in
China, a series of description techniques targeting at the char-
acteristics of onshore reservoirs have been developed, which
can be classified into four types[47].
(1) Reservoir description technique for the giant fields in
stable sedimentary systems. Daqing Oilfield is a representa-
tive field to apply this technique. The structure in Daqing is
rather simple, and the river delta deposition systems are com-
plete. Fine analysis of the sedimentary microfacies is the key
to description of such kind of reservoirs. By fully using the
log data of close well spacing and the data of the inspection
wells, along with fitting the sedimentary patterns and care-
fully characterizing the spatial distribution of sedimentary
microfacies, the precision in prediction of the reservoir distri-
bution can reach more than 85%. Since the fine division of the
reservoir genesis units is completely applying the sedimentary
microfacies to constrain the modeling, and the modeling is
mainly definite, the multiple solution problem of stochastic
modeling is prevented.
(2) Reservoir description technique for complex block
fields. Dagang Oilfield is such a representative field to use
this technique. Dagang Oilfield not just has strong heteroge-
neity. What’s more, the faults of different levels intersect one
another, making the reservoir description very difficult. With
the fine interpretation of faults as the breakthrough point, plus
using the high-resolution 3D seismic, the fine correlation of
isochronous sedimentary units and the repeated fitting of
production performance, the precision of fault interpretation
can be enhanced greatly, and the small faults with 5−10 m of
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
fault throws can be identified. In a word, with this technique,
the in-depth understanding of the complex block reservoirs is
realized.
(3) Reservoir description technique for fractured reservoirs.
Xinjiang and Yumen Oilfields are representatives of applying
this technique. In fractured reservoirs, the reservoir perme-
ability changes rapidly, influenced by fractures, and the dis-
tribution of fractures has poor regularity, making it difficult to
predict the reservoirs. The breakthroughs of this description
technique are: on the one hand, the fracture identification and
prediction technology is formed, including description of the
fracture distribution of outcrops and cores, identification of
fractures by combining image logging and conventional log-
ging, and prediction of fractures by 3D seismic; on the other
hand, a 3D geologic modeling technology based on multi-data
is developed, with which, geologic models are built by fully
using various dynamic and static data, the neural network
algorithm, the random interference interpolation, the Kriging
interpolation, and the equivalent simulation of the spatial dis-
tribution of fractures.
(4) Reservoir description technique for the “sweet spots”.
Changqing Oilfield is a representative to apply this technique.
As the effective reservoir layers, the “sweet spots” with higher
permeability are scattered in the tight sandstones. Therefore,
prediction of the units with higher permeability is the key to
successful development. The steps of applying this technique
are: first of all, to build the sedimentary diagenesis geologic
model and the standard for identification of logging facies of
the units with higher permeability; then, to analyze the over-
lapping patterns, contacts, dimensions and spatial distribution
frequencies of the units with higher permeability by using the
data of outcrops and wells with closer spacing, and modify
them by using well test data; finally, to predict the “sweet
spots” enriched regions with the geologic knowledge and
seismic data, and set up 3D geologic models.
3.5 Advances in new technologies and new approaches
for sedimentary reservoir research
The means of researching sedimentary reservoirs is transit-
ing from traditional sedimentology and petrology to multi-
sciences and multi-information. Integration of the sedimentary
patterns and the geophysical techniques can directly reveal
and quantitatively describe the spatial distribution of the
sedimentary bodies, and the advanced test means further
strengthens the reservoir porosity evaluation and the fluid
seepage characteristics research.
3.5.1 Seismic sedimentology and technique of
fracture-cave-pore depiction of carbonate reservoirs
Analysis of seismic sedimentology can not only disclose
the basic characteristics inside the sedimentary systems, the
transformation of paleotopography and paleogeomorphology,
but also reveal the spatial distribution of various sedimentary
systems in the isochronous frame and how they change as
time goes by[48]. Notable fruits are harvested in applying the
seismic sedimentology technique in Daqing Oilfield and
Bohai Bay Basin. For instance, a series of strata slices are
made by using the Recon software for the sequences of
Qi’nan Sag in Huanghua Depression. These slices provide
continuous seismic images of the sedimentary system of Sha1
formation, and depict the distribution range of the braided
delta sedimentary systems during different stages and the dis-
tribution locations of the underwater distributary channels and
tributary bays. Such data provide reliable basis for exploring
the thin, hidden reservoirs[49,50].
The technique for depicting the fractures, pores and caves
in carbonate reservoirs is the integration of lateral prediction
of the reservoirs via geologic, logging and seismic approaches
and the description of pores, fractures and caves. The 3D dis-
tribution of the pores, fractures and caves are depicted accu-
rately by well-seismic joint inversion and extraction of seis-
mic attributes, under the guidance of geologic knowledge (Fig.
4). Pores, caves and fractures are developed in carbonate res-
ervoirs, and the relations among the fractures, caves and mi-
cro-factures are rather complicated. Precise depiction and
calibration of the factures, pores and caves in the reservoirs,
together with the hydrocarbon detection and fluid identifica-
tion techniques, has established a theoretical foundation for
drilling trajectories. For example, the accurate knowledge of
the carbonate reservoirs in the central Tarim Basin has not
only ensured safe drilling footage, reduced the risks of drilling
fluid loss, but also greatly raised drilling success. Since 2009,
the general drilling success ratio has reached 83% in Tarim
Basin, and the success ratio of drilling producing wells has
reached 100%.
3.5.2 Laboratory of sedimentology outcrops
Research on the multi-information description of outcrops
by many techniques has become a critical way of building the
reservoir geologic models for exploration and development
(Table 2)[51−54].
CNPC has primarily built the stratigraphic profiles of the
typical outcrop sequences for three types of lake basins in-
cluding the early Cretaceous depression lake basin of Luan-
ping (Fig. 5), the late Triassic depression lake basin of Ordos
and the late Triassic foreland lake basin of Sichuan, as well as
the outcrop-downhole comparison models, by introducing
new devices (e.g. the element capture instrument, the natural
gamma spectrometer and the ground penetrating radar), and
by setting up the outcrop sequence frameworks and geologic
modeling of reservoirs. Based on the above work, the model
of the sand body distribution within the cycle framework of
the 3rd-order datum plane of the fault lake basins and depres-
sion lake basins are analyzed, the knowledge that continuous
delta plain sand bodies enriched with oil and gas may overlay
the cycle surface of the 3rd-order datum plane is presented, a
number of visiting and training activities concerning the se-
quence stratigraphy of outcrops are initiated, and a platform is
built for Chinese and overseas scholars to exchange ideas on
continental basin sequence stratigraphy. These have actively
facilitated the geologic research on lake basins.

Fig. 4
Table 2
Name
Element capture devices
Natural gamma ray spectrometers
Digital outcrop models (DOMs)
Light Laser Detection and Ranging
(LIDAR) or land laser scanner
Ground penetrating Radar
Fig. 5 Skeleton within the cycle frame of the 3rd-order datum plane of the Sangyuan profile of the early Cretaceous rift lake basin in
Luanping, Hebei
3.5.3 New techniques and approaches of sedimentologic
experiments
(1) Technique for quantitative evaluation of reservoir pore
Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
Fractures, pores and caves of the Zhonggu 8 well unit in central Tarim Basin
Common devices used for building sedimentology outcrop laboratories
Performance Effect Reference
To build element geochemical profiles
To measure Ca, K, Na, Mg and Fe, etc
of the outcrops or cores
To build the gamma curves of the outcrops and
To directly display the K %
determine the sequence interfaces, to facilitate [51]
and the U,Th ppm
comparison of drilling and logging curves
To precisely measure and model the outcrop To build 3D geologic models
[52]
reservoirs of outcrop reservoirs
To describe the structures
3D digital models with high resolution [53]
of the reservoirs in detail
To build the comparative models of seismic
To directly get shallow layer seismic
sections within the basin, and describe the [54]
reflection sections of the outcrop profiles
geologic structures of the reservoirs in detail
structures. Analysis of the structures of micro-pores in reser-
voirs is one of the key points in reservoir study. Especially for
the tight reservoirs with low permeability, the characteristics
of the pore-throat structures are an important factor affecting
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
Fig. 6 Quantitative reservoir pore structure evaluation
the productivity[55]. Philip H Nelson has classified the reser-
voirs into conventional sand, tight sand and shale reservoirs
based on the pore throat dimensions. The diameters of the
pore throats of conventional sand reservoirs are larger than 2
μm, the diameters of the pore throats of tight sand reservoirs
are 0.03−2.00 μm, and the diameters of the pore throats of
shale reservoirs are 0.005−0.100 μm[55]. CNPC has developed
a technique for measuring the porosity of the reservoirs with
low permeability by using Laser Scanning Confocal Micro-
scopes and SEM back-scattering method. The above tech-
nique can be used to determine the types of micro-pores and
their existing state. It is able to analyze core samples, and the
smaller samples like debris. With this technique, the goal of
analyzing the pore structures of the intervals without core
sampling is reached, making the pore structure study transit
from qualitative to quantitative and from macro to micro. It
provides accurate data for reservoir research and important
information and parameters for diagenesis research (Fig. 6).
(2) Technique for diagenesis fluid analysis. In diagenesis
research, the most important is to determine the conditions
and ways of mineral-rock reaction, as well as the directions
and channels of migration afterwards and the deposition loca-
tions. The technique is developed in two aspects: one is pa-
leo-fluid recovery based on water-rock reaction, and the other
is quantitative diagenesis research of basins. CNPC has de-
veloped a number of techniques including the one for laser
Raman analysis of fluid inclusions, the one for stable isotope
analysis by laser microscope sampling, the one for measuring
the microelements in core samples via SEM energy spec-
trum-wave spectrum, the one for separation and purification
of self-generated illites and the one of K-Ar dating. These
techniques provide important supports for restoration of
diagenesis fluid. For instance, analysis of the carbon and
oxygen isotopes taken from the micro-sampling area of the
dolomite reservoirs in Sichuan Basin shows that the carbon
and oxygen isotopes taken from the dolomites of the oolitic
beach in Well Luojia 5 are in the interval of evaporation envi-
ronment, possibly reflecting the diagenesis of flow-back of
tidal evaporation. Most of the samples taken from other wells
are in the interval of dolomite burial environment, probably
related to the flow-back of brines.
3.5.4 Physical modeling and numerical simulation during
deposition and diagenesis
The experiments of water channel sedimentary modeling
are developing to large-scale, refined and quantitative direc-
tions[56,57]. The simulation precision of the sand body distribu-
tion and the development of sedimentary systems including
river delta, fan delta and braided river systems have been en-
hanced in recent years. For example, the experiments model-
ing the flood turbid flows indicate that parameters such as the
slope and the altitude difference of the slope belt, the lake
bottom terrain, the level of the lake water and the initial ve-
locity have important effects on the turbid flow deposition.
The silt content in the flood turbid flows determines the flow
pattern and the sedimentary structure[58,59].
Physical modeling and numerical simulation of the reser-
voir diagenesis provides basic parameters for the quantitative
characterization of reservoir diagenesis and the analysis of
reservoir forming mechanism[60−62]. CNPC has successfully
developed a set of giant equipment for modeling the diagene-
sis process and software for simulating the diagenesis. They
can be used to simulate the diagenesis evolution of different
proportions of clasolites and carbonatites, the vertical com-
paction/horizontal structure extrusion, the corrosion effects of
single-phase/mixed phase and stacking phase acids (organic
acid, HCO3−, H2S, HF, HCl, SO42− and so on), the cementation
in diagenesis, the pressolution, the recementation and the tec-
tonic disruption. They will provide theoretical bases for re-
cover of paleo-rivers, analysis of reservoir genesis, evaluation
and prediction of reservoirs.
3.5.5 New generation of reservoir description technique
The new generation of reservoir description technique in-
cludes the digital integration of various attributes of the 3D
reservoir geologic bodies, the real time monitoring and simu-
lation of reservoir fluids, the virtual reality display system, the
automatic generation of the adjustment plans, and so on. The
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
technical characteristics are full-digitization, real time per-
formance monitoring and intelligent.
3.6 Reservoir stimulation techniques
3.6.1 Large-scale fracturing technique aiming at clastic
reservoirs with low permeability
A number of fracturing technologies have been developed,
including the large-scale fracturing technique to generate long
fractures in the sand reservoirs with large area but low per-
meability and porosity. It stimulates reservoirs and connects
fractures primarily through sand fracturing. For instance, Well
Long 35D-1 is fractured with the multi-layer fracturing tech-
nology. Three intervals are fractured at one time, and the daily
production is tested at 12×104 m3 after fracturing. Significant
progress has also been achieved in other fracturing techniques
such as the appropriate scaled fracturing technology targeting
the distributary channel sand reservoirs, the zonal fracturing
technology, targeting the long intervals with multi-thin layers,
to enhance the recovery percent of the sub-layers, and the
water sensitivity resisting fracturing liquid technique with low
damage which targets the strongly water-sensitive sand reser-
voirs with low permeability.
3.6.2 Section-selective acid fracturing technique to
stimulate fracture-cave-pore systems of carbonate
reservoirs
The section-selective acid fracturing technique to stimulate
the fracture-cave-pore systems in carbonate reservoirs can
generate many artificial fracture systems through implement-
ing large scale acid fracturing operations, so as to improve
the flow capacity of the reservoirs around the bore holes and
enhance the individual well productivity. For instance, the
daily production of Well 62-7H in Tarim Basin has been
raised from 2.86 t before acid fracturing to 208 t after acid
fracturing. It produces gas 14.7×104 m3 per day after fractur-
ing.
3.6.3 Technique for stimulating volcanic reservoirs
The permeability of volcanic reservoirs is very low because
they are buried deep and their lithology is tight. What’s more,
the oil bearing intervals in volcanic reservoirs often cross
large spans, where fractures and dissolved caves are devel-
oped, resulting in enormous oil loss. Therefore, it is difficult
to obtain economic productivity by conventional production
approaches, and fracturing stimulation is indispensable. In
recent years, a series of fracturing assisting technologies have
been developed including the technique for building the frac-
turing breaking and extending models, the technique for
on-site (the test and fracturing sites) quick interpretation, the
high temperature fracturing fluid systems, the technique for
fracture control and extension in hydraulic fracturing, as well
as other assisting techniques including the gas layer protection,
the borehole evaluation, the effective fracturing and produc-
tion with horizontal wells. For example, 138 well intervals
(including producers) drilled in the volcanic reservoirs in
Xushen gas field, Daqing, have been fractured in the past
three years, the success ratio of fracturing operations has been
enhanced from lower than 40% to over 90% at present. Spe-
cifically, the horizontal section of Well Shengping 1 in Daqing
Oilfield is 500 m. It produces gas 55.5×104 m3 per day, four
times that of the neighboring vertical wells. In addition, 20
layers in 15 wells of the deep volcanic reservoirs in Jilin Oil-
field are fractured, and the success rate is 90%.
4 Reflection and outlook of the oil and gas
potential and the direction of sedimentologic
development
The deepening of sedimentologic research is taking an in-
creasingly important role in petroleum discovery, reserves
increase and petroleum production. Meanwhile, the continual
extension of exploration and development fields will defi-
nitely push forward the innovation and advancement of the
sedimentologic theories. From the perspective of the remain-
ing petroleum resources in the world, the total amount of the
conventional oil and gas resources is abundant, but the recov-
ery percent is not high at present; the unconventional re-
sources are also rich, and have huge potential for reserves and
production increase with the advancement of technologies.
Hence they are noteworthy. For instance, some American ex-
perts state that the shale gas can be produced for 100 years[9].
Taking China’s exploration and development demands into
consideration, the authors think the following aspects are the
key directions for reservoir research:
(1) Continental lithologic reservoirs will remain the princi-
pal target for exploration in the long future. Low porosity and
low permeability are the characteristics of such reservoirs. To
promote fine exploration and effective development of the
lithologic reservoirs, research on the 3D sedimentary systems
of the whole basin, the reservoir sedimentary mechanisms,
scales, dimensions, distributions and the quantitative evalua-
tion of diagenesis facies as well as the fluid media systems
should be strengthened.
(2) Continual breakthroughs in marine carbonate explora-
tion indicate good prospects. What needs to be enhanced in-
cludes the prediction of high frequency sequences and effec-
tive reservoirs, the prediction of sedimentary microfacies and
high energy zones, the mechanisms for deep paleo-reservoirs
to form and to be preserved, the mechanisms of dolomite
genesis and the genesis, the distribution and quantitative
characterization of fractures-pores-caves in carbonate reser-
voirs. Particularly, since the early Mesozoic formations
dominate the carbonate reservoirs in China, integrated re-
search on sedimentation, diagenesis and transformation
should be enhanced.
(3) Offshore exploration is a new field. China does not have
very much offshore exploration experience. To promote
breakthroughs in offshore exploration, study on the shelf and
deepwater sedimentary systems and reservoir characteristics
should be accelerated.
(4) Petroleum exploration goes deeper and deeper. New
 Sun Longde et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2010, 37(4): 385–396
discoveries are continually made at the burial depth of 6 000−
7 000 m. Porosity evolution, preservation mechanism and
distribution patterns of the deep reservoirs should be streng-
thened.
(5) To facilitate exploration in the unconventional new field,
the mechanisms of unconventional reservoirs (including tight
sand, coal bed methane, shale, volcanic and matrix reservoirs
etc.) should be conducted and strengthened, so do the evalua-
tion of such reservoirs.
(6) To maintain stable production in mature fields, fine and
quantitative reservoir characterization techniques should be
continually promoted, especially the description and analysis
of the physical parameter variation and the big throat systems
which impact the balance of injection-production. For the
reservoirs with low permeability, quantitative description of
the pore structures of multi-porous media and their impacts on
fluid flow should be strengthened.
(7) Application of multidisciplinary in reservoir research
should be continually promoted. Study on the geophysical
prediction and logging evaluation techniques under the guid-
ance of sedimentary patterns should be enhanced to improve
the exploration and development efficiency.
(8) Laboratory evaluation of the pore structures in reser-
voirs with low permeability and ultra-low permeability, as
well as the physical modeling of sedimentation and diagenesis
should be strengthened, and a national reservoir database
should be built.
Acknowledgements
We thank Professors Zou Caineng, Gu Jiayu, Yuan Xuanjun,
and Shen Anjiang for their discussions and help during the
writing of this paper. Thanks also go to Drs. Zhang Xingyang
and Wang Lan for their help.
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