PL ae Tt a: Meee Metal) aaa) aT naa Shivashankar B NairNZI NZ Lu! Tata McGraw-Hill Copyright © 2009 by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. First eeprint DLLYVDDXRCYAR ‘No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. ‘This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, ‘Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-008770-5 ISBN-10: 0-07-008770-9 Managing Director: Ajay Shukla General Manager: Publishing—SEM & Tech Ed: Vibha Mahajan ‘Sponsoring Editor: Shatiai Jha Jt, Sponsoring Editor: Nalanfan Chakravarty ‘St. Copy Editor: Dipika Dey Sr. Production Manager: P L Pandita General Manager: Marketing —Higher Education & School: Michael J Cruz Product Manager: SEM & Tech Ed: Biju Ganesan Controller—Production: Rajender P Ghanseta Asst. General Manager—Production:; & f, Dagra Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources belicved to be reliable, However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata MeGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This wot published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services, If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Laxmi Nagar, Dethi-£10 092 and printed at Gopsons Papers Lid., Noida 201 301 Cover: Gopsons Papers Ltd. CraContents Preface to the Thind Edition xilé Preface to the Secand Edition avi PART I: PROBLEMS AND SEARCH 1. What is Artificial Intelligence? 1 14__The AL Problems 4 1,2 _ ‘The Underlying Assumption 6 1,3__ What is an Al Technique? 7 1.4_‘The Level of the Model 18 1.5__Criteria for Success 20 1,6 Some General References _2/ 1,7__One Final Word and Beyond _22 Exemises 24 2.__Problems, Problem Spaces, and Search 25 2.1 Defining the Problem as a State Space Search 25 2.2 Production Systems _30 24 Production System Characteristies 43 5 Issues in the Design of Search Programs 45 2.6__Additional Problems __47 Summary 48 Exerises 48 3.__ Heuristic Search Techniques 50 3.1 Generate-anc-Test 50 3.2_Hill Climbing 52 33 Best-first Search 57 24 Problem Reduction 64 35 Constraint 5 3.6 Means-ends Analysis 72 Summary 74 Excocises_7Z5 PART I: KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION 4, Knowledge Representation Issues 79 4.1 Representations and Mappings _79 4.2 Approaches to Knowledge Representation 82