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Tsinigo1812016BJAST29805 1 PDF
Tsinigo1812016BJAST29805 1 PDF
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Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between all authors. Author ET designed the study,
performed the statistical analysis, wrote the protocol, wrote the first draft of the manuscript and
managed literature searches. Authors KOY, SCF and ITA managed the analyses of the study and
literature searches. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/BJAST/2016/29805
Editor(s):
(1) Hamid El Bilali, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM/IAMB), Sustainable Agriculture, Food & Rural
Development Department, Via Ceglie 9, 70010 Valenzano (Bari), Italy.
Reviewers:
(1) María Daniela Chavez, National Institute for Agricultural Technology, Argentina.
(2) Nwite, John Chukwu, Federal College of Agriculture, Nigeria..
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history/16839
th
Received 29 September 2016
nd
Original Research Article Accepted 22 October 2016
th
Published 8 November 2016
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in Ejura-Sekyedumase Municipality of the Ashanti Region and the
Atebubu-Amantin Municipality in the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana, in May 2013, to investigate the
technological change in rice production in the two municipalities in Ghana using the output
decomposition analysis approach. The study adopted a descriptive research design, based on a
cross-sectional survey strategy. The study involved 216 sampled smallholder rice farmers (107
adopters of the improved variety and 109 non-adopters) using a three-stage stratified random
sampling method involving operational areas, communities, and farmers. Data were collected by
trained agricultural extension agents and monitored by the researchers. The Cobb-Douglas
production and a modified decomposition analyses techniques were used to decompose the
sources of productivity differences between the improved rice variety and the unimproved rice
variety. Out of 216 rice farmers sampled, 208 completed their questionnaires. The study found that
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
seed, fertiliser, and herbicide had a significant influence on the yield of the improved and
unimproved rice varieties. Further, the ratios of the marginal value product to marginal factor costs
were equal to unity for all the inputs, except labour; an indication that the resources were
underutilised. The decomposition analysis showed that the estimated productivity differences
between the improved and unimproved rice varieties were 39.46 percent. Productivity differences
between the improved and unimproved rice varieties were mainly due to non-neutral technical
change, which accounted for 44.65 percent. The study concludes that technological change in rice
production in the two municipalities was mainly of the non-neutral type. Designing appropriate
extension strategies and capacity building for the rice farmers could lead to improvement in their
productivity.
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clearly, prior research suggests that technical two municipalities were sampled for the study.
change and input use differentials might be key Out of these, 208 were considered sufficiently
factors in driving the productivity differences complete to be usable. This comprised 105
between unimproved and improved crop varieties adopters and 103 non-adopters of the improved
[15,16]. However, no systematic analysis of how rice variety. Data were collected by the
these factors explain the productivity differences researchers with support from five agricultural
between the improved and unimproved varieties extension agents.
was carried out. Moreover, existing research in
Ghana has failed to address these two key 2.2 Empirical Specifications
issues on the technological change associated
with the improved rice variety. This study has the 2.2.1 Decomposition analysis
potential to provide a better theoretical and
practical understanding of the nature and The output decomposition model developed by
magnitude of the technological change Bisaliah [18] was used to estimate the output
associated with the improved rice variety. This productivity differences between the unimproved
study further decomposes the sources of and the improved rice varieties. It was further
productivity differences between the adopters used to identify the contribution of technology
and non-adopters of the improved rice variety. and resource use differentials to the productivity
differences. The decomposition analysis
2. METHODOLOGY presents a modification of Bisaliah’s [18]
approach, based on the Cobb-Douglas
2.1 Study Area and Sampling Technique production (CDP) model. Several studies have
used this approach extensively [15,16,19].
The study was conducted in the Ejura- Therefore, it was considered appropriate for this
Sekyedumase Municipality of the Ashanti Region study. The model specification used in this study
and the Atebubu-Amantin Municipality in the was based on three assumptions: (a) all relevant
Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana. The data used in inputs are observed; implying no effect of factors
this study were from the 2012 survey of rice such as management capabilities or soil quality
farmers in the two municipalities. This study was or water access; (b) adoption was assigned
based on the input-output data obtained from the randomly and not, for example, that better
rice farmers in the two municipalities selected farmers were more likely to adopt; and (c) the
using multi-stage stratified random sampling quantity of seeds is the same input for adopters
method. The choice of this method was due to and non-adopters, but the essence of the
its ability to ensure a high degree of new variety is incorporated in the seeds.
representativeness by providing the elements Accordingly, the production function for the
with equal chances of being selected [17]. The improved rice variety or adopters (A) is
first stage involved a simple random sampling of expressed as:
three operational areas from each of the two
municipalities. The selection was based on the YA = α A S AB1 LBA2 FAB3 H AB4 u A
dominance of the adopters and non-adopters of (1)
the improved rice variety. For each operational
area, two rice growing communities were Similarly, the production function for the
selected (totalling 12 communities), using simple unimproved rice variety or non-adopters (NA) is
random sampling based on the same criteria. given as:
The final stage involved the selection of 18 rice
farmers from each of the selected communities YNA = α NA S NA
Z1 Z 2 Z3
LNA FNA Z4
H NA u NA (2)
using stratified random sampling technique. The
rice farmers were divided into two strata, namely,
adopters and non-adopters. Nine farmers from These two production functions [equations (1)
each stratum were then selected using simple and (2)] were transformed into the logarithmic
random sampling. Thus, 216 rice farmers in the form. The specifications are as follows:
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Where: Y = yield of paddy (kg ha-1); α = scale parameter; S = quantity of rice seeds (kg ha-1); L =
number of labour used (person-days ha-1); F = quantity of fertiliser (kg ha-1); H = quantity of
Bi = output elasticity of inputs for the adopters; Z i = output elasticities of inputs for
herbicide (l ha-1);
U
the non-adopters, and i = disturbance terms. Taking differences between equations (3) and (4)
give:
∑ [ β InX ]
i =1
i NAi
Adding and subtracting in equation (5) and rearranging gives:
Where; 4
∑ B In( X
i =1
i Ai / X NAi
= Output differences due to
In(YA / YNA )
= Per-hectare output differences
input use differentials, and
[u A − u NA ] =
between adopters and non-adopters. It gives
approximately a measure of the percentage Differences in the error term.
change in output with the introduction of the
Using equation (7), the per-hectare productivity
improved rice variety.
difference between the adopters and non-
adopters was decomposed into three
In(α A / α NA ) components. These are neutral technical change
= Output differences due to neutral
technical change. (i.e., a shift in the intercept of the production
function); non-neutral technical change (i.e., a
4 shift in the slope parameters of the production);
∑ [ B − Z ]InX
i i NAi
and change in the volume of inputs used (i.e.,
i =1 = Output differences due to non-
neutral technical change. rice seed, labour, fertiliser, and herbicides).
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Tsinigo et al.; BJAST, 18(1): 1-11, 2016; Article no.BJAST.29805
Table 1. Mean and mean differences in inputs use between non-adopters and adopters
Variables Mean Non-adopters Adopters Differences t-statistics p-value
Yield (kg ha-1) 2487.32 1936.89 3027.26 1090.37 7.97 .00**
Seed (kg) 64.78 71.69 58.00 13.69 -5.52 .00**
Labour (person-days ha-1) 126.28 116.89 135.66 18.77 2.08 .04*
Fertiliser (kg ha-1) 258.71 196.60 319.64 123.04 6.13 .00**
Herbicide (l ha-1) 4.71 4.71 4.29 0.42 .02 .99
Sample size 208 103 105
Note: *p < .05, **p < .01
3.2 Estimated Per Hectare Production variety could be due to the lack/delay/inadequacy
Functions of fertiliser application among the non-adopters.
These results are consistent with the studies by
Table 2 presents the estimates of the per-hectare [14] and [19] who found seed, herbicide, and
production function for the adopters and non- fertiliser to have significant effects on the yield of
adopters in the two municipalities. The unimproved rice varieties.
explanatory powers of the per-hectare production
functions for the non-adopters and adopters were Table 2. Per-hectare CDP estimates for the
low (i.e., 0.36 and 0.20, respectively), suggesting non-adopters and adopters
that although highly significant at the 1% level,
the models generally fit the data moderately. This Variables Non-adopters Adopters
implies that the variations in the (log of) the per- Intercept 5.89** (.53) 5.95** (.91)
Seed .24* (.10) .50** (.19)
hectare productivities were explained by 36%
Labour -.04 (.05) -.09 (.08)
and 20% of the (logs) of all the explanatory Fertiliser .08** (.02) 0.07** (.02)
variables for the non-adopters and adopters, Herbicide .24** (.24) .01 (.59)
respectively. The output elasticities satisfied a No. 103 105
priori expectations. Gujarati [20] justifies the observations
2
possibility of low R in cross-sectional data due R2 .36 .20
to the diversity of its units. Gujarati [20] further F-value 13.78** 6.15**
recommends that the relevancy of a model JB test 1.06 1.26
should be judged in the light of the correct Note: *p < .05, **p < .01; JB: Jarque-Bera test of normality.
Figures in parentheses are standard errors
specification, correct expected signs of the
regressors, and statistical significance of the
regression coefficient. Accordingly, these The output elasticities for the adopters indicated
conditions have been satisfied in this study. that the significant variables were seed and
fertiliser. Besides, all the significant variables had
For the non-adopters, the seed, fertiliser, and their expected signs. Seed and fertiliser had
herbicide were statistically significant at the 5% output elasticities of 0.50 and 0.07, respectively.
and 1% probability levels, respectively. The The results indicated that a 1% increase in the
output elasticities of these variables are seeding rate, when all other factors are constant,
consistent with the expected signs and economic leads to an average increase of 0.50% in the
logic. The output elasticities of seed, fertiliser, yield of the improved rice variety. The output
and herbicide were 0.24, 0.08, and 0.24, elasticity of fertiliser suggests that, if all other
respectively. In other words, holding other factors factors remain constant, a 1% increase in the
constant, a 1% increase in seeding rate is quantity of fertiliser application leads to an
associated with an average of 0.24% increase in average increase yield of 0.10% of the improved
the yield of the unimproved rice varieties. rice variety. The high elasticity of seed rate
Similarly, on the average, a 1% increase in the underlines the importance of the improved seed
quantity of herbicide leads to 0.24% increase in in the production of rice. Therefore, seed rate is
the yield of the unimproved rice varieties, holding the most important factor in the production of the
all other factors constant. In addition, holding all improved rice variety. The low effect of fertiliser
other factors constant, a 1% increase in the use on the yield of the improved variety is due to the
of fertiliser leads, on the average, to 0.08% use of fertiliser below the recommended level.
increase in production. Overall, the use of seed, For instance, even though the Ministry of Food
herbicide, and fertiliser were the major and Agriculture recommended 375 kg ha-1 of
determinants of the yield of the unimproved rice fertiliser for the improved rice variety [9], most of
varieties in the two municipalities. The low impact the adopters, on the average, applied 319.64 kg
of fertiliser on the yield of the unimproved rice ha-1 of fertiliser to the improved rice variety.
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Generally, the output elasticity of seed is higher Hence, the hypothesis that the regressors for the
for the adopters compared to the non-adopters. adopters and non-adopters have the same
In contrast, non-adopters reported higher output intercept was not rejected. The differential slope
elasticities for fertiliser and herbicide. The results coefficients (i.e., the coefficient for the slope
also indicated that the intercept term for dummies for seed, labour, and fertiliser) were all
the adopters (i.e., 5.95) was slightly higher, statistically insignificant, except for herbicide.
compared with the non-adopters (5.89). This Hence, the hypothesis that the two regressions
virtually signifies a slight upward shift in the have different slopes was rejected. This implies
production function due to technological change that structural differences in the regressions for
associated with the improved rice variety. The the adopters and non-adopters are due to the
sum of the output elasticities for the variable differences in the use of herbicide. Overall, the
inputs gives 0.52 and 0.49 for the non-adopters analysis of covariance gives an F-ratio of 15.46
and adopters, respectively. This suggests that with 5 and 198 degrees of freedom, which is
the rice farmers during the 2012 production significant at the 1% level. We thus reject the null
season experienced diminishing returns to scale. hypothesis of no structural difference in the two
However, there is no evidence to suggest that regressions. The results illustrate that the main
these values (i.e., 0.52 and 0.49) are statistically source of structural difference in the two
different from one. Hence, a linear equality regressions is the shift in the slope parameter
restriction was tested for the per-hectare and the shift in the herbicide parameter, in
production functions by imposing the restriction particular. The nature of the impact of the
that there are constant returns to scale. The null improved rice variety on the per-hectare
hypothesis was that the sum of the output productivity of rice was, therefore, due to the
elasticities of the per-hectare production non-neutral technical change rather than neutral
functions equals to one. The F-test for the non- technical change. That is, the shift from
adopters reported F(1, 98) = 11.11, with p-value the unimproved rice varieties to the improved
= 0.01 while that of the adopters reported F(1, rice variety was biased towards the use of
100) = 5.35, with p-value = 0.02. The F values for herbicide.
the non-adopters and adopters were significant
at the 5% level. Therefore, the researchers reject 3.4 Resource Use Efficiency in Rice
the hypothesis of constant returns to scale in the Production
per-hectare production functions for the non-
adopters and adopters. The findings suggest that The marginal value products (MVP) of the
the production of the unimproved rice varieties resources were compared with the respective
and the improved rice variety were characterised marginal factor costs (MFC) to determine the
by diminishing returns to scale during the 2012 resource use efficiency (RUE) in rice production.
production seasons in the two municipalities. In This provides the scope for the intensification of
other words, a one percent increase in all inputs resources by the adopters and non-adopters.
leads to less than same percentage increase in The MVP and MFC ratios for the various
output, all other factors held constant. Thus, the resources for the adopters and non-adopters are
choice of the CDP model was appropriate for the presented in Table 4. It can be seen that the
data. ratios of MVP to MFC for both the adopters and
non-adopters were greater than unity for all the
3.3 Tests for Structural Differences inputs, except labour. This implies that both the
between the Non-adopters and adopters and non-adopters underutilised seeds,
Adopters herbicides, and fertilisers. Therefore, there is
evidence that rice farmers in the two
Sources of structural differences in the municipalities can probably generate higher
coefficients of the per-hectare production output and thus profit in the long-run by using
function for the adopters and non-adopters were more seeds, herbicides, and fertiliser. In contrast,
tested using the dummy variable technique. The the negative ratio of MVP to MFC for labour
test was also used to establish whether the shift indicated that the non-adopters and adopters
from the unimproved to the improved rice variety used labour excessively, resulting in lower
was of the neutral or non-neutral type. The outputs. This implies that the rice farmers need
results of the structural difference test are to reduce the use of the labour input. The
presented in Table 3. The differential intercept findings illustrate that perhaps educating rice
coefficient (i.e., the coefficient for the intercept farmers on the efficient use of inputs would
dummy variable) was statistically insignificant. greatly enhance their productivity. In general, the
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Tsinigo et al.; BJAST, 18(1): 1-11, 2016; Article no.BJAST.29805
rice farmers are inefficient in the use of seeds, technical change contributed 46.28%. This
labour and herbicides. This implies that that implies that with no further input application; rice
increasing off-farm work options probably would productivity could be increased by 46.28% just
increase farm efficiency. There is also the by adopting the improved rice variety. Technical
sufficient scope for increasing the use of these change affects output by shifting either the
inputs in the short-run keeping the labour input intercept or the slope coefficients, or both.
constant. Disaggregating technical change into neutral
technical and non-neutral technical changes
Table 3. Test for structural difference using revealed a 0.96% contribution in the scale
intercept and slope dummies parameter (i.e., neutral technical change) and a
Variables Coefficients p-value 45.32% contribution from the slope parameters
Intercept 5.82 (.58) 1.01** (i.e., non-neutral technical change). The 0.96%
Seed .24 (.11) .03* contribution of the neutral technical change
Labour -.02 (.06) .76 signifies that with the present level of input used
Fertiliser .08 (.02) .01** for the improved rice variety, the rice farmers
Herbicide .23 (.07) .01** could have increased the productivity level by
Intercept dummy .58 (1.03) 0.58 0.96% in rice production provided that the
Slope dummy for seeds .18 (.21) .40 efficiency level of inputs use remain constant.
Slope dummy for labour -.20 (.07) .18
Slope dummy for fertiliser -.00 (.02) .97
The greatest contribution of 45.32% suggests
Slope dummy for herbicide -.23 (.09) .01* that productivity difference between the improved
No. observations 208 rice variety and the unimproved rice varieties
2 was mostly from the non-neutral technical
R .43
F-value 16.87** change. In other words, output differences are
Note: *p < .05, **p < .01. Figures in parentheses are standard due to the differences in resource reallocation to
errors the various inputs used. This implies that the rice
farmers were able to adjust to the requirements
3.5 Sources of Productivity Difference of the improved technology of rice production.
between the Non-adopters and Therefore, output differences were attributable to
Adopters the shift in the slope parameter of the production
function.
The structural change test using the intercept
and slope dummies provide the justification for The results suggested that the total contribution
decomposing the sources of the per-hectare of changes in the levels of input use to the
productivity differences between the unimproved productivity differences between the two varieties
and the improved rice varieties. Accordingly, the was -6.82%. This implies that the productivity of
estimated parameters of the per-hectare the improved rice variety could decline by 6.82%
production functions (Table 1) and the mean if the input use leads to increase in the same
input levels (Table 2) were used for the Model 7. level as that of the unimproved rice varieties. The
Total changes in the productivity between the highest input contributor to the productivity
improved rice variety and the unimproved rice differences was fertiliser, which amounted to
varieties were then decomposed into two main 3.50%, followed by labour’s share of 0.43. Seed
sources: technical change and input use and herbicide registered a negative contribution
differentials. The sources of the productivity of -10.64% and -0.11%, respectively. This means
differences between the improved rice variety that the large quantity of seeding rate applied by
and the unimproved rice varieties are shown in the non-adopters increased output by 10.64% for
Table 5. Evidence of a moderate discrepancy the unimproved rice varieties. Similarly, higher
exists between the observed productivity levels of herbicide application have increased the
difference (44.65%) and the estimated output of the unimproved rice varieties by 0.11%.
productivity difference (39.46%) of the adopters Conversely, high intensities of fertiliser and
and non-adopters. This discrepancy could be labour used by the adopters had led to yield
due to the random term and thus, the non- increases by 3.50% and 0.43%, respectively.
inclusion of certain factors (i.e., flood and This implies that the adopters gained a higher
drought), either due to quantification problem or yield by spending more on fertiliser and labour
non-availability of data. than the non-adopters spend.
The total estimated difference in the productivity Generally, the results demonstrated that the total
between the improved rice variety and the gain in productivity due to the shift from the
unimproved rice varieties was 39.46%. Of this, unimproved rice varieties to the improved rice
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variety was 46.28%, which was mainly due to of improved agricultural technologies such as
non-neutral technical change, i.e., the shift in the improved rice variety. First, there is evidence that
slope coefficients. This presupposes that the rice productivity could be increased through
productivity difference between the improved rice greater use of quality seeds, fertiliser, and
variety and the unimproved rice varieties was herbicides. However, as indicated in the marginal
due to the re-allocation of inputs at the new level product to marginal cost ratios in Table 4, it
of efficiency. However, as stated earlier, the probably would not be efficient to increase
slope dummy for herbicide was the only fertiliser. The implication is that agricultural policy
statistically significant variable in the structural must seek to remove the impediments (such as
difference test (see Table 3). Hence, the major access to inputs) that prevent greater use of
source of structural difference between the modern inputs such as seeds and fertiliser in rice
improved rice variety and the unimproved rice production. More specifically, input supply must
varieties was the non-neutral technical change, (a) be decentralised to markets within the
which in turn is due solely to herbicide use. The farming communities and (b) be timely and
results are consistent with the finding of [16] who readily available in the right amount while
reported non-neutral technical change as the guaranteeing their quality. In addition, farmers
major source of structural difference between need to be trained on the best use of certified
improved and unimproved technologies. seeds and other improved technologies. Input
Similarly, this study is partly consistent with [21] requirements at the right time and in the right
who established output increase as due to shift in quantity are key to the production of improved
the scale and / or slope parameters. rice varieties given the seasonality of production
and recommended amounts required to achieve
Table 5. Decomposition of productivity set output levels. More importantly, future
differences between adopters and technological options must consider the
non-adopters complementary nature of improved varieties and
Sources of productivity Percent production inputs in their development.
differences contribution Second, greater demands for inputs use
Observed differences in output 44.65
associated with the improved rice variety pose
Sources of contribution
increased burden on labour and capital-
A Due to differences in
technology constrained rice farmers. In capital and labour-
Neutral technical change .96 constrained, subsistence settings, resource
Non-neutral technical change 45.32 limitation is severe and rice farmers may not
Total due to technology 46.28 adopt improved technologies. For instance, in
B Due to difference in input labour surplus economies such as Ghana, the
use creation of employment through the development
Seed -10.64 of improved agricultural technologies are best
Fertiliser 3.50 alternatives to addressing high unemployment
Herbicide -.11 rates, especially in rural communities. However,
Labour .43
the resource intensive nature of the improved
Total due to all inputs -6.82
Estimated difference in output 39.46 rice variety has grave consequences on its
(A + B) adoption and subsequent uptake by smallholder
rice farmers because of hired labour shortage,
4. POLICY IMPLICATIONS especially during peak production periods, and
limited family labour availability as well as
The output decomposition analysis of difficulties in accessing credit. Likewise, high
technological change in rice production, as done labour requirements limit further expansion of the
in this study, presents several policy implications cultivated land area and the potential of
in the development, dissemination and promotion increasing production on rice farmers’ currently
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Tsinigo et al.; BJAST, 18(1): 1-11, 2016; Article no.BJAST.29805
cultivated land. The policy implications are that productivity difference was due to non-neutral
perhaps the provision of specialised credit technical change (45.32%). In particular, the shift
facilities to smallholder farmers should be in the slope coefficient of the herbicide input was
stepped up. Such credit facilities should be the only factor responsible for the productivity
integrated into the promotional activities of difference. Neutral technical change only
resource intensive technologies such as the contributed about 1% to the productivity
improved rice variety. In the same light, the difference between the improved rice variety and
government’s efforts to promote rice productivity the unimproved rice varieties. Furthermore,
through input subsidy should be intensified and changes in the use of all the inputs had rather
decentralised to market centres within farming reduced the yield of the improved rice variety by
communities. Moreover, the development of 6.82%. The results of the dummy variable
mechanised threshers and harvesters to technique showed that the productivity difference
substantially reduce the manual labour between the improved rice variety and the
requirements for rice production would be a bold unimproved rice varieties were due to non-
step to enhancing the adoption of labour neutral technical change (or the shift in the slope
intensive technologies. parameter) and shift in the herbicide, in
particular. Hence, we rejected the hypothesis
Third, evidence of under-utilisation and over- that the productivity difference between the
utilisation of inputs in the production of rice improved and unimproved varieties were due to
reveals lack or inadequacy of rice farmers’ neutral technical change in rice production.
technical knowledge and information required for However, we failed to reject the hypothesis that
efficient use of inputs. The practical implications the productivity difference between the improved
are that rice sector policies must be directed at and unimproved varieties was due to non-neutral
designing more intensive and integrated technical change. This means that the structural
extension programmes that focus not only on the differences between two farming systems can
adoption of the improved rice varieties but also only be determined through statistical tests and
on the efficient use of recommended inputs. the dummy variable technique, in particular.
Finally, technology adoption can only be Therefore, the dummy variable approach is a
achieved if it has been diffused, farmers are necessary and a sufficient condition for testing
aware of the technology and its potential gains for the structural change and its sources between
as well as are certain about the ease of using the improved rice variety and the unimproved
such improved technologies within their local rice varieties. Overall, the results illustrate that
context. Rice sector policies must, therefore, be perhaps appropriate extension strategies and
geared toward aggressive awareness creation capacity building are needed to improve the
and education of rice farmers on improved resource use efficiency of the farmers to increase
technologies as well as integrating the agronomic productivity. Also, the promotion of technology
limitations of such technologies into the dissemination processes should be integrated
development of future technologies. with an effective input supply and credit supply
Researchers, policy makers, and other systems to enable farmers’ adoption and
stakeholders in the technology promotion chain subsequent uptake of improved rice varieties for
could harness the knowledge gained through this enhanced productivity.
analysis. Given its potential gains, the continued
promotion of the improved rice variety is highly ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
advocated as it will ensure food security, reduce
the Government’s overreliance on rice imports,
Special thanks go to the Ghana Strategy Support
increase farmers’ income and ultimately reduce
Programme of the International Food Policy
poverty among the smallholder farmers.
Research Institute, Ghana for providing funding
5. CONCLUSIONS for the research leading to this paper. The
authors owe a debt of gratitude to the rice
This study revealed the yield superiority of the farmers in the two Municipalities who made the
improved rice variety over the unimproved rice empirical findings of this study possible.
variety. The results also indicated that the rice
farmers were underutilising their resources. The COMPETING INTERESTS
estimated productivity difference between the
unimproved and improved rice varieties was Authors have declared that no competing
39.46%. However, the major source of interests exist.
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Tsinigo et al.; BJAST, 18(1): 1-11, 2016; Article no.BJAST.29805
Peer-review history:
The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://sciencedomain.org/review-history/16839
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