Màster Universitari en Enginyeria

Aeronàutica

Sistemes de Radiofreqüència i Comunicació

Dr. Ignacio Gil

Mòdul 2
Línies de Transmissió i sistemes
guiats
 Outline
• Introduction
• Transmission Lines
– TL Equation
– Characteristic impedance
– Reflection Coefficient
– Voltage Standing-Wave Ratio
– Smith Chart
– TL types: Cables and connectors
• S-parameters
• Impedance Matching
– Lumped elements
– Quarter-wave transformer

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 2
 Introduction
• Transmission Line:
– Physical medium to propagate electrical energy where
voltages and currents can vary over its length

c
λg =
f ε eff

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 3
 Transmission Lines
• Transmission Line Model

R [Ω/m]: Conductor losses

L [H/m]: Lenght inductance
G [S/m]: Dielectric losses
C [F/m]: Conductor separation

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 4
 Transmission Lines
• Transmission Line General Solution
– Voltage (and current) along the TL are the summation of a
forward wave and a reflected wave:

γ : propagation constant
Z0 α : attenuation constant
β : phase constant

V ( x) = V+ e −γx + V− eγx Z0 : characteristic impedance

I ( x) = I + e −γx − I − eγx
V+ R + j ωL
Z0 = =
γ= (R + jωL )(G + jωC ) = α + jβ I+ G + j ωC

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 5
 Transmission Lines
• Lossless Transmission Line Parameters (R=G=0):

Z0 : Char. impedance
L
Z0 = β : propagation constant
C
Vp : phase velocity
2π λg : guided wavelength
γ = jω LC = jβ ⇒ β = ω LC =
λg
ω 1
V p = f ⋅ λg = ⇒ V p =
β LC

V ( x) = V+ e − jβx + V− e jβx
V+ − jβx V− jβx
I ( x) = e − e
Z0 Z0

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 6
 Transmission Lines
• Reflection coefficient: Γ(x)

V+ e − jβx V− e jβx
Γ(x), Z(x) : Reflection coefficient,
ΓL impedance along the TL
Z0 ZL
ΓL : Reflection coefficient at load
ZL=Z0 : Matched load
Zin x
x = −l x=0

V− e jβx Z ( x) − Z 0 Z − Z0
ΓL = Γ(0 ) =
V−
Γ( x ) = = = L
V+ e − jβ x
Z ( x) + Z 0 V+ Z L + Z 0

No Reflection: Matching
Z L = Z 0 ⇒ ΓL = 0

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 7
 Transmission Lines
• Input impedance:

V+ e − jβx V− e jβx
Z L + jZ 0 tan β l
ΓL Z in = Z 0
Z0 ZL Z 0 + jZ L tan β l
Periodic function: l=λg/2
Zin x
x = −l x=0

• Power in TL: Zin : Input impedance

2
Pin : Incident power
V+ ΓL
2 2 2
V+ V−
Pin = Pr = = = ΓL Pin
2 Pr : Reflected power
Z0 Z0 Z0 Pt : Transmitted power

Pt = Pin − P = (1 − Γ )P
2
r L in Maximum P delivered to load: ΓL=0

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 8
 Transmission Lines
• Example: Calculate Zin for special cases, and discuss about
the meaning.
– Low Frequency: βl≈0 Z in ≈ Z L

– Matching: ZL=Z0 Z in = Z 0

– Short circuit termination: ZL=0 Z in = jZ 0 tan β l

– Open circuit termination: ZL=∞ Z in = − jZ 0 cotan β l

– Length: l=λg/2 Z in = Z L

Z 02
– Length: l=λg/4 Z in =
ZL

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 9
 Transmission Lines
• Voltage Standing-Wave Ratio (SWR)
– Standing wave due to forward and reflected wave interaction
– SWR is an indicator of the effectiveness of the impedance
match between TL an the antenna

SWR: Voltage standing-wave ratio

Vmax 1 + ΓL
SWR = =
Vmin 1 − ΓL

Termination ZL SWR
Matching 𝑍𝑍0 1
Short Circuit 0 ∞
Open Circuit ∞ ∞

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 10
 Transmission Lines
• Example: Calculate ΓL , Zin and SWR for the following
lossless TL:
ΓL
Z in Z 0 = 75 Ω Z L = 40 + j 20 Ω

l = 0.3λg
Z − Z0 − 35 + j 20 352 + 20 2
ΓL = L = ΓL = = 0.35
Z L + Z0 115 + j 20 115 + 20 2 2

1 + ΓL 1.35 2π
SWR = = = 2.07 βl = 0.3λg = 0.6π
1 − ΓL 0.65 λg
Z L + jZ 0 tan β l 40 - j210.83
Z in = Z 0 = 75 = 69.71 − j 52.95 Ω
Z 0 + jZ L tan β l 136.55 - j123.11

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 11
 Transmission Lines
• Problem: Calculate Zin, Γ(x) at load and input for the
following lossless TL:

Z 0 = 100 Ω Z L = 40 − j80 Ω

l = 0.7λg

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 12
 Transmission Lines
• Typical specifications for microwave components:

SWR: Good matching over the operating BW (SWR~1)

IL: Insertion loss (transmission coefficient, circuit losses)
RL: Return loss (input mismatch loss)

Pr
RL = −10 log Pt
Pin IL = −10 log
Pin
RL = −20 log Γ L

• Example: A 2-port circuit has a SWR=1.5 over a frequency

range of 2.5-5.5 GHz; IL=0.5 dB. Calculate the percentage of
Pr and Pt. Calculate the RL.

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 13
 Transmission Lines
• Example:
1 + ΓL SWR − 1 0.5
Pr = ΓL Pin = 0.04 Pin
2
SWR = ΓL = = = 0.2
1 − ΓL SWR + 1 2.5

Pin Pin
IL = 10 log = 0.5 dB = 10 0.05 Pt = 0.89 Pin
Pt Pt
Pin
RL = 10 log = −20 log Γ L = 13.98 dB
Pr

– Power budget:
• Output port will transmit 89% of the input power
• Input mismatch loss is 4% of the input power
• 7% of power is lost due to output mismatch and circuit losses

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 14
 Transmission Lines
• Problem: Fill out the table and evaluate the reflected power
impact in a coaxial-antenna system.
– Consider the criteria of 10% reflected power as a limit to
determine a good matching performance

SWR |ΓL| RL (dB) Reflected

Power (%)
1.002
1.01
1.2
1.5
2.0
3.0
5.0

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 15
 Transmission Lines
• Coaxial cables:

138 D
Z0 = log  Z0 : Characteristic impedance (Ω)
εr d VF : Velocity factor
D : Diameter outside conductor (mm)
Vp
VF = d : Diameter inside conductor (mm)
c
Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 16
 Transmission Lines

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 17
 Transmission Lines
• Problem: Calculate the outer diameter conductor of a coaxial
cable for a inner conductor d=1.3 mm to obtain:
– Z0=50 Ω
– Z0=75 Ω

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 18
 Transmission Lines
• TL summary:

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 19
 Smith Chart
• Graphical aid for TL. Polar plot of reflection coefficient, Γ.
• Utility: Convert Γ to normalized Z (or Y).
• Normalized Z:

Z=
Z Z ( x ) 1 + Γ( x )
Z (x ) = =
Z0 Z0 1 − Γ( x )

• Resistance circles:

• Reactance circles:

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 20
 Smith Chart
L constant circle
Γ = Γ e jθ
R constant
From load
circle
toward
generator
(clockwise)

Γ=-1 Γ=1
short open
circuit circuit

Γ=0
impedance
− j 2 βl
1 + Γe matching
Z in =
1 − Γe − j 2 β l condition

Periodicity of TL: l=λg/2 2 β l = 2π

C constant circle
Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 21 21
 Smith Chart
• Use of Smith Chart:
– Show normalized: ZL
– Circle centered at origin: |Γ(x)|=ct
– Determine l=l(λ)
– Moving along TL is equivalent ZL
to move |Γ(x)|=ct circle
|ΓL|
– SWR: intersection |Γ(x)|=ct
SWR
with real axis
– Admitance is obtained by
rotating Z: 180º (l=λ/4)
YL
Z0 Z(x) Δl
l=λg/4 Z in =
ZL

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 22
 Smith Chart
• Example: For the TL in the Fig. Calculate: a) ΓL; b) Zin; c) YL;
d) SWR by using the Smith Chart. Verify analytically the
solution.

Z in Z 0 = 50 Ω Z L = 100 + j 50 Ω

l = 0.2λg

• Problem: A load impedance of 40+j70 Ω terminates a 100 Ω

transmission line that is 0.3λ long. Find the reflection
coefficient at the load, the reflection coefficient at the input
to the line, the input impedance, the SWR on the line and the
return loss.
Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 23
 Smith Chart
• (a) Z = Z L = 2 + j Chart:
L
Z0
ΓL = ΓL e jθ = 0.44e j 27 º
Z L − Z0 0.214λg
ΓL = = ...
Z L + Z0
• (b) ZL
|ΓL|
Chart: move from normalized
load on a constant ǀΓǀ circle θ SWR
toward a generator Δl=0.2λg YL
0.214λg + 0.2λg = 0.414λg
Chart: Z in = 0.5 − j 0.5 Zin
Z in = Z 0 Z in = 25 − j 25 Ω

Z L + jZ 0 tan β l
Z in = Z 0 = ...
Z 0 + jZ L tan β l
0.414λg

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 24
 Smith Chart
• (c) normalized admitance is
found by moving normalized
impedance a distance
Δl=0.25λg (180º)
0.214λg
Chart: YL = 0.4 − j 0.2
YL ZL
YL = Y0 YL = = 0.008 − j 0.004 S |ΓL|
Z0
YL =
1
= ... θ SWR
ZL
YL
• (d)
SWR: intersection |Γ(x)|=ct
Zin
with real axis
Chart: SWR = 2.6
1 + ΓL
SWR = = ...
1 − ΓL
0.414λg

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 25
 S-parameters
• Scattering parameters
– [Z] and [Y] are difficult to measure at high frequencies.
– Scattering matrix: [S]. Representation more in accord with
direct measurements (vector network analyzer).
b1   S11 S12 ... S1N  a1 
b   S S ... S  a 
 2  =  21 22 2N  2 

.  . . .  . 
    
 N   N1 N 2
b S S ...S NN   a N 

Vi − bi Vi +
bi = S ij = ai =
Z 0i aj Z 0i
ak = 0; k ≠ j

Sij : S-Parameters → [b]=[S][a]

ai , bi : Normalized incident, reflected voltage port i
Z0i : Characteristic impedance at port i

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 26
 S-parameters
• Scattering parameters
Sii : Reflection coefficient at port i (all other ports terminated in matched loads)
Sij : Transmission coefficient from port j to port i (all other ports “ ” )

• 2-port network:

b1   S11 S12  a1 

b  =  S S  a 
 2   21 22   2 

(matched load) (matched load)

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 27
 Impedance Matching
• Impedance matching:

– Maximum power delivered to the load (matching).

– Receiver: SNR is improved (matching antenna, LNA…)
– Transmitter: RF power minimized (maximum battery life,
reduction of risk of radiation hazard).
– Power distribution network: Reduction of amplitude/phase error.

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 28
 Impedance Matching
• Matching with lumped elements:
– Feasible for frequencies f≤1GHz.

ZL inside 1+jx circle ZL outside 1+jx circle

ZL
ZL

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 29
 Impedance Matching
• Example: Design an L-section matching network to match a
series RC load with an impedance ZL=200–j100 Ω at f=0.5 GHz.
(Z0=100 Ω)
ZL ZL inside
Z 0 = 100 Ω ZL = = 2− j 1+jx circle
Z0
Y
+j0.3
YL
ZL = 2 − j YL = 0.4 + 0.2 j
move to 1+jx circle
ZL
on admittance + j B = + j 0.3
+j1.2
Z
Y = 0.4 + 0.5 j Z = 1 − j1.2
move to center of
the chart + j X = + j1.2

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 30
 Impedance Matching
• Example: Design an L-section matching network to match a
series RC load with an impedance ZL=200–j100 Ω at f=0.5 GHz.

B X
B= = B ⋅ Z0 X=
Y0 Z0

B B
B = 0. 3 B= C= = 0.92 pF
Z0 2πf
X
X = 1.2 X = X ⋅ Z0 L= = 38.8 nH
2πf

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 31
 Impedance Matching
• Problem: Calculate the 2nd solution for the former exercise.
– Solution:

• Problem: Design a lossless L-section matching network for

the following load impedance:

Z L = 25 + j15 Ω

Data: Z0=50 Ω ; f=2 GHz

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 32
 Impedance Matching
• Impedance Matching Network Designer:
– http://home.sandiego.edu/~ekim/e194rfs01/jwmatcher/matcher2.html

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 33
 Impedance Matching
• Matching with quarter-wave transformer:
– Circuit for matching a real load impedance to a TL.
– Narrow band impedance matching.

2π λg π Z in = Z1
Z L + jZ1 tan β l
βl = =
Z1 + jZ L tan β l
λg 4 2
Z12
Z in = = Z0 Z1 = Z0Z L
ZL

Z in l = λg 4

– Fractional bandwidth:

∆f 4  Γ 2 Z0Z L 
= 2 − arccos m

f0 π  1 − Γm2 Z L − Z 0 

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 34
 Impedance Matching
• Example: Design a single-section quarter-wave matching
transformer to match a 10 Ω load to a 50 Ω line (εeff = 4.6), at
f0= 3 GHz. Determine the fractional BW for which SWR≤1.5.

Z 0 = 50 Ω  λg 1 c
 Z1 = Z 0 Z L = 22.36 Ω l= = = 1.17 cm
Z L = 10 Ω  4 4 f ε eff

SWR − 1 ∆f 4  Γ 2 Z0Z L 
Γ = Γm = = 0.2 = 2 − arccos  m
 = 0.29 = 29%
SWR + 1 π  1 − Γm2 Z L − Z 0 
f0

∆f [3.42 − 2.55]GHz
= = 0.29
f0 3 GHz

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 35
 Impedance Matching
• Problem: Design a single-section quarter-wave matching
transformer to match a 350 Ω load to a 100 Ω line, at f0=4 GHz.
(εeff = 4.6) Determine the fractional BW for which SWR≤2.

Z in l = λg 4

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 36
 References
• M. Tooley, “Aircraft Communications and navigation
systems”. Elsevier, 2007. ISBN 978-7506-81377
• T. K. Eismin, “Aircraft electricity and electronics”. Mc Graw
Hill, 2014. ISBN 978-0-07-179915-7
• J. M. Rueda, “Sistemas eléctricos y electrónicos de las
aeronaves”. Paraninfo, 2007. ISBN 84-283-2928-1
• D. M. Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”. John Wiley & Sons,
2012. ISBN 978-0-470-63155-3.

Sistemes de RF i Comunicació 37