-_s LANGUAGE REFERENCE GRAMMAR WEB Fie CONTINUOUS ASPECT Use the continuous aspect to talk about: * an action which is in progress. Answer the door! I’m watching something. * an unfinished action. ‘She was working on a new novel when she died. * a temporary action I'm using Jo's laptop while mine is being repaired. * a trend, changing action or situation Scientists say the weather is getting hotter. Compare the present simple and continuous: Hive in a small flat. (permanent situation) I'm living with a host family for six weeks. (temporary situation) We can also use the present continuous for repeated actions which are happening around now. I'm watching the new series of Breaking Bad. It’s fantastic. (I watch it every Thursday evening.) We often use the past continuous and the past simple to talk about a longer background action in the past when a shorter action happens during it or interrupts it. | was washing the car when the phone rang. We can also use the present continuous to describe future arrangements. We're collecting our new car at the weekend. EA state vers Some verbs describe something passive or a state. Examples of these verbs are: agree, believe, belong, depend, hate, hear, know, like, love, prefer, see, understand, want. We rarely use state verbs in the continuous: Fem-notunderstanding this word. x I don’t understand this word. ¥ BBE ir preecT Aspect Use the perfect aspect to look back from one time to another. PRESENT PERFECT The present perfect looks back from now to a time before now. There are four main uses. * a state that started in the past and is still continuing Vve lived here all my life * a completed action in the past which has some relevance to the present (e.g. a present result) There has been a severe storm and the airport is now closed. * finished actions in a period of time that i still continuing ve been there once already today. * actions in the past which may happen again Deborah Tannen has written several books on communication. (She could write more books.) a Use the past simple, not the present perfect, when talking about a definite time in the past. Our lesson has-finished at four o'clock. x Our lesson finished at four o'clock. ¥ 126 PAST PERFECT The past perfect looks back from a time in the pasty another time before that. She'd applied for ten jobs before she got this one, We can use the past perfect to describe a sequence of events. The past perfect describes the first action, When we arrived, the train had left. (First the tain let, and then we arrived.) We can use just or already to show that the first action happened recently or earlier than expected We arrived at six, but the train had just left. When they arrived, the film had already started We can use the past perfect for repeated earlier actions By 2006, Deborah Tannen had written twenty books KEY LANGUAGE [08 OUTLINING PROBLEMS AND OFFERING * SOLUTIONS OUTLINING PROBLEMS The problem is ... The trouble is It's a tricky situation because ... It’s a vicious circle. OFFERING SOLUTIONS One way of dealing with this could be ... Well, there’s an obvious solution We could talk to ... The best way to deal with itis to ... REACTING TO SUGGESTIONS: That might well solve the problem, That seems the best way to deal with it. VOCABULARY WM Prikasat verss bump into, catch up with, get in touch with, keep track of, lose touch with, stay in touch with, track down WEE scirntiric stupy concept, experiment, method, random, research, results sample, theory analyse (v), confirm (v), prove (v), test (v) actions speak louder than words, be on the same wavelength, get a word in edgeways, get straight tothe point, have a quick word with someone, hear it on the grapevine, think before you speak WE couocanions display similarities, establish connections, establish rapport, exhibit knowledge, impart information, maintain status, negotiate relationships, negotiate statu 1OMSBEB LANGUAGE REFERENCE GRAMMAR PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS Form the present perfect continuous with has/have + been +-ing. John’s been telling us about climate change. Have you been watching that new series on global warming? Use the present perfect continuous to talk about an ongoing situation or action that started in the past and is still continuing. Sea levels have been rising The climate has been getting warmer Compare this use of the present perfect continuous with the present perfect simple: We've been painting the house. (continuing action) We've painted the house. (completed action) We also use the present perfect continuous to talk about the reason for something in the present. We are more interested in the activity than the result, ‘Why are you wet?’ ‘Because I've been washing the car.’ (This is the reason I'm wet.) With the present perfect simple the focus is on the result, not the activity. ‘Is the car ready?” “Yes, V've washed it.’ (So now it is ready.) To describe repeated actions we use the present perfect simple, not the present perfect continuous. Ve watched that film ten times. ¥ lve been-watching that film ten times. * SINCE, FOR AND OTHER TIME EXPRESSIONS We often use since or for and expressions such as recently, over the last ..., etc. with the present perfect continuous to talk about an ongoing situation or action that started in the past and is still continuing. We've been studying climate change since the 1980s. Recently, I've been thinking about changing jobs. With since and for and some verbs that describe continuous actions or states (e.g. live, stay, work, study, teach) we can use the present perfect simple or continuous with little difference in meaning, I've waited for ages. /I've been waiting for ages. He’s worked there since 1995. / He’s been working. there since 1995. re QUESTIONS An indirect question is a question inside another question or statement. What is the answer? + Do you know... Do you know what the answer is? There are a number of introductory phrases that can be used to begin an indirect question. For example: Vd like to know ... Do you know ...? Can/Could you tell me ...2 I wonder .. Use indirect questions in formal situations or to be tentative. Could you tell me if it’s OK to use mobiles here? | wonder if she likes me. 128 — In indirect questions use statement worg q (subject before the auxiliary), not questi order (subject after the auxiliary), Do you know where the post office is? v7 Do you know where is the post office? x Order 00 Word But with an indirect subject question (when we y,. who, what or which to ask about the subject of g sentence), do not change the word order. ‘Who knows him? (| wonder who knows him.) What made it go wrong? (Do you know what made it go wrong?) We use if or whether to introduce yes/no questions Are they expensive? (I wonder ifvhether they are expensive. We only use question marks if the introductory phrase itself is a question. I'd like to know how much it costs. (not a question) Do you know how much it costs? (a question) KEY LANGUAGE [GM bein poute ASKING POLITE QUESTIONS I'd like to know... I'm interested in knowing ... AGREEING You'te absolutely right, because That's very true, because ... I'd go along with you there, because ... BEING DIPLOMATIC That's one way of looking at it, but You have a point, but don’t you think ... ? VOCABULARY TYPES OF AREAS. coastal, inner-city, long-established, recently developed, residential, rural, smart, suburban, traditional, up-and- coming, urban WEAR LOCAL ENVIRONMENT COLLOCATIONS abandoned cars, apartment block, cosmopolitan atmosphere, crime rate, cultural activities, desirable area, detached house, environmental issue, friendly neighbourhood, mindless vandalism, natural environment, noise pollution, open spaces, recycling points, renewable energy, rush hour, traffic congestion, transport connections, urban environment, wind farm THE ENVIRONMENT deforestation, drought, ecosystem, emissions, extinction, famine, fossil fuels, glaciers, habitat, species ADVERBS WITH SIMILAR MEANINGS, comparatively ~ relatively, generally ~ normally, intentionally ~ deliberately, mostly ~ mainly, possibly ~ perhaps, thoughtfully ~ slowly and carefullyEA LANGUAGE REFERENCE GRAMMAR TG QuANtiFiers Use quantifiers to describe the quantity of something. We use different quantifiers with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns. few, (too) many, several little, (too) much hardly any, a lot of, some, all To talk about things in general, use quantifier + noun. Many people prefer football. To talk about something specific use quantifier + of + the | my/our these, etc. + noun. Some of the people in the survey prefer golf. LITTLE / FEWA LITTLE / A FEW Little and few have a negative meaning similar to ‘not much / not many / almost none’, There's little food in the house. We'll have to do some shopping. But a little and a few have a positive meaning similar to ‘a small quantity / some’. There’s a little food in the fridge if you're hungry. SOMB/ANY We usually use some in positive statements and any in questions and negatives. We are playing some games next month, but there aren't any at the weekend. WI DEFINITE AND ZERO ARTICLES. Use the definite article (the): © when referring to something that is already known to the listener because it has been mentioned before. So I showed the photos to the police. (I've mentioned these photos before.) ‘© when referring to something that is already known to the listener because it is obvious from the context. | forgot to give the cat her supper. (It is obvious I'm. talking about my cat.) © when something is unique (including superlatives and first, last, next, only.) She is the greatest sportswoman. ‘© when a defining or prepositional phrase makes the noun specific. It’s the house at the top of the street. © before the names of some geographical features, buildings and places. I ive in the countryside, not the town. Use the zero article (no article): * before abstract nouns. You can’t stop time. * before general plural nouns. Computers are very powerful now. 130 a But if the abstract or plural noun is made specific by , defining phrase, we use an article. The computers we've just bought are fantastic. * before people’s names and the names of most companies, materials, countries, mountains and lakes, ‘Alexandra lives in Italy. She lives near Lake Como, She works for Deutsche Bank. © before the names of types of institutions, for example school, hospital, university. My brother is about to start school. i But if we are referring to a particular building we use the definite article. Excuse me. Is the school near here? KEY LANGUAGE EMPHASIS AND COMPARISON EMPHASISING ADJECTIVES an outstanding achievement exceptional qualities an astonishing performance extraordinary technical skills EMPHASISING ADVERBS. a truly remarkable sportswoman She undoubtedly is a superstar ... EMPHASISING EXPRESSIONS .. and above all her admirable personal qualities What's also extraordinary about her is ... There seems to be no end to Yuna Kim’s remarkable talents VOCABULARY IDIOMS a level playing field, score an own goal, a whole new ball game, start the ball rolling, be on the ball, take your eye off the ball, move the goalposts SELF self-confidence, self-control, self-defence, self- development, self-discipline, self-respect ABSTRACT NOUNS (FROM ADJECTIVES) agility, (agile), calm, (calm), coordination, (coordinated), courtesy, (courteous), flexibility, (flexible), tolerance, (tolerant) AMBITION determination, extremes, intensity, make sacrifices, obsessive, set apart