1

Biography

Charles Coulomb is one of 72 scientists whose name is inscribed on the first floor of the Eiffel
Tower. He is the eighth, on the face turned to the South.

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, a physicist, was born at Angouleme, on June 14, 1730. He died in
Paris on August 23, 1800. After having studied brilliantly in the capital, he entered the military
engineering, and was sent to the Martinique. He presided at the construction of Fort Bourbon,
and, returning to France, he devoted himself more specifically to physics research. Thus he mad
e himself known by his experiments on the friction and the stiffness of the strings. He won seve
ral prizes from the Academy of Sciences, which opened its doors unanimously in 1782, and Loui
s XVI gave him the Knight's Cross of St. Louis. In 1795, he was admitted to the Institute, when i
t was founded, and was appointed a few years later, by Napoleon, Inspector General of the Uni
versity and Knight of the Legion of Honor.

Coulomb is responsible for the laws which preside over magnetic attractions and repulsions whic
h vary in inverse proportion to the square of the distance, as well as attractions and electrical r
epulsions. He has shown that the latter, for the same distance, are proportional to the products
of the two quantities of electricity. To make this demonstration, he created the torsion balance,
to which he owes his reputation above all. He invented this instrument as a result of experimen
ts on the elasticity of metal wires. These studies showed him that these threads were all the mo
re resistant to torsion, that they were twisted more, provided, however, that this effect did not
go so far as to alter their molecular structure. The resistance of these wires being very weak, he
had the idea of using them as a scale to measure the smallest forces of magnetism and electr
icity. For this purpose, he suspended at the end of a wire a long horizontal needle. This needle
being at rest, if it suddenly departs a certain number of degrees from its natural position, twists
the wire which holds it suspended, and the oscillations which this makes it feel give by their e
ntrance the means to evaluate the amount of the disruptive force.

It was with the aid of this ingenious instrument that Coulomb undertook a series of researches
on the distribution of electricity and magnetism, the results of which contributed to definitively e
stablishing his scientific renown.
Coulomb had to suffer persecution for the frankness of his character. Sent to the States of Britt
any, as commissioner of the King, to appreciate the possibility and the advantage of a canal pr
oject, he showed in this mission the independence and delicacy of his conscience. In spite of th
e States, he maintained the opinion that it was useless to execute this project, because of the li
ttle relation which existed between the enormous expenses which this execution would require a
nd the few services which would result from it. On his return in 1779, the discontent of a minist
er sent him to the prison of the Abbey in Paris. Mandated a second time for the same purpose
, Coulomb still supported his opinion; he did it so firmly that he finally opened his eyes to the
members of the States. They offered him brilliant offers, which he refused. They forced him to r
eceive at least one very beautiful watch with the arms of the province of Brittany. Thus he left t
o his sons, said Delambre, only a respected name, the example of his virtues, and the memory
of the brilliant services rendered to science. But of fortune, point.

The works of Coulomb are recorded in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, from 1781. In
1779, he published a book with figures entitled: Research on the means to practice underwater
all kinds of hydraulic works without use no exhaustion.

The Congress of the electricians in 1881, gave the name of Coulomb to the electric unit chosen
to represent the quantity of electricity that can debit during a second a current of an intensity
of an ampere. The name coulombmeter has also been called an electricity meter used to record
the quantity flowing in a constant potential electrical pipeline.

Coulomb's portraits are extremely rare and defective. It was taken from a sketch executed in Bri
ttany, in 1778, at the time of the mission of this great physicist to the government of that provi
nce. Despite its mediocrity, it is a valuable document because of its rarity.

James C. Maxwell Biography

Scientist, Scholar, Physicist (1831–1879)

James C. Maxwell was a 19th century pioneer in chemistry and physics who articulated the idea
of electromagnetism.

Synopsis

Born on June 13, 1831, in Edinburgh, Scotland, James C. Maxwell studied at the University of Ca
mbridge before holding a variety of professorship posts. Already known for his innovations in o
ptics and gas velocity research, his groundbreaking theories around electromagnetism, articulated
in the famed Maxwell's Equations, greatly influenced modern physics as we know it. Maxwell di
ed in England on November 5, 1879.

Academic Background

James Clerk Maxwell was born on June 13, 1831, at 14 India Street in Edinburgh, Scotland. Havin
g a keen intellect from childhood, he had one of his geometry papers presented at the Royal S
ociety of Edinburgh during his adolescence. By 16 he'd enrolled at the University of Edinburgh,
pursuing a fervent interest in optics and color research. He studied there for three years and ev
entually attended Cambridge University's Trinity College, graduating in 1854.

After teaching at Trinity for a time, Maxwell moved on to Marischal College as part of the physi
cs faculty. He wed Katherine Mary Dewar in 1858.

Saturn's Rings

While at Marischal, Maxwell pondered a major astronomical question, looking at the case of Sat
urn and coming up with the idea that the planet's rings are comprised of particles, a theory lat
er confirmed via 20th-century space probes. For this, Maxwell received the Adam Prize.
Upon Marischal becoming part of the University of Aberdeen, Maxwell took on a professor posit
ion at King's College in London. He taught there until 1865, when he resigned from his post to
do research from his home in Glenlair. Having continued to do work with Cambridge University
as well, Maxwell was instrumental in helping to establish the institution's Cavendish Laboratory, a
nd he took on roles there as lab director and professor of experimental physics at the start of t
he 1870s.

Pioneer in Electromagnetism

Maxwell had continued his research on color and made groundbreaking discoveries around gas
velocity. It was during Maxwell's time at King's College that he began to share revolutionary ide
as around electromagnetism and light.

Fellow physicist Michael Faraday had already championed the notion that electricity and magneti
cs were connected; Maxwell, via experimentation with vortexes, expanded on Faraday's work and
came up with the theory of electromagnetic movement being conceptualized in the form of wa
ves, with said energy travelling at light speed.

Maxwell's Equations

Supporting his theorems, Maxwell's Equations—speaking to the scholar's aptitude in using math
to articulate scientific occurrences—were found in the paper "Dynamical theory of the electroma
gnetic field," presented to the Royal Society of London in 1864 and published the following year
. In 1873 he published the book A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, which further expound
ed on his research.

"The special theory of relativity owes its origins to Maxwell's equations of the electromagnetic fie
ld." -- Albert Einstein

Maxwell's other scientific contributions included producing the first color photograph, taken in 18
61, and creating structural engineering calculations for bridge maintenance. He earned an array
of awards over the course of his career, including the Rumford Medal, Keith Prize and Hopkins
Prize, in addition to receiving membership in groups like the Royal Academy of Sciences of Ams
terdam. Other publications included Theory of Heat (1871) and Matter and Motion (1877).

Death and Legacy

James C. Maxwell died in Cambridge, England, on November 5, 1879, from abdominal cancer. Hi
s discoveries paved the way for much of the modern world's technological innovations and cont
inued to influence physics well into the next century, with thinkers like Albert Einstein praising hi
m for his indispensable contributions. Maxwell's original house, now a museum, is the site of th
e James Clerk Maxwell Foundation.

e Biography

Physicist, Academic, Scholar, Scientist (1635–1703)

Robert Hooke is known as a "Renaissance Man" of 17th century England for his work in the scie
nces, which covered areas such as astronomy, physics and biology.

Synopsis

Born in Freshwater on England's Isle of Wight in 1635, scientist Robert Hooke was educa ted at
Oxford and spent his career at the Royal Society and Gresham College. His research and experi
ments ranged from astronomy to biology to physics; he is particularly recognized for the observ
ations he made while using a microscope and for "Hooke's Law" of elasticity. Hooke died in Lo
ndon in 1703.

Early Life and Education

Robert Hooke was born in the town of Freshwater, on England’s Isle of Wight, on July 18, 1635.
His parents were John Hooke, who served as curate for the local church parish, and Cecily (née
Gyles) Hooke.
Initially a sickly child, Hooke grew to be a quick learner who was interested in painting and ade
pt at making mechanical toys and models. After his father’s death in 1648, the 13-year-old Hook
e was sent to London to apprentice with painter Peter Lely. This connection turned out to be a
short one, and he went instead to study at London’s Westminster School.

In 1653, Hooke enrolled at Oxford's Christ Church College, where he supplemented his meager f
unds by working as an assistant to the scientist Robert Boyle. While studying subjects ranging fr
om astronomy to chemistry, Hooke also made influential friends, such as future architect Christo
pher Wren.

Teaching, Research and Other Occupations

Hooke was appointed curator of experiments for the newly formed Royal Society of London in 1
662, a position he obtained with Boyle's support. Hooke became a fellow of the society in 1663.

Unlike many of the gentleman scientists he interacted with, Hooke required an income. In 1665,
he accepted a position as professor of geometry at Gresham College in London. After the "Grea
t Fire" destroyed much of London in 1666, Hooke became a city surveyor. Working with Wren,
he assessed the damage and redesigned many of London’s streets and public buildings.

Major Discoveries and Achievements

A true polymath, the topics Hooke covered during his career include comets, the motion of ligh
t, the rotation of Jupiter, gravity, human memory and the properties of air. In all of his studies
and demonstrations, he adhered to the scientific method of experimentation and observation. H
ooke also utilized the most up-to-date instruments in his many projects.
Hooke’s most important publication was Micrographia, a 1665 volume documenting experiments
he had made with a microscope. In this groundbreaking study, he coined the term "cell" while
discussing the structure of cork. He also described flies, feathers and snowflakes, and correctly id
entified fossils as remnants of once-living things.

The 1678 publication of Hooke's Lectures of Spring shared his theory of elasticity; in what came
to be known as "Hooke’s Law," he stated that the force required to extend or compress a sprin
g is proportional to the distance of that extension or compression. In an ongoing, related projec
t, Hooke worked for many years on the invention of a spring-regulated watch.

Personal Life and Reputation

Hooke never married. His niece, Grace Hooke, his longtime live-in companion and housekeeper,
as well as his eventual lover, died in 1687; Hooke was inconsolable at the loss.

Hooke's career was marred by arguments with other prominent scientists. He often sparred with
fellow Englishman Isaac Newton, including one 1686 dispute over Hooke’s possible influence on
Newton’s famous book Principia Mathematica.

In his last year of life, Hooke suffered from symptoms that may have been caused by diabetes.
He died at the age of 67 in London on March 3, 1703..

Enrico Fermi Biography

Scientist, Physicist (1901–1954)

Physicist Enrico Fermi built the prototype of a nuclear reactor and worked on the Manhattan Pr
oject to develop the first atomic bomb.

Synopsis
Born in Italy in 1901, Enrico Fermi's early research was in general relativity and quantum mechan
ics, but he soon focused on the newer field of nuclear physics. He won the Nobel Prize in 1938
for his work in radioactivity, allowing him to escape fascist Italy and settle in the United States.
He then built the first nuclear reactor (Chicago Pile-1) and worked on the Manhattan Project. F
ermi died in Chicago in 1954. Element 100, fermium, is named in his honor.

Early Life

Enrico Fermi was born in Rome, Italy, on September, 29, 1901, the third child of Alberto and Ida
de Gattis Fermi. Ida was a remarkable woman, trained as a teacher, highly intelligent and a ma
jor influence on her children's education.

Enrico Fermi's intense interest in physics was said to be the result of a family tragedy. When En
rico was 14, his beloved older brother, Giulio, died suddenly. Enrico was devastated. To console
him, his parents encouraged his studies. He came across a couple of physics books written a ha
lf century earlier, and was totally enthralled. During his teens, he and friends conducted physics
experiments for fun, including testing the density of Rome's water supply.

In 1918, Fermi won a scholarship to the prestigious Scuola Normale Superiore University in Pisa,
Italy. His entry essay was so impressive that Fermi was quickly elevated to the doctoral program,
and he graduated with honors in 1922. In 1923, he won a Rockefeller Fellowship and spent sev
eral months with renowned physicist professor Max Born in Gottingen, Germany.

Early Career in Physics

Soon, Enrico Fermi's physics career and personal life flourished. In 1928, he married Laura Capon
, the daughter of a respected Jewish family in Rome. They had one son, Giulio, and a daughter
named Nella. Professionally, Fermi was elected professor of theoretical physics at the University
of Rome.

In 1934, Fermi began his most important work with the atom, discovering that nuclear transform
ation could occur in nearly every element. One of the elements' atoms he split was uranium. Th
is work led to the discovery of slowing down neutrons, which led to nuclear fission and the pro
duction of new elements beyond the traditional Periodic Table.

In 1938, Fermi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work with artificial radioactivity p
roduced by neutrons, and for nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons." The honor wa
s a life-saver for the Fermi family. Fascist Italy had just instituted anti-Jewish laws. The award cer
emony in Stockholm, Sweden, gave the family the opportunity to travel out of Italy and escape
to America.

Life in America

Situated safely in the United States, in 1939, Fermi was appointed professor of physics at New Y
ork's Columbia University. While there, Fermi discovered that if uranium neutrons were emitted i
nto fissioning uranium, they could split other uranium atoms, setting off a chain reaction that w
ould release enormous amounts of energy. His experiments led to the first controlled nuclear ch
ain reaction in Chicago, on December 2, 1942, under Chicago's athletic stadium.

Subsequently, during World War II, Fermi became one of the principal leaders on the Manhatta
n Project, which focused on the development of the atomic bomb. To further his commitment t
o his new country, Fermi and his wife became American citizens in 1944.

After the war, Enrico Fermi was appointed to the General Advisory Committee for the Atomic E
nergy Commission. In October 1949, the commission met to discuss the development of the hyd
rogen bomb. Fermi was appalled at the prospect, however, and later co-authored an addendum
to the committee's report condemning the H-bomb in the harshest language. When President
Harry S. Truman ordered the development of the bomb—ignoring Fermi's and others' warnings
—Fermi returned to Los Alamos, New Mexico, to help with the calculations, hoping to prove th
at making a superbomb wasn't possible.

Final Years

Enrico Fermi continued his work at the Institute for Nuclear Studies at the University of Chicago,
where he turned his attention to high-energy physics, and led investigations into the origin of
cosmic rays and theories on the fantastic energies present in cosmic ray particles.

By 1954, Fermi had contacted incurable stomach cancer, and spent the remaining months of his
life in Chicago, undergoing various medical procedures. He died in his sleep on November, 28,
1954, at his home in Chicago, Illinois.