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    Soil Mechanics PDF

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    aldwin

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    ALEMAYEHU TEFERRA Cacho Professor of Civil Engineering egns Addis Ababa University Cae and MESFIN LEIKUN Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Addis Ababa University 000823 Faculty of Technology Addis Ababa University 1999 11 1.2 1.2.1 1.3 2.1 ee 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 oo 8 2.3.4 a 2.4 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 27 ie 2.7.2 2.7.3 CONTENTS PAGE Preface x INTRODUCTION 1 General i Soil Formation 3 Weathering of Rocks Common soil Types INDEX PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 3 General - Volume Relationships 6 Void Ratio and Porosity iz Degree of Saturation 8 Weight Relationships 8 Moisture Content 9 Unit Weight of Solids 9 Specific Gravity 9 Unit Weight of soil 12 Relative Density 16 Size and Shape of soil Particles 16 Grain size Distribution 16 Sieve Analysis 17 Hydrometer Analysis 7 Grain Size Distribution Curve 18 Brief Outline of Experimental Procedure for ieratometey Analysis 20 Soil Consistency 24 Atterberg Limits é 24 Engineering Definition of Atterberg Limits 26 Determination of Atterberg Limits 27 Properties of Clay Particles 30 Surface Activity and Adsorbed Layer 30 Colloids 31 Clay Minerals 32 2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 12.9 2.10 3.1 3.1.2 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 33 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 35 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.8.P 3.8.2 39 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 ii. CONTENT Grain size classification U.S. Bureau of Soils Textural Classification Casagrande Classification System. ‘Examples Exercises. SOIL WATER AND SEEPAGE Soil Water Classification of Soil Moisture Permeability General ee Laboratory Measurement of Permeability, Sources of Errors in the Determination of Permeability Coefficient Factors Affecting Permeability Coefficient of Permeability Value Field Measurement of Permeability Permeability of Natural Deposits Seepage Through Soils Differential Equation for Seepage Flow Nets Construction of Flow Nets Determination of Discharge from Flow Net Seepage Through Homogeneous Earth Embankments General Consideration * Analytical Procedure of Determination of Discharge and Seepage Seepage Through Stratified Soils Effect of Core-Wall on Seepage Filters —— seer oe Effective and Total Stresses in Soils General Derivation of Formulas Critical Hydraulic Gradient Seepage Forces ‘Uplift Pressure Examples Exercises 33 34 35 37 46 110 119 iv CONTENT 41 4.2 43 44. 4.5 4.6 47 4.8 5.3.5 3.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.5 5.6 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL> Stress due to Soil Weight Stress due to Concentrated Surface Loading Stress due to Uniform Line Loading Stress due to Uniformly Distributed Surface Load Stress due to Non-Uniformly Distributed Surface Load Stress due to Uniformly Distributed Load by Approximate Method Examples Exercises COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION OF SOILS Compressibility of Soils General Measurement of Compressibility Void ratio-Pressure Diagram Coefficient of Compressibility Compression Index Swelling Index Modulus of Compressibility Influence of Time on the Development of Strain Consolidation General Mechanics of Consolidation General Outline of Terzaghi - Froelich's Theory of Consolidation Mathematical formulation of Terzaghi - Frohlich's Theory of Consolidation General Description of Consolidation Test and Determination of > Time Settlement Parameters i Settlement of Structures General Settlement Analysis Correction of Settlement Examples Exercises 122 122 122 126 126 130 137 139 152 154 154 154 155 157 158 163 163 167 168 168 169 172 176 186 186 187 199 204 213 6. 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6.3 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.8 6.8.1 6.8.2 TQ 7.2.2 7.2.3 SHEARING STRENGTH OF SOILS General General-Consideration of Friction between Solid Shearing Strength of Granular Soils Shearing Strength-of Cohesive soils Shearing Strength of soils with both Cohesion and Friction Shear Tests Direct Shear Test Triaxial Compression Test Unconfined Compression Test Shear Characteristics of Granular soils Angle of Internal Friction Saturated Granular Soil Shear Characteristics of Clays Normally Loaded Clays Precompressed Clays Stress at a Point General Derivation Mohr Circle Mohr Strength Theory Relationships Derived from Mohr Strength Theory Application of Mohr Diagram to Conventional Shear Tests Triaxial Compression Test Direct Shear Test Unconfined Compression Test Drainage During Shear _Examples Sean ne Exercises EARTH PRESSURES General Earth Pressure Theories Rankine' s Earth Pressure Theory Influence of Wall Friction on Rankine Theory Coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory vy CONTENT 217 217 218 219 3 221 221 222 223 226 227 227 234 230 230 230 230 231 233 235 236 238 238 239 240 240 245, 253 256 256 260 260 275 275 vi CONTENT TA 7.2.5 7.2.6 ae aoa 7.31 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 TA 75 7.6 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.1 8.2.3 8.3 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.5 8.6 91 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.2 9.2. 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 Culmann's Graphical Construction Semi-Graphical Methods for Determining the Passive Resistance in Soils Tables for Active and Passive Pressure Earth Pressure at Rest Sheet Piles General Types of sheet Piles Graphical Methods of Analysis Comparison Between Free Earth and Fixed Earth Support Methods Arching Effect Examples Exercises STABILITY OF SLOPES General Slope Movements Soil-Creep Mass Slides Flow Slides Factor of Safety Methods of Analysis Infinite Slope Simple Slope Examples Exercises BEARING CAPACITY OF SOILS General Ultimate Bearing Capacity Allowable Bearing Capacity Bearing Capacity of shallow Foundation General Failure Zones Below Smooth Base: Footing Loaded at Ground Level Failure Zones Below Rough Base: Footing Loaded at Ground Level Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation 279 282 290 292 292 292 293 301 301 303 309 333 cage 337 337 338 338 338 339 340 346 365 375 377 377 377 377 380 380 381° 381 382 93 94 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.4.1 10.4.2 eels pseaeisceae 10.5 10.5.1 10.5.2 10.6 10.6.1 10.6.2 10.6.3 il 11d V1.1 11.1.2 ae W114 1.1.5 11.1.6 11.1.7 11.2 113 11.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 _ Asphalt Stabilization _ Examples Exercises EXPANSIVE SOILS General Origin of Expansive Soils Distribution of Expansive Soils Mineralogy of Expansive Clay Soils Kaolinite Illite vii CONTENT Identification and Classification of Expansive Soils Identification of Expansive Soils Classification Methods of Expansive Clays ~ Swelling Potential and Swelling Pressure General : Factors Affecting Swelling Potential Laboratory Testing Methods for Determining Swelling Potential IMPROVING SOIL CONDITIONS AND PROPERTIES Soil Stabilization General Compaction Excavation and Replacement Mixing of Different Soils Lime Stabilization Cement Stabilization Injection and Grouting Dynamic Stabilization Vibroflotation Blasting Compaction Piles 415 433 436 436 436 438 438 438 438 440 440 442 442 447 447 449 452 458 458 458 459 465 466 467 467 468 468 468 469 469 469 viii. CONTENT 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 Precompression Drainage Example Exercises REFERENCES SUBJECT INDEX 469 470 471 472 473 480 PREFACE This text-book evolved from teaching materials originally prepared by the authors for the use of civil engineering students at the Faculty of Technology. After having used ‘the teaching materials for several years, the authors found it necessary to upgrade them to a text-book. Hence, the preparation of this book came into being. The text-book tries to present the fundamentals of soil mechanics as clearly as possible so as to enable the student to grasp the basic concepts. Subject matters are logically arranged and developed for the benefit of thé students of civil engineering and practicing engineers. Some topics have been treated in great depth so-as to be also of use to. graduate students in the geotechnical area. Topics falling in these categories are those found in chapter 3, 7, 8.and 9. Chapter 10 has been devoted to expansive soils which are rarely treated in other soil mechanics text-book. It is hoped that the inclusion of this chapter will serve as an introduction into special geotechnical problems that have drawn a lot of attention here and in other countries as well. At the end of each chapter ample examples have been worked out and additional exercise have been assigned. : _ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to express their gratitude.to Research and Publication Office of Addis Ababa University for granting financial assistance for the preparation of the book. Sincere thanks are due also to Wiro Almaz Aberra and Wiro Emeyu Yoseph for word processing the manuscript and Ato Daniel Abebayehu for the preparation of the diagrams, Last but not least the authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to their families for their understanding and encouragement throughout the arduous task of preparation of this text-book. Alemayehu Teferra Mesfin Leikun September 1995 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 GENERAL In engineering, soils are considered to include all organic and inorganic earth materials occuring in the zone overlying the rock crust. ‘They are usually non-homogeneous porous _ Material whose engineering behaviour is greatly affected by changes in moisture content and density, The engineering definition of soil is quite different from the agronomtist definition of the same. According to this decipline, soil is considered as the earth mold capable of supporting plant life, In geology-soil has different connotations and may simply be stated as a material found in the relatively thin surface zone. Soil Mechanics is the science which deals with the engineering properties and behaviour of soils under stress. By applying the laws of mechanics and hydraulics, it aitempts’to give solutions to Civil Engineering problems such as (@) the determination of allowable soil pressure under buildings or bridge piers etc. (Fig. 1.1 a,b,c) (b) _eValuation of the magnitude and distribution of earth pressures against various structures (Fig.1.14,e) (©) __ prediction of water movement through soil. (4) evaluation of stability of dams and embankments. (Fig. 1.1 f,g) (e) analysis and design of dams. (improvement of soil properties by chemical or mechanical methods. 1.2. SOIL FORMATION 1.2.1. Weathering of Rocks Soils are formed from igneous or metamorphic rocks by many processes of nature, both physical and chemical. Mechanical weathering is the fragmentation of rock by physical 2 SOIL MECHANICS forces, in which the crystal structure of the material remains unchanged. Among the many physical forces responsible for the degradation of rock (or mechanical splitting) the following may be cited. @) Temperature changes Temperature fluctuations cause unequal expansion and _contraction within the rock mass resulting in the spalling of the layers of rock and disintigration. (b) Freezing action of water Water that enters the pores and small cracks freezes during cold periods. As the water freezes it increases in volume thereby exerting pressure against the sides of the cracks. This enlarges the cracks and losen particles of rock. CEE T-— “ato (a) suicoine DISTRIBUTION (d) RETAINING WALL (e) SHEET PILE (9) EMBANKMENT Fig 1.1 Some foundmental problems in Soil Mechanics INTRODUCTION 3 © Wedging action of plant roots Small rootlets of trees and shrubs may grow into cracks in rocks in search of moisture and plant food. As these rootlets grow, they act as wedges which gradually force the rock segments apart, (d) Impact action © The impact action of flowing water, ice, and of wind-borne sand particles serve to scour and erode rock straia and rock fragments. Chemical weathering is the result of attack on rock minerals by water or oxygen or by _ alkaline or acid materials dissolved in the soil water. Carbon dioxide from the air and organic matter in the top soil are common sources of such dissolved acids. The most - common processes of decomposition in this regard are oxidation (in which oxygen unites with rock minerals), carbonation (in which rock minerals are’ attacked by carbonic acid) and solution. Chemical decomposition (weathering) of rocks go hand in hand with the physical weathering and the two process mutually accelerate each other. 1.2.2 Transportation and Deposition of Soils The soils resulting from the weathering of rocks stay in their Place of formation, in which case they are referred to as residual soils. If they are carried away by such transporting agencies as wind, water, and ice and deposited at another location, they are known as transported soils or sediments. Transported soils are mixed with soils of different origin in the course of transportation. They also disintegrate and alter still further. With the decreasing velocity of the water, or wind transporting them, the coarser particles are deposited first followed by fine particles. Thus transported soils are sorted out according to grain sizes. "1.3. COMMON SOIL TYPES () Sand, gravel, and boulders are coarse-grained cohesion-less soils. Grain‘ size i Tanges are: used to distinguish between them. Boulder refers to sizes greater than 20-30 em. Particles larger than 2mm are generally classified as gravel. 4° SOIL MECHANICS (2) 3) (4) 6) (6) Mm Organic silt is a fine grained soil somewhat plastic, highly compressible, relatively impervious. It is a very poor foundation material because of compressibility. Inorganic silts (rock flour) contain only mineral grains and are free from “piganic material. They are mostly coarser than 0.002mm. They may be incompressible depending upon whether they contain bulky or flat grains. Clay is composed of microscopic particles of weathered rock. Within a wide ~Tange.of water-content; clay exhibits plasticity. Organic clay contains some finely divided organic particles, Organic clays are highly compressible when Saturated and their dry strength is. very high. Black Cotton Soils are clay soils which are highly expansive. They contain a Irage percentage of montmorillonite. Because of their expansive nature when in contact with moisture, they present foundation problem. Hardpan is a term often used to describe any hard cemented layer which does Not soften when wet. Peat is composed of fibrous particles of decayed vegitable matter. It is so compressible that it is entirely unsuitable to support any type of foundation, 2. INDEX PROPERTIES.AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 2.1 General

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