Control System Engineering {I U. A. Bakshi as ec! V. U. Bakshi Technical Publications Punea [ase Control System Engineering ISBN 9788184314639 Al rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book should be reproduced in ory form, Electronic, Mechonicel, Photocopy or any information storage and retrievol system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publicatiors, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” ‘#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India, Printer : Alert DTPinters Sena. 10/3, Sinhagad Road, Pine- 411 041Table of Contents 1.1 Background.. 1.3 Classification of Control Systems... 1.4 Open Loop System 1.4.4 Advantages . . 1.4.2 Disadvantages 1.43 Real Time Appicalions of an Open Loop Sytem. 1.4.3.1 Sprinkler used toWateraLawn. . . . . . 1.4.3.2 Stepper Motor Positioning System... . 1.4.3.3 Automatic Toaster System. ‘ 1.4.3.4 Traffic Light Controller ©. 2 2 2. 1.4.3.5 Automatic Door Opening and Closing System 1.5 Closed Loop System 1.5.1 Advantages ........ 1.5.2 Disadvantages. ......0.0666ccceeeees 1.5.3 Real Time Applications of Closed Loop System 15.3.1 Human Being... 1.5.3.2 Home Heating System want 1.5.3.3 Ship Stabilization System... 2... 2... . see 4.5.3.4 Manual Speed Control System... 1.5.3.5D.C. Motor Speed Control. 8 site wns 1.5.3.6 Temperature Control System . . . eee © 1.5.3.7 Missile Launching System... 4 Seu § MOE Ee 1.5.3.8 Vollage Stabilizer 1.6 Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Control System 1.7 Servomechanisms .... 4.8 Regulating Systems (Regulators) es1.9 Feedback and Feed Forward System... 1.9.1 Real Time Application of Feed Forward System 1.10 Multivariable Control Systems ...... 2.1 Background. 2.2 Definition of Laplace Transform 2.3 Properties of Laplace Transform. 2.3.4 Linearity 2.3.2 Scaling Theorem 2.3.3 Real Differentiation (Differentiation in Time Domain) . 2.3.4 Real Integration 2.3.5 Differentiation bys........ 2.3.6 Complex Translation.......... 2.3.7 Real Translation (Shitting Theorem) 2.3.8 Initial Value Theorem. 2.3.9 Final Value Theorem. 2.4 Inverse Laplace Transform .. 2.4.1. Simple and Real Rools . 2.4.2 Multiple Roots . 2.4.3 Complex Conjugate Roots. 2.5 Use of Laplace Transform in Control System 2.6 Special Case of Inverse Laplace Transform... Examples with Solutions 3.1 Backgrouns 3.2 Concept of Transfer Function .... 3.3.2 Advantages and Features of Transfer Function . 3.3.3 Disadvantages. . +6 3.3.4 Procedure to Determine the Transfer Function oh a Control System. 3.4 Impulse Response and Transfer Function... 3.5 Some Important Terminologies Related to the T.F.3.5.1 Poles of a Transfer Function 3.5.2 Characteristic Equation of a Transfer Function 3-11 SOSA ONTO PONE « :occncecsamcenceunce nm ennoe menInR HEE 3-11 3.5.4 Pole-Zero Plot ........ 3.5.5 Order of a Transfer Function 3-12 3.5.6 D.C. Gain. 3-12 3.6 Laplace Transform of Electrical Network Examples with Solutions... 4.2.2 Mass (M)... 4.2.3 Linear Spring. 24 Frise, 4.6.3 Levers 4.7 Electrical Systems.. 4.8 Analogous Systems .. 4.8.1 Mechanical System . . 4.8.2 Force Voltage Analogy (Loop Analysis) . 4.8.3 Force Current Analogy (Node Analysis) . 4.9 Steps to Solve Problems on Analogous Systems 4.10 Servomotors..... 4.10.1 Requirements of Good Servomoior. 4.11 Types of Servomotors... 4.12 D.C. Servomotor .. 4.12.1 Field Controlled D.C. Servomotor . : 4.12.1.4 Features of Field Controlled D.C. Servomotor . . a ea1+: 4.12.2 Armature Controlled D.C. Servomolor. ........ 2.6. seceeeeeeeeeeceenee een eee 4-21 4.15.2Rotor .. be 4 18.3 Torque speed Characteristics 4.45.4 Features of A. C. Servomotor 4.15.5 Applications 4.15.6 Transfer Function of A.C. Servorotor . . 4.16 Comparison of Servomotoss .... 4.46.1 Comparison between A.C. and D.C. Servomotor. 4.16.2 Comparison between Armature Controled and Field Controlled D.C, Servomotors. 4.17 Models of Commonly used Electromechanical Systems ... 4.17.1 Generators 4.47.2 Generator Driving Motor. 4.17.4 Position Control with Field Controlled Motor 4.17.5 Speed Control System. 4.17.6 Speed Control using Generator Driving Motor . 4.17.7 A Typical Position Control System used in Industry . 4.18 D.C. Motor Position Control System .. 4.18.1 Transfer Function of D.C. Motor Position Control System 4.19 Models of Thermal Systems 4.19.1 Heat Transfer System . . 4.19.2 Thermometer ..... 4.20 Actuators ..... 4.20.1 Hydraulic Actuator . 4.20.2 Pneumatic Actuator . 4.20.3 Comparison between Pneumatic and Hydraulic Syste. Examples with Solutions . Review Questions .... sa TORN5.1 Background §.1.1 Illustrating Concept of Block Diagram Representation 5.1.2 Advantages of Block Diagram . 5.2 Simple or Canonical Form of Closed Loop System 5.2.1 Derivation of T.F. of Simple Closed Loop System. . . 5.3 Rules for Block Diagram Reduction ... 534 Gilcal Riles sess cerry eye ONS, 5.3.2 Converting Nonunity Feedback to Unity Feedback... 5.3.3 Procedure to Solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems . . 5.4 Analysis of Multiple Input Multiple Output Systems 5.5 Block Diagram from System Equations ..... Examples with Solutions... Review Questions .. 6.1 Background. 6.2 Properties of Signal Flow Graph... 6.3 Terminology used in Signal Flow Graph 6.4 Methods to Obtain Signal Flow Graph 8.4.1 From the System Equations . 6.4.2 From the Given Block Diagram . 6.6 Comparison of Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph Methods.......... 6.7 Application of the General Gain Formula between Output Nodes and Non Input Nodes ........ 6.8 Application of Mason's Gain Formula to Electrical Networ 6.9 Obtaining Block Diagram from Signal Flow Graph Examples with Solutions... 7.1 Background... 7.2 Definition and Classification of Time Response.... SLA AEA7.3 Standard Test Inputs... 7.4 Steady State Analysis...... 7.5 Derivation of Steady State Error... 7.6 Effect of Input (Type and Magnitude) on Steady State Error (Static Error Coefficient Method) ...... 7.7 Effect of Change in G(s)H(s) on Steady State Error (TYPE of a System). 7.8 Analysis of TYPE 0, 1 and 2 Systems............... 7.9 Disadvantages of Static Error Coefficient Method .... 7.10 Generalised Error Coefficient Method (or Dynamic Error Coefficients)... 7.11 Transient Response Analysis 7.11.1 Method to Determine Total Output c(t) 7.12 Analysis of First Order System 7.12.1 Unit Step Response of First Order System. 7.12.2 Closed Loop Poles of First Order System . 7.13 Analysis of Second Order System... 7.14 Effect of & on Second Order System Performance 7.15 Derivation of Unit Step Response of a Second Order System... (Underdamped Case)... 7.16 Transient Response Specifications. 7.17 Derivations of Time Domain Specifications 7.47.1 Derivation of Peak Time T,, 7.17.2 Derivation of M,, 7.47.3 Derivation of T, . 7474 Derivation of T,. 7.18 Feedback Characteristics of Control ‘Systems 7.18.1 Effect of Parameter Variations in an Open Loop Control System . 7.18.2 Effect of Parameter Variations in a Closed Loop System . 7.18.3 Sensitivity of 2 Control System 7.18.4 Effect of Feedback on Time Constant of a Control System. . 7.18.5 Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain 7.18.6 Effect of Feedback on Stability... 7.18.7 Effect of Feedback on Disturbance ..7.19 Performance Criterion 7.19.1 Mean Square Error (EMS)........ 7.19.2 Integral Square Error Criterion (SE). 7.19.3 Integral of Time Multiplied Square Error Criterion (Tse) becca 7.19.4 Integral of Squared Time Multiplied by Squared Error(ISTSE)........ 7.19.5 Integral of Absolute Value of Error (IAE) . 7.19.6 Integral of Time Muliplied by Absolute Value of enor (ITAE) Examples with Solutions... Review Questions ... Chapter <8” Stability Analysis 2 8.1 Background . 8.2 Concept of Stability . 8.3 Stability of Control Systems. 84 Zero Input and Asymptotic Stability 8.4.1 Remarks about Asymptotic Stability 8.5 Relative Stability .... 8.6 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion........ 8.6.1 Necessary Conditions ......... 8.6.2 Hurwitz's Criterion. . . 8.6.3 Disadvantages of Hurwitz’s Method 8.7 Routh’s Stability Criterion 8.7.1 Routh’s Criterion 8.8 Special Cases of Routh's 's Criterion . 8.8.1 Special Case 1 . 8.8.2 Special Case 2 vee 8.8.2.1 Procedure to Eliminate this Dificuty 8.8.2.2 Importance of an Auxiliary Equation. . wee : 8.8.2.3 Change in Criteron of Stability in Special Case2 . . sce a eo BENG 8.9 Applications of Routh's Criterion .. 8.9.1 Relative Stabilty Analysis......... 8.9.2 Determining Range of Values of K .. 8.10 Advantages of Routh’s Criterion . 8.11 Limitations of Routh's Criterion . 8.12 Marginal K and Frequency of Sustained Oscillations . Examples with Solutions ....... Review Questions ee —9.1 Background..... 9.2 Basic Concept of Root Locus 9.3 Angle and Magnitude Condi 9.3.1 Angle Condition 9.3.2 Use of Angle Condition . 9.3.3 Magnitude Condition . 9.3.4 Use of Magnitude Condition ... 9.4 Graphical Method of Determining ‘I 9.5 Construction of Root Locus ... 9.6 Rules for Construction of Root Locus. ..... 9.7 Graphical Determination of 'K' for Specified Damping Ratio'é" 9.8 General Steps to Solve the Problem on Root Locus 9.9 Effect of Addition of Open Loop Poles and Zeros . 9.9.1 Addition of Pole . . 9.9.2 Addition of Zeros . 9.10 Advantages of Root Locus Met od 9.11 Obtaining G(s)H(s) from Characteristic Equation 9.12 Cancellation of Poles of oF Gla) with Zeros of re 9.12.1 Gain Margin. . . 9.13 Root Sensitivity 9.14 Root Contour 9.15 Inverse Root Locus ... 9.16 System with Positive Feedback (K is Positive ) . Examples with Solutions .. Review Questions 10.1 Background .. oe 10.2 Advantages of Freqdencyt Domain Approach 10.3 Limitations of Frequency Response Method: 10.4 Conceptual Approach to Frequency Response .... 10.4.1 Steady State Response to Sinusoidal Input : (Frequency Response) . 10.5 Apparatus Required for Frequency Response...... re eS Se eS10.6 Relation between Transfer Function and Frequency Response.......10 -6 10.7 Transfer Function and Frequency Response of a Series R-C Circuit. 10.7.1 Generating Frequency Response Data. 10.8 Frequency Domain Methods... 10.9 Co-relation between Time Domain and Frequency Domain for Second Order System... 10.9.1 Derivations of M, and, . 10.9.2 Comments on Co-relation between Time Domain and Frequency Domain . 10.10 B.W. (Bandwidth)... Examples with Solutions Review Questions 11.1 Introduction to Bode Plot. 11.1.1 Magnitude Plot. . 11.1.2 The Phase Angle Plot 11.2 Logarithmic Scales (Semilog Papers 11.3 Standard Form of Open Loop T.F. G(jw)H(jo) ... 11.4 Bode Plots of Standard Factors of G(jw)H(jo) 11.4.1 Factor 1 : System Gain 'K. 41.4.2 Factor 2 : Poles or Zeros at the Origin (ia)*? .... 41.4.3 Factor 3: Simple Poles or Zeros (First Order Factors) . 411.44 Factor 4 : Quadratic Factors .. 11.5 Steps to Sketch the Bode Plot 11.6 Frequency Response Specifications... 11.7 Calculation of G.M. and P.M. from Bode Plot.. 11.8 What should be Values of G.M. and P.M. of a Good System 7..... 11.9 How to Improve the G.M. and P.M. ?.... 11.10 Determination of @,, and P.M. for Standard Second Order System.. 11.11 Calculation of Transfer Function from Magnitude Plot. 11.12 Advantages of Bode Plots.. 11.13 Determination of K,, K, and K, from Bode Plot11.14 Bode Plot of Systems with Transportation Lag . . 11-39 Examples with Solutions .... 11-41 Review Questions ... - 11-88 Chapter-12 Polar and Nyquist Plots é (12- 1) to (12 - 86) 12.1 Background... «12-1 12.2 Polar Plot .. 12-1 12.3 @,, and @,, in Polar Plot 12-8 12.4 Determination of G.M. and P.M. from Polar Plot.. 12-9 12.4.1 Determining w,, Mathematically ... . eee 12-10 12.5 Nyquist Plot Analysis .. 12-12 12.6 Pole-Zero Configuration... 12-13 12.7 Encirclement..... 12-14 12.7.1 Counting Number of Encirclements . . seve 12-14 12.8 Analytic Function and Singularities . 12-16 . 12-16 12.9 Mapping Theorem or Principle of Argument... 12.10 Nyquist Stability Criterion hese . 12-19 42.11 Generalized Nyquist Path and its eben 12-24 12.12 Steps to Solve Problems by Nyquist Criterion .. 212-23 12.13 Behaviour of Right Half Pole. “ . 12-35 12.14 Advantages of Nyquist Plot... . 12-40 12.15 Log Magnitude - Phase Plots. -12-41 12.154 Stabilty Analysis using Magnitude-Phase Plot, scnsrrene 12-42 Examples with Solutions ............cccsssseeeeeeeeee . cecceeee 12-45 . 12-85 Review Questions ... Chapter-13 Closed Loop Frequency Response (13 - 1) to 9 (18% 20) 13.1 Closed Loop Frequency Response. 13-4 13.2 M Circles [Constant Magnitude Loci] 13-2 13.3 N Circles [Constant Phase Loci ... 13-5 13.4 Use of M Circles... 13-7 13.5 Use of N Circles ... sscowe 1 3= 9. 13-10 13.6 Nichol's Chart......13.7 Frequency Specifications from the Nichol's Chart .... Review Questions .. 14.1 Background. 14.2 Types of Compensation 14.2.1 Series Compensation ....... 14.2.2 Parallel Compensation 14.2.3 Series-Parallel Compensation. . 14.3 Compensating Networks 14.4 Lead Compensatot 14.4.1 Maximum Lead Angle ,, and o.. 14.4.2 Polar Plot of Lead Compensator . 14.4.3 Bode Plot of Lead Compensator . 14.44 Steps to Design Lead Compensator 14.4.5 Effects of Lead Compensation . . 14.4.6 Limitations of Lead Compensation . 14.5 Lag Compensator .... 14.5.1 Maximum Lag Angle and 8 . 14.52 Polar Plot of Lag Compensato : 14.53 Bode Plotof Lag Compensator...... 2.2.0. .ceeeeceee 14.5.4 Steps to Design Lag Compensator..... 14.5.5 Effects and Limitations of Lag Compensator. 14.6 Lag-Lead Compensator 14.6.1 Polar Plot of Lag-Lead Compensator . 14.6.2 Bode Plot of Lag-Lead Compensetor . 14.6.3 Effects of Lag-Lead Compensator. . 14.7 Compensation using Root Locus. 14.8 Designing Lead Compensator using Root Locus. 14.9 Designing Lag Compensator using Root Locus.. 14.10 Designing Lag-Lead Compensator using Root Locus ... Review Questions 15.1 Background.. 15.1.1 Advantages of State Variable Analysis. 15.2 Concept of State ENE15.2.1 Important Definitions... 2... eee eceeeeceeeeeeeeeeseeeeeneeeees : 15.3 State Model of Linear Systems... 153.1 State Model of Single Input Single Output Syst 15.4 State Variable Representation using Enyees! Variables 15.4.1 Advantages. 15.5 State Diagram Representation 15.5.1 State Diagram of Standard State Model . 15.6 Non Uniqueness of State Model 15.7 State Space Representation using Phase Variable: 15.7.1 State Model from Differential Equation 15.7.2 Stale Model from Transfer Function 15.7.3 Advantages. 15.7.4 Limitations 18.8 State Space Representation using Canonical Variables 15.8.1 Jordan's Canonical Form . 15.8.2 Advantages of Canonical Variables 15.8.3 Disadvantages of Canonical Variables. 15.9 State Model by Cascade Programming .. 15.10 Derivation of Transfer Function from State Model 15.10.1 Characteristic Equation . 15.10.2 MIMO System. . .. . 15.11 Solution of State Equations. 15.11.1 Homogeneous Equation . 15.11.2 Nonhomogeneous Equation 15.12 Review of Classical Method of Solution 15.2.1 Zero Input Response............. 15.13 Solution of Nonhomogeneous Equation 15.14 Properties of State Transition Matrix.. 15.15 Solution of State Equation by Laplace Transform Method. 15.16 Computation of State Transition Matrix. 15.17 Laplace Transform Method .. Examples with Solutions .. Review Questions..... LLChapter+16 16.1 Introduction to Stepper Motors .. 16.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor 16.3 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor .. 16.3.1 Reduction Gear Stepper Motor 16.3.2 Multistack Stepper Motor 16.4 Important Definitions Related to Stepper Motor 16.5 Stepper Motor Characteristics 16.5.1 Static Characteristics ........ 16.5.2 Dynamic Characteristics 16.6 Difference between Stepper Motor and D.C. Servomotor . 16.7 Applications of Stepper Motor 16.8 Synchros .. 16.8.1 Synchro Transmitler ......... 16.8.2 Synchro Control Transformer . . 16.8.3 Error Detector using Synchros 16.9 Potentiometer ..... 16.9.1 Potentiometer as an Error Detector . 16.9.2 Types of Potentiometers . 16.9.3 Characteristics of Precision Peteniometer. 16.9.4 Loading in Potentiometers . 16.10 Rotating Amplifiers .. 16.10.1 Single Stage Amplifier . 16.10.2 Two State Rotating Amplifier (Amplidyne) 16.10.3 Transfer Function 16.11 Magnetic Amplifier ......... 16.12 Servoamplifiers .. 16.13 Introduction to Controllers 16.14 Properties of Controller 16.14.1 Error. 16.14.2 Variable Range ... .. 16.14.3 Controller Output Range 16.14.4 Control Lag . 16.145 Dead Zone. ceeeees 16.15 Classification of Controllers. ee rr 16-2716.16 Discontinuous Controller Modes... 16.16.1 Two Position Mode (ON-OFF Controller) . 16.16.2 Multiposition Mode. Wevewees 16.17 Continuous Controller Modes 16.18 Proportional Control Mode . 16.18.1 Characteristic of Proportional Mode . 16.18.2 Offset.......... 16.18.3 Applications 16.19 Integral Control Mode . 16.19.1 Step Response of Integral Mode. . 16.19.2 Characteristics of Integral Mode 16.19.3 Applications . . 16.20 Derivative Control Mode . 16.20.1 Characteristics of Derivative Control Mode... .. : 16-37 16.20.2 Applications . 16.21 Composite Control Modes ... 16.22 Proportional + Integral Mode 3(PI Control Mode) 16.2.1 Characteristics of Pi Mode . 16.2.2 Applications . . 16.23 Proportional + Derivative Mode (PD Control Mode; 16.23.1 Characteristics of PD Mode. 16.23.2 Applications... .. ees eceseavereee 16.24 Three Mode Controller (PID Control Mode). 16.25 Response of Controllers to Various Inputs ... 16.26 Effect of Composite Controllers on 2" Order System. 16.27 PD Type of Controller 16.28 Pl Type of Controller 16.29 PID Type of Controller ..... 16.30 Rate Feedback Controller (Output Derivative Controller)... Examples with Solutions .. Review Questions .. maior OR ereBasics of Control System 1.1 Background In recent years, concept of automatic control has achieved a very important position in advancement of modern science. Automatic control systems have played an important role in the advancement and improvement of engineering skills. Practically, every activity in our day to day life is influenced by some sort of control system. Concept of control systems also plays an important role in the working of space vehicles, satellites, guided missiles etc. Such control systems are now integral part of the modem industrialization, industrial processes and home appliances. Control systems are found in number of practical applications like computerised control systems, transportation systems, power systems, temperature limiting systems, robotics etc. Hence for an engineer it is absolutely necessary to get familiar with the analysis and designing methods of such control systems. This chapter includes the concept of system and control system. Then it gives the classification of control systems. It includes the discussion of various types of control systems supporied with number of real time applications. 1.2 Definitions To understand the meaning of the word control system, first we will define the word system and then we will try to define the word control system. System : A system is ¢ combination or an arrangement of different pysical components which act together as an entire unit to achieve certain objective. Every physical object is actually a system. A classroom is a good example of physical system. A room along with the combination of benches, blackboard, fans, lighting arrangement etc. can be called a classroom which acts as an elementary system. Another example of a system is a lamp. A lamp made up of glass, filament is a physical system. Similarly a kite made up of paper and sticks is an example of a physical system. Similarly system can be of any type ie. physical, ecological, biological etc. qa-4)Control System Engineering 1-2 Basics of Control System Control system : To control means to regulate, to direct or to command. Hence a control system is an arrangement of different physical elements connected in such a manner so as to regulate, direct or command itself or some other system. For example, if in a classroom, professor is delivering his lecture, the combination becomes a control system as; he tries to regulate, direct or command the students in order to achieve the objective which is to impart good knowledge to the students, Similarly if lamp is switched ON or OFF using a switch, the entire system can be called a control system. The concept of physical system and a control system is shown in the Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2 Lamp ‘Switch ( ) Lamp [ Supply Fig. 1.1 Physical system Fig. 1.2 Control system When a child plays with the kite, he tries to control it with the help of string and entire system can be considered as a control system. In short, a control system is in the broadest sense, an interconnection of the physical components to provide a desired function, involving some kind of controlling action in it. Plant : The portion of a system which is to be controlled or regulated is called the plant or the Process. Controller : The element of the system itself or external to the system which controls the plant or the process is called controller. For each system, there must be an excitation and system accepts ‘i as an input. And for analyzing the behaviour of system for such input, it is necessary to define the output of a system. Input : It is an applied signal or an excitation signal applied to a control system from an external energy source in order to produce a specified output. Output : It is the particular signal of interest or the actual response obtained from a control system when input is applied to it. Disturbances : Disturbance is a signal which tends to adversely affect the value of the output of a system. If such a disturbance is generated within the system itself, it is called an internal disturbance. The disturbance generated outside the system acting as an extra input to the system in addition to its normal input, affecting the output adversely is called an external disturbance. Control systems may have more than one input or output. From the information regarding the system, it is possible to well define all the inputs and outputs of the systems.Control System Engineering Basics of Control System The input variable is generally referred as the Reference Input — Reference and output is generally referred as pet the Controlled Output. Cause and effect relationship between input and output for a plant can be shown as in the Fig. 1.3. Controlled output, Fig. 1.3 1.3 Classification of Control Systems Broadly control systems can be classified as, 1) Natural Control Systems : The biological systems, systems inside human being are of natural type. Example 1 : The perspiration system inside the human being is a good example of natural control system. This system activates the secretion glands, secreating sweat and regulates the temperature of human body. 2) Manmade Control Systems : The various systems, we are using in our day to day life are designed and manufactured by human beings. Such systems like vehicles, switches, various controllers etc. are called ‘manmade control systems. Example 2 : An automobile system with gears, accelerator, braking system is a good example of manmade control system. 3) Combinational Control Systems : Combinational control system is one, having combination of natural and manmade together ie. driver driving a vehicle. In such system, for successful operation of the system, it is necessary that natural systems of driver alongwith systems in vehicles which are manmade must be active. But for the engineering analysis, control systems can be classified in many different ways. Some of the classifications are given below. 4) Time Varying and Time - Invariant Systems : Time varying control systems are those in which parameters of the systems are varying with time. It is not dependent on whether input and output are functions of time or not. For example, space vehicle whose mass decreases with time, as it leaves earth. The mass is a parameter of space vehicle system. Similarly in case of a rocket, aerodynamic damping can change with time as the air density changes with the altitude. As against this if even though the inputs and outputs are functions of time but the parameters of system are independent of time, which are not varying with time and are constants, then system is said to be time invariant system. Different electrical networks consisting of the elements as resistances, inductances and capacitances are time invariant systems as the values of the elements of such system are constant and not the functions of time. The complexity of the control system design increases considerably if the control system is of the time varying type. This classification is shown in the Fig. 1.4Control System Engineering 1-4 Basics of Control System Parameters of system are functions of time Parameters of system are sal Output constants and not functions of time (2) Time invariant system |, (b) Time variant system 9. 1. 5) Linear and Nonlinear Systems : A control system is said to be linear if it satisfies following properties. a) The principle of superposition is applicable to the system. This means the response to several inputs can be obtained by considering one input at a time and then algebraically adding the individual results. Mathematically principle of superposition is expressed by two properties, i) Additive property which says that for x and y belonging to the domain of the function f then we have, fix + y) = £09 + fly) ii) Homogeneous property which says that for any x belonging the domain of the function f and for any scalar constant « we have, flax) = a f(x) b) The differential equation describing the system is linear having its coefficients as constants. ©) Practically the output ie. zesponse varies linearly with the input i.e. forcing function for linear systems. Real time example : A resistive network shown in the Fig. 15 (a) is a linear system. The Fig. 1.5 (b) shows the linear relationship existing between input and output. R, 1 Dis Linear relatonship Yin Vip = Input, | = Output {a) Linear system (b) Response of system Fig. 1.5 Example of linear system