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TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
by
R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart, and E. N. Lightfoot
by R. B. Bird
9 Aug 2011
1
p. 90(i) Tangential flow between cylinders—pressure distribution
p. 90(ii) Torque balance
p. 117 Slope of the complementary error function
p. 121 Fluid motion near an oscillating plate
p. 123 Equation for the stream function
p. 125 Alternative method of getting Stokes' law
p. 139 The Falkner-Skan equation
p. 154 Average velocity in turbulent flow in tubes
p. 170 Turbulent flow in a circular jet
p. 198 Derivation of macroscopic balances
p. 199 Efflux from a spherical tank
p. 202 The lawn sprinkler
p. 218 Unsteady flow from a cylindrical tank
p. 241 The Weissenberg-Rabinowitsch equation
p. 242 Power-law flow in circular tubes
p. 248 Viscoelastic flow near an oscillating plate
p. 250 The corotational Maxwell model
p. 255 Polymer flow analyzed with a FENE-P model
p. 259 The Casson equation
p. 275 Dimensional consistency in heat transfer
p. 286 Enthalpy of an ideal monatomic gas
p. 299 Temperature profile in flow with viscous heating
p.309 Checking the cooling fin solution
p. 315 Temperature profile in tube flow
p. 337 Alternative equation of change for temperature
p. 341 The equation of change for entropy
p. 343 Tangential annular flow with viscous heating
p. 346 Temperature profile for transpiration cooling
p. 352 Stationary shock wave velocity distribution
p. 375 One-dimensional time-dependent heat conduction
p. 377 Two solutions for the slab heating problem
p. 379 Unsteady heat conduction with sinusoidal heating
p. 386 Steady-state potential flow of heat in solids
p. 388 Boundary layer flow with heat transfer
p. 413 Turbulent flow in tubes with heat transfer
p. 415 Turbulent flow in circular jets with heat transfer
p. 454 Derivation of macroscopic energy balance
p. 494 Planck's radiation law and Wien's displacement law
p. 529 Dimensional consistency in diffusion
p. 534 Binary formulas from multicomponent formulas
p. 535 Two formulations of Fick's law of diffusion
p. 547(i) Diffusion through a stagnant gas film
2
p. 547(ii) Taylor expansion of diffusion problem result
p. 555 Diffusion with chemical reaction
p. 557 Simplifying Eq. 18.4-18
p. 563(i) Diffusion with solid dissolution
p. 563(ii) Evaluation of mass flux from concentration profiles
p. 565 Verification of solution of diffusion problem
p. 584 Form of diffusion equation in molar units
p. 585 Diffusion with convection and chemical reaction
p. 589 Energy equation for multicomponent mixtures
p. 590 Simplification of the combined energy flux e
p. 591 Euler's theorem for homogeneous functions
p. 615 Time-dependent evaporation of a liquid
p. 622 Diffusion with time-dependent interfacial area
p. 626 Diffusion with chemical reaction
p. 628 Forced convection from flat plate
p. 692 Interaction of phase resistances
p. 766 Driving force in multicomponent diffusion
p. 767 Simplification of multicomponent diffusion result
p. 768 Relating Maxwell-Stefan and Fick diffusivities
p. 769 Illustrating interrelations between diffusivities
3
Note to p. 5
1 1
2 2 ( (
mA ( rA rA ) + 2 rA R
) (
A1 + R A1 R A1 ))
(
+ 12 12 mA ( rA rA ) + 2 rA R A 2 + R
R
A2) (
A2 + A )
(
+ 12 12 mB ( rB rB ) + 2 rB R
( ) (
B1 + R B1 R B1 ))
+
(
+ 12 12 mB ( rB rB ) + 2 rB R B2 + R
R
B2) (
B2 B )
= 1 1
2 2 ( (
mA ( rA rA ) + 2 (rA R A1 ) + R
R
A1
A1 ))
4
+
( ) (
+ 12 12 mA ( rA rA ) + 2 rA R A 2 + R
R
A2 A2
A )
( (
+ 12 12 mB ( rB rB ) + 2 rB R ) (
+ R
B1
R
B1
B1 ))
+
( ) (
+ 12 12 mB ( rB rB ) + 2 rB R B2 R
+ R B2 B2
B) (3)
1
2
mA ( rA rA ) + 12 mA1 ( R
R ) + 1 m ( R
A1 A1 2 A2
R ) +
A2 A2 A
+ m ( r r ) + m ( R
1
2 B B B 2
1 R
B1
) + m (R R ) +
B1
1
B1 2 B2 B2 B2 B
= 1
2
mA (rA rA ) + mA1 (R A1
1
2
R ) + m (R R ) +
A1
1
2 A2 A2 A2 A
+ 1
2
mB(rB rB ) + 2 mB1 (R B1 R B1 ) + 2 mB2 (R B2 R B2
1 1
) + B (4)
In the first line of the equation above, the terms have the following
significance: Term 1 is the kinetic energy of molecule A in a fixed
coordinate system; Term 2 is the kinetic energy of atom A 1 in a
coordinate system fixed at the center of mass of molecule A; Term 3 is
the kinetic theory of atom A2 in a coordinate system fixed at the
center of mass of molecule A; Term 4 is the potential energy of
molecule A as a function of rA2 rA1 , the separation of the two atoms
in molecule A. The sum of terms 2 to 4 we call the "internal energy"
uA of molecules A, and Eq. 4 may be rewritten in the form of Eq. 0.3-
6.
This discussion of the collision between two diatomic
molecules is interesting, for several reasons. It shows how the idea of
"internal energy" arises in a very simple system. We encounter this
concept later in §11.1 where the terms "kinetic energy" and "internal
energy" are used in connection with a fluid regarded as a continuum.
When the fluid is regarded as a continuum, it may be difficult to
understand how one goes about splitting the energy of a fluid into
kinetic and internal energy, and how to define the latter. In
considering the collision between two diatomic molecules, however,
the splitting is quite straightforward.
5
Another point is that, having seen the need for splitting the
energy into two parts, one might be led to ask: why don't we need to
split the momentum into two parts in a similar way? Here again, for
the collision of diatomic molecules, the need for dividing the
momentum into two parts is not necessary.
The subject of transport phenomena is built up on the laws of
conservation of mass, momentum, angular momentum, and energy.
The application of these laws to the system of two colliding diatomic
molecules is relatively straightforward. However, when applying
them to a moving fluid, some notational problems arise associated
with the necessity of dealing with fluid bodies in three dimensions.
6
Note to p. 18
(P 0 P L )
vz ( x, y ) =
4 μ LH
( y H )( 3x 2 y 2 ) (1)
vz (P P L ) 3x 2 y y3 3Hx 2 + Hy 2
yz = μ
y
= μ 0
4 μ LH y
( )
(P 0 P L )
=
4LH
( 3x 2
3y 2 + 2Hy ) (2)
At the surface y = H:
(P 0 P L )
yz
y= H
=
4LH
( 3x 2
)
H 2 ; xz y=H
=0 (4,5)
7
Note to p. 26
ML2
( M ) 2 (T )
M tT
(a) Lt = (1)
( )
L2 ()
1 ML2
moles t
M
(b) Lt = (2)
L3
moles
M M M L L M M M L L
(c) 2 = 2 + 3 t t = 2 + 2 + 3 t t
Lt Lt L Lt Lt L
(3)
8
Note to p. 35
In Fig. 3B.7 we show the flow into a slot of width 2B. Far away
from the slot, the velocity components are given by Eqs.3B.7-2 to 4.
The convective momentum flux tensor is given by vv , where vv is the
dyadic product of v with v. The components of vv in Cartesian
coordinates are shown in the last three columns of Table 1.7-1.
a. What are these components for the flow in Problem 3B.7?
b. What is the convective momentum flux through a plane
perpendicular to the x axis?
2
1 2w x6
( vv )xx = vx vx = +
W
(1)
(x )
4
2
+y 2
2
1 2w x5 y
( vv )xy = vx v y = +
W
(2)
(x )
4
2
+y 2
2
1 2w x4 y2
( vv )yy = vy vy = +
W
(5)
(x )
4
2
+y 2
9
2
1 2w
x6
x vv x = vx v x = +
(10)
W
(x )
4
2
+y 2
2
1 2w
x5 y
x vv y = v x v y = +
(11)
W
(x )
4
2
+y 2
Then x vv x is the amount of x momentum flowing per unit time
through a unit area of surface perpendicular to the x axis, x vv y
is the amount of y momentum flowing per unit time through a unit of
surface perpendicular to the x axis, and x vv z is the amount of z
momentum flowing per unit time through a unit of surface
perpendicular to the x axis.
Verify that the units of the expressions on the right sides of Eqs.
10 and 11 do indeed have the units of momentum per area per time.
10
Note to p. 50
vz =
(P1 P 2 ) a 2 b 2 x
1
2
y
2
(1)
a
(
2 μ L a2 + b2
) b
(P1 P 2 ) a 2 b 2
w = 4
(
2μ L a + b2
ab
2
)
1
0 0
1 2
(1 2
)
2 dd
(P1 P 2 ) a3 b3 1 2
w = 4
(
2 μ L a2 + b 2 ) ( 2
)
0 1 3
0
1 1 3
d
2 (P1 P 2 ) a b 1
3 3
) ( )
3 2
= 4 1 2 d (2)
3 2μ L a + b
2 2
( 0
11
2 (P1 P 2 ) a b 2 2
w = 4
3 3 5 1
() ()
3 2 μ L a2 + b 2 ( 2 ( 3 ))
2 (P1 P 2 ) a b
= 4
3 3
( )( ) ( ) ( )
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3 2μ L a2 + b2 ( ) 2 2!
(P1 P 2 ) a3 b3
= (3)
(
4 μL a2 + b2 )
()
since 12 = . When a = b = R, this mass rate of flow expression
reduces to Eq. 2.3-21 of BSL-2e.
We can now compare the mass rates of flow for the circular
tube and the elliptical tube of the same cross sectional area, as follows
Circular tube: w =
(
(P1 P 2 ) A 2 2 ) (4)
8μL
well
= 2 (6)
w 1 + 2
12
Note to p. 51
0 0 ( 12 vz ) vz rdrd = 2 0 ( 12 vz ) vz rdr
2 R 2 R 2
( )
1 1 3
= 2 12 R 2 0 vz3 d = R 2 vmax
3
0 1 d
2
(1)
1 3 3 1
R 2 vmax
3 1 2
( 4 6
)
0 1 3 + 3 d = R vmax 2 4 + 6 8
2 3
4 6 + 4 1 1
= R 2 vmax
3
= R 2 vmax
3
8
8
1 2
1
4
(
= R 2 vmax vmax
2
) (2)
13
Note to p. 52
(P 0 P L ) R 4 3 (P 0 P L ) H 4
w = w = (1,2)
8μL 320 μ L
w =
( )
(P 0 P L ) A 2 2
; w =
3 3 (P 0 P L ) A 2
(3,4)
8μL 180 μ L
Therefore
w 3 3 (16 )
= 8 = 0.726 (5)
w 180
14
(
3 (P 0 P L ) P 2 3 )
4
(P 0 P L ) ( P 2 )
4
w = w = (6,7)
8μ L 180 μ L
w
=
3
( 8)( 2 ) = 0.265
4
(8)
( )
2 3 (180 )
4
w
For the square cross section (see Problem 3B.3), the ratios
corresponding to Eqs. 5 and 8 may be found to be
w
= 0.884 (same cross-sectional areas) (9)
w
w
= 0.545 (same perimeters) (10)
w
15
Note to p. 54
(P P L ) R r
2 R
(P0 PL )R 2 R
2
R
=
R r =
1
0
rz (1)
2L 2L
r r
d 1 2 1 1 2 1
1 s ln = 0 2s +
2
(2)
ds ln (1 ) s ln (1 )
s
Setting the right side equal to zero, and solving for s gives
1 2
smax =± (3)
2 ln (1 )
Hence, choosing the plus sign (why?), we get for the location of the
maximum in the velocity curve
16
12
rmax =R (4)
2 ln (1 )
The half-way point between the inner and outer cylinders is given by
s = 12 (1 + ) . Therefore we now have to prove that
1 2 1 2 (1 )
< (1 + ) or <1 (5a,b)
2 ln (1 ) 2 (1 + ) ln (1 )
It is easy to calculate the left side of Eq. 5b as a function of :
2 (1 ) 2 (1 )
(1 + ) ln (1 ) (1 + ) ln (1 )
0.1 0.711 0.6 0.980
0.2 0.829 0.7 0.991
0.3 0.895 0.8 0.999+
0.4 0.935 0.9 0.999+
0.5 0.962
It is evident that for > 0.8, the maximum is very close to being half
way between the two cylinders, and that is to be expected, inasmuch
as the annular-slit flow approaches a flat-slit flow. Problem 2B.5 gives
a discussion of the interrelation of the flow in a plane slit and the
flow in a narrow annulus.
vz,max =
(P 0 P L ) R 2 rmax
1
2
1 2 R
ln
4 μL ln (1 ) rmax
R
=
(P 0 P L ) R2
1
1 2
1 2
ln
2 ln (1 )
(6)
4 μL 2 ln (1 ) ln (1 ) 1 2
17
Note to p. 55
0
( )
lim 1 4 = 1 (1)
lim (1 )
2
2
=1 (2)
0
l im (1 ) = (3)
0
) ( )
1 2 lim
2
1
(
1
4
ln (1 ) 0 1
=1 (4)
18
Note to p. 58
Let us verify that the average velocities in the two regions are
given by Eqs. 2.5-20 and 21.
In region I, the average velocity is given by
(p pL ) b2 1 0 2 μ I μ I μ II x x
2
b b
μ I + μ II μ I + μ II b b
v I
= 0
+
dx
2μ I L
z
(p pL ) b 2
2 μ I
μ I μ II
0
= 1 μ I + μ II μ I + μ II
+ d where = x b
0 2
2μ I L
=
( p0 pL ) b 2 2 μ I 1 μ I μ II 1
I
I II
II
2μ I L
μ + μ 2 μ + μ 3
=
(
I
(
p0 pL ) b 2 6 2 μ 3 μ μ 2 μ + μ
I II
) (I II
)
2μ I L μ I + μ II
=
( p0 pL ) b 2 7 μ I + μ II
(1)
I II
2μ I L μ +μ
(p
pL ) b 2 1 b 2 μ II μ I μ II x x
2
2 μ II L b 0
μ I + μ II
μ I + μ II
b
b
v II
z = 0
+
dx
( p0 pL ) b 2 1 2 μ II
μ I μ II
2 μ II L 0 μ I + μ II μ I + μ II
= + 2
d
=
( p0 pL ) b 2 μ II 1 μ I μ II 1
2
+
2 μ II L
μ I + μ II
2
μ I + μ II
3
=
(
I
(
p0 pL ) b 2 6 2 μ + 3 μ μ 2 μ + μ
II II I
) ( II
)
2 μ II L μ I + μ II
=
( p0 pL ) b 2 μ I + 7 μ II
(2)
2 μ II L μ I + μ II
19
Note to p. 59
1
3 R
3 R
2 4
vr
rr = 2 μ = 2 μ v + cos
r R 2 r 2 r
3 μ v R
R
2 4
=
+ cos (1)
R
r r
1
R
3 R
R
2 4
v
1
vr
r = μ r + = μ v sin
r r r
R r 2 r r
1
R
3 R
1 R
2 4
μ v
( sin )
R
r 2 r 2 r
4 4
3 μ v R 3 μ v R
=+ sin = + sin (2)
2 R r 2 R r
b. Show how Eqs. 2.6-9 and 2.6-12 are obtained by doing the
necessary integrations.
To get the normal force acting on the sphere (from Eq. 2.6-7),
we start by noting that rr on the surface of the sphere is zero. (This is
a special case of the general result given in Example 3.1-1.) The
pressure p on the surface of the sphere is given in Eq. 2.6-8. Therefore
the z-component of the force acting normal to the surface of the
sphere is:
20
3 μ v
F( ) = cos
(cos ) R 2 sin d d
n 2
0 0
p0 + gRcos
+ 2
R
3 μ v
= 2 0 p0 + gRcos + cos ( cos ) R 2 sin d
2 R
3 μ v
= 2 p0 R 2 0 cos sin d + 2 R 2 gR +
cos2 sin d (3)
2 R 0
3 μ v 2 4
F ( ) = 2 R 2 gR +
n
= R3 g + 2μ Rv (4)
2 R
3
3
3 μ v
F (t) = 2 0 sin
( sin ) R 2 sin d
2 R
4
= 3μ Rv 0 sin 3 d = 3μ Rv
= 4μ Rv (5)
3
21
Note to p. 78
Solution:
a. First, we get rr from Eq. B.1-15:
1 3 R
1
R
2 4
vr
rr = 2 μ = 2μ v
+ 3 cos
r R 2 r 2 r
3 μ v R
R
2 4
=
+ cos (1)
R
r r
1 R
3 R
1 R
2 4
1 v vr
= 2 μ +
= 2μ v
+ + cos
r r R
r 4 r 4 r
1 R
3 R
1 R
2 4
2 μ v
+ cos
R
r 2 r 2 r
2 μ v 3 R
3 R
2 4
=
+ cos
R
4 r 4 r
3 μ v R
R
2 4
=
+ cos (2)
2R
r r
22
1 v vr + v cot
= 2 μ +
r sin r
1 R
3 R 1 R
R
3 R 1 R
3 3
= 2μ v
1 + cos + 1 + + cos
R
r 2 r 2 r r 4 r 4 r
3 μ v R
2 R
4
=
+ cos (3)
2R
r r
23
Note to p. 81
Here we give the details of the derivation of Eq. 3.3-1 from Eq.
3.2-9. Although Eq. 3.3-1 itself is not much used, the integral of Eq.
3.3-1 over large flow systems is widely used. We call this the
"macroscopic mechanical energy balance"; the term "engineering
Bernoulli equation" is also used.
The derivation we work through here is an excellent exercise in
using some of the "del" relations given in Appendix A (see
particularly §A.4).
We start by forming the dot product of the local velocity v with
Eq. 3.2-9. The last term presents no problems:
( v g ) = (v g ) (1)
( ) ( )
v [ ] = [ v ] + ( : v ) (2)
( v p ) = ( pv ) + p ( v ) (3)
(
v t v + v
[
vv ] )
t t
( )
= v
v + ( v
v ) + v
[ v
v ] + ( v
v ) (
v ) (4)
------------- ----------------
24
continuity; furthermore, the first term is split up into two terms, and
the third term is rearranged, thus:
1
1
=
t 2 2 t
(
( v v ) ( v v ) + v [ v v ] ) (5)
1 1
=
t 2
( v
v ) ( )
+ 2 ( v
v ) (
v ) + v
[ v
v ] (6)
Now the second and third term may be combined by using Eq. A.4-
19 with s replaced by 12 ( v v ) and v replaced by v :
1 1
= ( v
v )
+
( v
v ) v
t 2 2
1 2 1 2
= v
+
v v
(7)
t 2 2
Clearly knowing that the final result is Eq. 3.3-1 is very helpful in
doing the last several steps.
25
Note to p. 82 (i)
( :v ) = 12 μ ( : ) 43 ( v )2 +
( v )2 (2)
( : v ) = 12 μ ( 23 (
v ) : 23 (
v ) ) + (
v )2 (3)
which is another way of writing Eq. 3.3-3. The last step may be seen
to be true by expanding the double-dot product in Eq. 3 thus:
( 2
3( v )
: 23 ( v )
)
= ( : ) 43 ( v ) 43 ( v ) + 49 3 ( v )
2 2 2
= ( : ) 43 ( v )
2
(4)
26
Note to p. 82 (ii)
r t v
= t [ r v ]i (1)
i
r [ vv ]
= ijk x j vl v k
l xl
i
j k
= ijk x j vl vk ijk vl vk jl
j k l xl j k l
= v x v v v (2)
j k l xl l ijk j k j k ijk j k
r [ vv ] = v [ r v ] (3)
i i
27
[r p]i = ijk x j x p = ijk x p ijk jk p
xk j
(4)
j k k j k j k
x
j k l
l
{ }
ijk x j p kl =
l
xl
ijk x j p kl
j k
(5)
On the right side, the quantity within the braces can be recognized as
the cross product of a vector with a tensor (see text just after Eq. A.3-
19). Therefore the above result in Eq. 5 can be written as:
x {r p }il = x {r p }li = {r p }
† †
(6)
l l l l
i
r [ ] = ijk x j [ ]k = ijk x j (7)
i
j k x lk j k l l
ijk x x j lk ijk lk x
xl j
j k l l j k l
†
=
ijk j kl
ijk lk jl
x
l xl
j k
j k l
{ } { }
†
= r † ijk jk = r † + ikj jk
l xl l xl
il li
j k j k
28
{
= r † }
+ [ : ]
†
(8)
i
i
If the stress tensor is symmetric, the [ : ]i term vanishes, and † may
be replaced by in the first term.
29
Note to p. 86(i)
To show that this relation is true, we use §A.2 and Eq. A.4-10.
The proof requires replacing the dot and cross operations by
their expressions in terms of vector components. This is most
efficiently done by making use of summations. First we write the dot
product in terms of the components:
( v v [ v ] ) = v v [ v ]
i
i i
(2)
Next we write the cross product operations using the ijk symbol:
= vi ijk v j [ v ]k = v i ijk v j klm v (3)
i j k i j k l m xl m
= ijk klm vi v j vm = ijk lmk vi v j v (4)
i j k l m xl i j k l m xl m
We can now use Eq. A.2-7 to replace the sum on k of products of two
permutation symbols:
i j l m
( )
= il jm im jl vi v j
v
xl m
(5)
30
= vi v j v j vi v j v (6)
i j xi i j x j i
= vi v j v j v j vi v =0 (7)
i j xi i j xi j
It may now be seen that both terms are the same. Consequently their
difference is zero. Therefore, we have proven the identity in Eq. 1.
31
Note to p. 86(ii)
Did you notice some similarity between Eq. 3.5-11 and Eq. 3.3-
2? In this "Note," we demonstrate the connection.
If we assume steady state, inviscid flow (as we did in Example
3.5-1), then Eq. 3.3-2 can be rewritten, with the help of Eq. 3.5-4 and
Eq. A.8-19, as
D
Dt
( 1
2
v2 + )
ˆ = ( v p ) (1)
where the inviscid flow assumption has been used to get rid of the
terms containing . Next we use the steady-state flow assumption to
rewrite Eq. (1) as
( ) ( )
ˆ = ( v p)
v 12 v 2 + v (2)
( v v ) + ( v gh) + 1 ( v p) = 0
1
2
2
(3)
We can now divide each term by v and introduce the unit vector
s = v v , and then recognize that (s ) = d ds , where s is the
coordinate along a streamline. Equation (3) may now be written as
d
ds
( v ) g dh
1
2
2
1 dp
ds ds
=0 (4)
which is the same as Eq. 3.5-11. Equation (4) may then be integrated
from point "1" to point "2" along the streamline to get the Bernoulli
equation. Thus it is seen that the Bernoulli equation can be obtained
directly from the mechanical energy balance.
32
Note to p. 90(i)
= 0 + (G G0 ) + (1)
T
0
= 0 1 + b0 (G G0 )
= 0 1 + b0 p 1 dp
p
(2)
0
2
p 1 v2
2 R 2 2o 1
p0 dp = r dr = 2
d
1 ( 2
)
33
2 R 2 2o
2 2
= + 3 d
(
1 )
2 2 2
2 R 2 2o 1
2 2
= 2 2
2 ln + C (3)
( )
1 2
2 2
1 1 1 p
0 d = d or p 1 dp d = 0 (4,5)
0
where Eq. (2) has been used. Next, substitution of Eq. (3) into Eq. (5)
gives a relation from which C can be determined
11 2 2
2 2 2
2 ln + C d = 0 (6)
1
1 4 1 2 1 1
1
2 ln 2 2 ln 2 + C 2 = 0 (7)
2 4 2 2 4 2
1+2 3 2 ln
C = 1 (8)
4 2 1 2
1 2 2
2 ln
p 1 2 R 2 2o 2 2 2
p0 dp = (9)
( )
2
1 2 1 + 2 3 2 ln
1
4 2 1 2
34
For an incompressible fluid, the left side of Eq. (9) becomes simply
(p p0 ) 0 , so that we get for the pressure distribution in the two-
cylinder system with the outer cylinder rotating
1 2 2
2 ln
p p0 2 R 2 2o 2 2 2
= (10)
( )
2
0 1 2 1 + 2 3 2 ln
1
4 2 1 2
1 2 1
2 ln
p p0 4 R 2 2i 2 2
= (11)
( )
2
0
1 1 + 1 + 2 ln
2 2
1 2
4 1 2
35
Note to p. 90(ii)
d 2 d v
d 2
dr
( )
r r = 0 or r r =0
dr
dr
r
(1a,b)
Eq. B.1-11 has also been used. Here we show that this is equivalent to
Eq. 3.6-21, which is
d 1 d d 2 v 1 dv v
( rv
dr
r dr
) =0 or
dr 2
+
r dr r 2
=0 (2)
d v
1 dv v
dv
r 2 r
= r 2 r 2
= r 2 rv (3)
dr r r dr r dr
Next do the differentiation with respect to r (in Eq. 1b) and set the
result equal to zero:
2
d 2 dv dv 2 d v dv
r rv = 2r + r r v
dr dr dr dr 2 dr
2
2 d v 1 dv v
=r 2 + 2 =0 (4)
dr r dr r
36
Therefore either r 2 is zero, or the quantity in parentheses is zero. But
r 2 cannot be zero, and hence Eq. 2—which came from Example 3.6-
3—must be the same as Eq. 1b (from the torque balance).
37
Note to p. 117
When you look at Fig. 4.1-2, you might wonder whether the
slope at y = 0 is 1 . You can answer that question by differentiating
Eq. 4.1-15 with respect to :
d d 2 2
erfc = 1 0 e d
d =0
d =0
2 2 2
= e = = 1.1287 (1)
=0
38
Note to p. 121
(a) Let the real and imaginary parts of the arguments be:
for z1 : z1r and z1i
for z2 : z2r and z2i
for w: wr and wi
Then the expression { z1 w} = {z2 w} becomes
{ } { }
( z1r + iz1i ) ( wr + iw i ) = ( z2r + iz2i ) ( wr + iwi ) (1)
Rearranging gives:
Since w, and hence wr and wi , are arbitrary, the only way that this
equation can be satisfied is if z1r = z2r and z1i = z2i (i.e., z1 = z2 ).
i = a + bi (4)
where the real quantities a and b must be determined. When the left
and right sides of Eq. 4 are squared, we get
( )
i = a 2 b 2 + 2abi (5)
39
To find a and b, we equate the real and imaginary parts of the left and
right sides:
1
a4 = (7)
4
Hence
1 1 1 1
a2 = , and a=± ,± i (8)
2 2 2 2
whence
1 1 1
b=± ,± (9)
2 2 i
1
i = a + bi = ± (1 + i) (10)
2
Alternatively, one can write i in polar form and use the fact that
i has a unit length:
i = re i = 1e i 2
(11)
1 1
i = ±e i 4
= ± cos + i sin = ± +i (12)
4 4 2 2
40
Note to p. 123
v ( x, y ) = x vx ( x, y ) + y v y ( x, y ) (1)
v y vx
t
[ v ] z t [
= v ]z z t x y
=
2 2
= z 2 + 2 =
z 2 (2)
t x y t
The right side of Eq. (A) comes from the right side of Eq. 4.2-1:
2 2
[ v ] = 2 + 2 [ v ]
2
x y
2 2 2
2
=
z 2 + 2 2 + 2 = z 4
(3)
x y x y
The second term on the left side of Eq. (A) can be taken care of
similarly:
v [ v ]
= v z 2
( )
= x vx + y v y z 2
= y vx 2
+ x v y 2
41
x y z x y z
=
x y z x y z
0 v x 2
0 v y 2
0 0
= + z
x
(
vx 2 + z
)
y
v y 2 ( )
v v y 2
= z x + + z vx 2 + v y 2 (4)
x y
x y
2
2
= z
+
y x x y
=
x y
=
(
, 2 ) (5)
2 2 ( x, y )
x y
42
Note to p. 125
Here we want to fill in the details of getting Eq. 4.2-20 from Eqs.
4.2-18 and 4.2-19. This is a "straightforward but tedious exercise."
We begin by evaluating each of the four squared terms in Eq.
4.2-19 using the velocity components in Eqs. 4.2-13 and 14; it is
convenient to introduce the dimensionless variable = r R .
2
vr
( )
2
9 v 2
2
=
1 3 cos (1)
2
r 2r
2
1 v vr 2v2
( )
2
2 +
= 2
1 + 34 1 + 14 3 cos +
1 32 1 + 12 3 cos
r r r
( )
2
9 v 2
= 1 + 3 cos (2)
2
8r
2
v cot vr
2v2
( )
2
2 + = 2
1 + 34 1 + 14 3 cos +
1 32 1 + 12 3 cos
r r r
( )
2
9 v 2
= 1 + 3 cos (3)
2
8r
2 2
v 1 vr v v 1 vr
r +
r r
r
= r r + r
2
3 1 + 3 3 sin + 1 3 1 1 3 sin
v2
4 4
4 4
=
r 1 3 1 + 1 3 sin
2
2 2
v2 2
= 3 3 sin (4)
2 2
r
4
cos2 + μ v2 94 6
sin 2
(5)
43
Then the kinetic contribution to the force on the sphere is given by
R ( :v ) r
Fk v = 2
μ 0 2
drsin d
= 2
23 μ v2 R 274 2 27 4
2
+ 27 6
4
dr + 2
43 μ v2 R 94 6
dr
(6)
0 cos sin d = 0 sin d = 43 . Then, finally
2 2 3
since 3
and
Fk = 9
μ v R
1 2 2 4 + 6 d + 6
μ v R
1 6 d
= 9
μ v R 1 + 32 3 15 5 + 6
μ v R 15 5
1 1
= 9
μ v R 1 + 2
3
1
5
+ 6
μ v R 15
= 9μ v R 52 + 6μ v R 15 = ( 24
5
+ 6
5 ) μ v
R
= 6μ v R (7)
44
Note to p. 139
We show here how to get the Falkner-Skan equation in Eq. 4.4-35 for
the flow near a corner. For this system, the external flow ve was
found earlier (see Eqs. 4.3-42 and 43) to be
2c ( 2 )
ve ( x ) = c' x ( )
2
x (1)
2
We then have to solve Eq. 4.4-11 to get the velocity distribution in the
neighborhood of the wedge shown in Eq. 4.3-4:
2
2
dve 2
y
xy
+ x
y 2 = ve dx + y 2 y
(3)
2 2 c' 2 1 3
= (4)
y xy x y 2 2
x( 23 ) ( 2 ) y 3
( x, y ) = c' ( 2 )x ( ) f ( ) Ax ( ) f ( )
1 2 1 2
(5)
c' y y
( x, y ) = B (6)
( 2 ) x( ) ( )
1 2
x( ) ( )
1 2
45
We start by converting the various derivatives from ( x, y ) to
derivatives of f ( ) :
1 2 df 1
= Ax ( ) = ABx ( ) f ' (1 ) ( 2 ) = ABx ( ) f ' (7)
1 2 2
y d y x
2 ( )
2
( 2 ) 2 x 1
= ABx f " = AB (1 ) ( 2 ) f " = AB2 (1 2 ) ( 2 ) f " (8)
y 2
y x x
3 1 1
= AB 2 (1 2 ) ( 2 ) f = AB3 ( 23 ) ( 2 ) f (9)
y 3
x y x
d 1 2 1 2 df
= A x ( )
f Ax ( )
x dx d x
x ( )1 1 2 By (1 ) (1 ) ( 2 )1
1 2
= A f Ax ( ) x f'
(2 ) x ( 2 )
= A
1 x ( )
1 2
f +A
(1 ) x1 ( 2 )
f' (10)
(2 ) x (2 ) x
2 1 x ( )
1 2
( 1 ) x1 ( 2 ) d
= A f '+ A ( f ')
yx ( 2 ) x y ( 2 ) x y d
1 x ( )
1 2
( 1 ) x1 ( 2 )
= AB f '+ AB ( f "+ f ') (11)
( 2 ) x(1 ) ( 2 ) x ( 2 ) x(1 ) (2 ) x
The terms on the right side of Eq. 4.4-32 are then:
c'2 1 1 c'2 1
2 ( 23 ) ( 2 ) + AB ( 23 ) ( 2 ) f = 2 ( 23 ) ( 2 ) ( + f )
3
x x x
(12)
Next we write down the terms on the left side of Eq. 4.4-32:
1 x ( )x ( ) 2
2 1 2
2 2
=A B
2 2
f
y xy x y 2 ( 2 ) x(1 ) ( 2 ) x
46
(1 ) x (2 ) x1 ( 2 ) f f "+ f 2
( 2 ) x(1 ) ( 2 ) x ( )
A B2 2
x ( )
1 2
1
A B2 2
ff
( 2 ) x(12 ) (2 ) x
+A B2 2 (1 ) x1 ( 2 ) f f "
( 2 ) x(1 2 ) ( 2 ) x
1
x (
23 ) ( 2 )
x (
23 ) ( 2 )
= c'2 f 2 c' 2 ff
2 (2 )
= c' 2
1
(2 )
x (
23 ) ( 2 )
( f 2 ff ) (13)
c' 2
1
(2 )
x (
23 ) ( 2 )
( )
f 2 ff = c' 2
1
(2 )
x (
23 ) ( 2 )
( + f )
(14)
or
f 2 ff = + f (15)
[Note: In earlier printings of the textbook, the prime was omitted from
c', and the quantity c' was not defined.]
47
Note to p. 154
To get the average flow velocity from Eq. 5.1-4, we integrate the
velocity distribution over the circular tube cross-section:
2
2
1 ( r R )
R R 17
vz =
0 0
v z rdrd
= vz ,max
0 0
rdrd
2
R 2
R
0 0
rdrd
0 0
rdrd
2
This can then be written as the sum of two integrals, which can be
evaluated:
( )
1
1 1 8 7 15 7
v z = 2vz ,max 0 d 0 d = 2vz ,max 8 7 15 7
= 0.82vz ,max
17 87
0
(3)
48
Note to p. 170
FF = ( F + F ) 2F (1)
1
2 ( F ) = (F ) 2F
2
(2)
1
2
F 2 = F 2F C2 (3)
dF dF d
= 2F + 12 F 2 or = (4)
d (
2F 1 + 14 F )
1 + 14 F 1 + 14 F
ln1
2
= ln + ln C3 or ln = ln + ln C3 (5a,b)
F F
Next take the antilog of the equation and then square the result to
obtain
49
F
1 + 14 F
= ( C3 ) 2
(6)
Now either a "plus" sign or a "minus" sign may be inserted inside the
absolute value bars. Since we have no reason to prefer one over the
other, we consider the two cases separately:
( )
F = + 1 + 14 F ( C3 )
2
or F= (7)
1 14 ( C3 )
2
( )
F = 1 + 14 F ( C3 )
2
or F= (8)
1 + 14 ( C3 )
2
( 2C )
2
2
J = 2
0 v z2 rdr = 2
( )
t 2 3
0 4
d
(9)
1 +
1
4 (C3
) 2
We now let 1
4 (C3 )2 = x 2 so that d = ( 4 C32 ) xdx ; then
50
xdx
J = 32
( ) C32 0
t 2
( )
4
1 + x2
( t)2 2 1 = 16
( t )2 C 2
= 32
C3 (10)
( )
3 3
3
6 1 + x
2
0
w = 2
0
vz rdr = 2
( )
t
( 2C ) 2
3
0 2
d
z 2
z 1 +
1
4 (C3
)2
4 xdx 1
= 4 ( ) zC32 (
t)
= 16 z
t
C2 0
3 (1 + x ) 2
2
2 1 + x2
( )
0
= 8
( ) z
t
(11)
51
Note to p. 198
V (t) t dV = V (t) ( v ) dV (1)
d
dV S(t) ( n vS ) dS = S(t) (n v ) dS
dt V (t )
(2)
d
(
dV = S(t) n ( v vS ) dS
dt V (t )
) (3)
52
The integral on the left side is the total mass mtot in the system.
The surface integrals over S f and Sm are zero, because v = v S .
Therefore we are left with
d
m = S ( n v ) dS S ( n v ) dS (4)
dt tot 1 2
d
m = + 1 S vdS 1 S vdS (5)
dt tot 1 2
Here v is the velocity in the direction of flow, which varies across the
cross section. Therefore integrations over the surfaces S1 and S2 give
d
m = 1 v1 S1 2 v 2 S2 = w1 w2 (6)
dt tot
where is the average value over the cross section; w1 and w2 are
the mass rates of flow at the inlet and outlet, respectively. Eq. 6 is just
the same as Eq. 7.1-1 in the textbook, which was written down by
using elementary arguments (i.e., common sense).
V (t) t v
dV = V (t) [
vv ]dV V (t)
pdV V (t) [
]dV + V (t) gdV
(7)
53
Next apply the Leibniz formula to the left side and the Gauss
divergence theorem (or Eq. A.5-2) to the surface integrals on the right
side to get
d
vdV S(t) v ( n v S ) dS = S(t) [ n vv ]dS S(t) npdS S(t) [ n ]dV
dt V (t )
+ V t gdV (8)
()
The integral on the left side is just the total momentum Ptot in the
flow system. If g does not change over the volume of the flow system,
then it may be removed from the integral, which gives mtot . Then
d
P = S t n ( v v S ) v dS S t npdS S t [n ]dS + mtot g (9)
dt tot () () ()
the last contribution being the force exerted by the fluid on the solid
surfaces by the pressure.
Finally the third integral will be
54
F(f s
)
(12)
Note that we have omitted the contributions at the entry and exit
planes because they would normally be quite small compared to the
pressure terms. Therefore we are left with just the force exerted by
the fluid on the solid surfaces because of the viscous forces.
When all the forces are combined we get for the macroscopic
momentum balance (with F (f s
p)
+ F (f s
)
= F f s = Fs f ):
d
Ptot = 1 v12 S1 u1 2 v22 S2 u 2 + p1S1u1 p2S2 u 2 + Fs f + mtot g (13)
dt
This is the same as Eq. 7.2-11 (or 7.2-12) in the textbook, obtained by
elementary reasoning.
55
Note to p. 199
x2 + ( z R ) = R2
2
or x 2 = 2Rz z 2 (1a,b)
( )
dV =
x 2 dz =
2Rz z 2 dz (2)
( ) ( ) ( )
h h
V= 0
2Rz z dz =
Rz 3 z =
Rh2 13 h3
2 2 1 3
(3)
0
1 h
V =
Rh 2 1 (4)
3 R
We may check this result at three points where we know the result:
Tank full: h = 2R V = 43 R 3
Tank half full: h=R V = 23 R3
56
Tank empty: h=0 V =0
d 2 1 h
(P 2 P 3 ) D4
Rh 1 = (5)
dt 3 R
128 μ L
P 2 = p2 +
gh2 = (
gh + patm ) +
gL (6)
That is, p2 is the pressure due to the liquid in the sphere above plane
"2" plus the atmospheric pressure, and h2 is the height of plane "2"
above the datum plane (i.e., plane "3"). Furthermore,
P 3 = p3 +
gh3 = patm + 0 (7)
1 h
( gh + gL ) D
4
d
Rh 2 1 = (8)
dt 3 R
128 μ L
R d 2 1 h 3 gD4
h = A (9)
h + L dt 3 R
128 μ L
57
R h 2 dh
2h =A (10)
h + L R dt
2R ( H L ) ( H L ) dH
2
=A (11)
H dt
or
1 dH
H 2 ( R + L ) + ( 2R + L ) L
H dt
=A (12)
Now we integrate this equation and make use of the initial and final
conditions:
L
1 2
2 H 2 ( R + L ) H + ( 2R + L ) L ln H = At
tefflux
0
(13)
2R+L
This gives
1 2 1 L
L ( 2R + L ) 2 ( R + L ) L + 2 ( R + L ) ( 2R + L ) + ( 2R + L ) L ln
2
2 2 2R + L
= Atefflux (14)
or after some cancellations
1 2 2R + L
tefflux =
A
2R + 2RL ( 2R + L ) L ln
L
(15)
58
Note to p. 202
w
v2 = y L
4 S
w
0 w L x y L Tf z
4 S
w
Tf = wL L
4 S
w Tf
=
4 SL wL2
[For more on this problem, see Surely You're Joking Mr. Feynman," by
R. P. Feynman, Bantam Books, New York (1986), pp. 51-53.]
59
Note to p. 218
Here we work through the details from Eq. 7.7-8 to the end of the
example.
The first term of Eq. 7.7-5 may be transformed as follows:
2h
d2h
dt 2
= 2h
d
dt
( u ) = 2h 1
2
u 1 2
du
dt
= hu 1 2 du dh
dh dt
= h
du
dh
(1)
du
h ( N 1) u + 2gh = 0 (2)
dh
To verify that Eq. 7.7-9 is the solution to Eq. 7.7-8, we substitute the
former into the latter to get
2g 2gh
h C ( N 1) h N 2 + ( N 1) Ch N 1 + + 2gh = 0 (3)
N 2 N 2
We next apply the initial conditions (Eqs. 7.7-6 and 7) to the solution
in Eq. 7.7-9
2
dh N 1 2gh
dt = Ch +
N2
(6)
60
4
R 2gH
2gH 0 = CH N 1 + (7)
R N2
2g 1 1 4g 1
C= = (8)
H N2 N N 2 H N 2 N ( N 2)
d 2g 2 N 1
=± (9)
dt ( N 2) H N
We then choose the minus sign, because we know that the height of
the fluid will be decreasing with increasing time, and therefore d dt
must be negative. To get the efflux time, we integrate Eq. 9 from t = 0
when = 1 (full tank) to t = tefflux when = 0 (empty tank):
t
tefflux = 0efflux dt =
( N 2) H 1 1 NH
(N )
0 d (10)
2g ( 2 N ) N 1 2g
61
1 N2 1 1
(N ) = d (11)
2 N 0 ( 2 N ) N 1
1 2
1 N2 1 1 2 N2
(N ) = 1
d (12)
2 N 0 N
1 N2 1 1
2
1 1 2 N 2 1 1 3 2 N 2
(N ) =
1 + + d
2 N 0
1! 2 N
2! 2 2 N
1 N2 1 3
= 2 + + + (13)
2 N (
N N 32 )
4N 2 N 74 ( )
When this expression is expanded in a Taylor series around 1 N = 0 ,
we get
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
3 1
( N ) = 1 + O + + O 3 + 8 O 3 +
N 2 N 2
N 3
2 N 2
N N
1 1
= 1 +O 3 (14)
N N
62
Note to p. 241
In the text it is shown how to get the function ( ) from data
obtained with a cone-and-plate viscometer. In the absence of this
kind of device, one may have to extract the function from tube-flow
data. Show how to get the relation for the non-Newtonian viscosity
( ) from experimental data on mass rate of flow w vs pressure
drop P 0 P L for flow through circular tubes.
We know from §2..3 that, for any kind of fluid rz = R r R ,
where R = (P 0 P L ) R 2L is the shear stress at the tube wall r = R.
The mass rate of flow through the tube is
R R dvz r 2 R
w = 2 0 vz rdr = 2 0 dr 2 dr = + r 2 dr (1)
0
w 1 R
= 0 rz2 d rz
(2)
R
3
R3
d 3 w
R
R 3
= R R
2
(3)
d R
63
how the wall shear rate R can be obtained by differentiating the
flow-rate vs pressure-drop data.
We now put Eq. 3 into a different form. Differentiating the
product with respect to R gives
w d w
3 R2 + R3 3
= R R2 (4)
R3 d R
R
(
Then division by R2 w R 3 gives )
3+
(
d ln w
R 3 ) = 1
(5)
d ln R R
w
R3
Then finally
( )
1
R R d ln w R 3
( R ) = = 3 + (6)
R w R 3 d ln R
64
Note to p. 242
3 3
= 1
2 ( : ) = 1
2 ij ji and = v + ( v )
†
(1,2)
i=1 j=1
Therefore
= 1
2 ( : ) = ( dvz dr ) = ± dvz dr
2
(5)
n1 n
dv dvz dvz
rz = m z = (6)
dr dr dr
65
n 1n
dv P PL dvz P 0 P L
m
z =
0 r or = r1 n (7,8)
dr 2L dr
2mL
r( )
1n 1 n +1
P PL
vz =
0 +C (9)
2mL (1 n ) + 1
Application of the no-slip condition requires that vz = 0 at r = R :
R( )
1n 1 n +1
P PL
0 =
0 +C (10)
2mL (1 n ) + 1
Subtraction of Eq. 10 from Eq. 9 eliminates the integration constant C
and leads to
r ( ) R( )
1n 1 n +1 1 n +1
P PL
vz =
0 (11)
2mL (1 n) + 1
Rearrangement then gives
(P P L ) R r (1 n )+1
1n
R
vz =
0 1 (12)
2mL
(1 n) + 1
R
2 R
w = 0 0 vz rdrd
(P P L ) R
1n
= 2
R 2 0
2mL
R
(1 n ) + 1 (
0
1
)
1
( )
d
1 n +1
(13)
66
(P P L ) R (1 n ) + 1
1n
R
w = 2
R 0
2
2mL
(1 n) + 1 2 (1 n) + 3
(P P L ) R
1n
1
=
R 0
3
(14)
2mL
(1 n ) + 3
This is the power-law analog of the Hagen-Poiseuille equation for
Newtonian fluids.
67
Note to p. 248
d v i t 0 s 1 i s
2 0
{
i v e 0 i t
} = 2 e 0
1
e e ds (1)
dy
2 0
s i s
{
i v e 0 i t
} d v
=
2 e i t 0
1
1 (1 1 ) i e 1e
dy 0
d 2 v 0 i t 0
=
2 e (2)
dy 1 + i1
We may now remove the real-operator sign from both sides, as well
as the common multiplier e i t , to get:
d 2 v 0 0 d 2 v 0 i (1 + i1 ) 0
i v =0
or = v (3a,b)
dy 2 1 + i1
dy 2 0
v0 = Ae (
+ + i ) y
+ Be (
+ i ) y
(4)
68
{ }
vx ( y,t ) = v0 ( y ) e i t = Ae ({(
+ +i ) y
+ Be (
+ i ) y
) }
e i t (5)
{
vx ( y,t ) = v0 e ( }
+ i ) y i t
e {
= v0 e y e ( }
i t y )
= v0 e y cos ( t y )
(6)
i (1 + i1 )
= ( + i )
2
(7)
0
1 2
=
2 2
and 2 = (8, 9)
0 0
This gives us two equations for the two unknowns and . We can
eliminate between the two equations and get an equation for :
2
1 1 2
2
= (10)
20 2 0
2
1 2 2
+
4
=0 (11)
0 20
69
This can be regarded as a quadratic equation in 2 , which has the
solution:
2 2
1 2 1 1 2
=
2
± + 4
20 2
0
2
0
1 2 1
2 2
= 1 1 + 2 2 = 1 + (12)
20 1 20 1 1
2 2
12
=± 1 + (13)
20 1 1
+ 1 + 2 2
12
=+ 1 (14)
20 1
+ 1 + 2 2
1 2
=+
1
(15)
20 1
12
= 1 +
2 2
(16)
20
1 1
1 2
= 1 + 1 1
2 2
(17)
20
The quantity given in Eq. 16 is still real and positive. So, how do
we make a choice between Eqs. 14 and 15 on the one hand, and Eqs.
16 and 17 on the other? It is easy to show that the former do not
satisfy Eq. 8, whereas the latter do. Therefore, we conclude that Eqs.
70
16 and 17 are the proper quantities to insert in Eq. 6. Thus Eqs. 8.4-24
and 25 of the textbook are correct.
71
Note to p. 250
D
+ = 0 (1)
Dt
0 0 0 0 1 0
v = 1 0 0
(v )† = 0 0 0
(2,3)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
=
1 0 0 = 1 0 0 (4,5)
0 0 0 0 0 0
Since the stress tensor does not depend on position and time, in the
Jaumann derivative of , the substantial derivative will not
contribute and we are left with only 12 { } .
72
0 1 0 xx xy xz yx yy yz
{ } = 1 0 0 yx yy yz = xx xy xz (6)
0 0 0 zx zy zz 0 0 0
xx xy xz 0 1 0 xy xx 0
{ } = yx yy yz 1 0 0 = yy
xy 0 (7)
zy zz 0 0 0 xz 0
zx zy
Hence the Jaumann derivative is (keep in mind that the stress tensor
is symmetric)
yx 1
2 (
xx yy 12 yz )
D 1
=
D t 2 xx
yy ( yx ) 1
2 xz
(8)
12 yz 1
0
2 xz
xx xy xz
yx 1
2 ( xx yy ) 12 yz
yx yy
(
yz
+ 12 xx yy ) yx 1
2 xz
zy zz
zx 12 yz 1
0
2 xz
0 1 0
= 0 1 0 0 (9)
0 0 0
( xx )
yy 2 yx = 0 (10)
( yy zz )+ =0
yx (11)
73
yx + 1
2 ( xx )
yy = 0 (12)
xz 12 yz = 0 (13)
yz + 12 xz = 0 (14)
1 1
yx = 0 or = (15,16)
1 + ( ) 0 1 + ( )2
2
2 1 2
xx yy = 0 or = (17,18)
1 + ( )
2
0 1 + ( )2
2 1
yy zz = +0 or = (19,20)
1 + ( ) 0 1 + ( )
2 2
74
Note to p. 255
xx xy xz 0 0
=
yx yy yz =
0 0 0 (1)
zy
zz 0 0 0
zx
p,zx p, yz
0 1 0
= nKT H 1 0 0 (2)
0 0 0
From this we get at once that the only nonzero components of p are
p,xx and p,xy = p, yx . Then from the matrix equation, Eq. 2, we can
write down the two nonvanishing component equations as:
in which
( ) (
Z = 1 + ( 3 b ) 1 tr p 3nKT = 1 + ( 3 b ) 1 p,xx 3nKT
) (5)
75
In order to make the algebraic manipulations somewhat easier, we
introduce the following dimensionless quantities:
ZN = 2S (9)
ZS = 13 (10)
Z = 1 + ( 3 b ) (1 N ) (11)
N 3
= 2S and = 1 + (1 N ) (12,13)
3S 3S b
Then N may be eliminated between these two equations to get a cubic
equation for the dimensionless shear stress S (for method of solving
cubic equations, see a mathematics handbook):
b+3 b
S3 + S+ =0 or S 3 + 3pS + 2q = 0 (14,15)
18 54
Eqs. 14 and 15 serve to define p and q. Eq. 15 has three solutions, two
imaginary solutions (of no interest here) and one real solution:
S = 2p1 2 sinh ( 1
3
arcsinh p3 2 q ) (16)
76
p, yx b + 3
+1 2 b + 3 3 2 b
= 2 sinh 3 arcsinh
1
H (17)
54
3nKT 54 108
S = 2p1 2 sinh ( 1
3 )
p3 2 q = 2p1 2 { 1
3 }
p3 2 q + = 23 p1 q
(18)
1
b + 3 b b
p, yx = 3nKT
2
H = nkT (21)
3
54
108 b + 3
H
This corresponds to
b
s = nkT H (22)
b + 3
(23)
77
In the original variables, this becomes
13 13
b b
p, yx = 3nKT 2 H = nKT 54 H (24)
108
108
13
b 1
s = nKT H (25)
2
H
S = 32 p1 q (26)
directly (see Eq. 18). Similarly, if the velocity gradient is quite large,
then the linear term in S may be omitted, and one gets
S = ( 2q )
13
(27)
2 ( s )
2
1 = (28)
nKT
78
Note to p. 259
0
= μ0 + when 0 (2)
The expression for the shear stress in a circular tube for any
kind of fluid was derived in Chapter 2 and found to be
P PL
rz = 0 r (3)
2L
79
Combining Eqs. 3 and 4b and rearranging gives
1 (P 0 P L ) r (P0 P L ) r 0 r r
= 2 + 0
0
2 + 1
μ0
2L 2L
μ0 r0 r0
(6)
d >
= 2 +1 (7)
d
1 R
r
4 R
r
R
2 2 3 2 3 2
> r
= 1 1 + 1 (8)
2 r0 R 3 r0 R r0 R
and for 0 r r0
2 3 2
< 1 R 4 R R 1
= + (9)
2 r0 3 r0 r0 6
The mass rate of flow can then be obtained by using Eq. 2.3-21 after
doing an integration by parts. The dashed underlined terms are zero.
80
r=R R dv r dv R dv
w = 2
12 v z r 2 0 12 r 2 z dr =
00 r 2 z dr + r r 2 z dr
r=0 dr
dr 0 dr
----------- --------------
r03 0 R r0 2 d > r03 0 R r0 2
=
μ0
1
d d = +
μ 1 2 + 1 d
0
( )
r03 0 1 R 4 R 7 2 1 R 3
4
=
μ
4 r 1 7 r 1 + 3 r 1
0
0
0
0
r0 0 R 4 16 r0 4 r0 1 r0
12 4
=
μ 1 7 R
+ 3 R
21 R
0
16 2L 0 4 2L 0
1 +
(P 0 P L ) R 4 7 (P 0 P L ) R 3 (P 0 P L ) R
= (10)
8 μ0 L 1 2L 0
4
21 P P R
( 0 L)
81
Note to p. 275
ML2 ML2
( ) 2 (T )
M t 2T
ML tT
(a) 3 = (1)
tT L2 M
2
M M L L M L2 L M L M
(b) 3 = 3 t t + 3 2 t + 2 t + 3 (2)
t L L t Lt t
L3
L2 L2 L3 M M
M
(c) 2 = 2 (T ) + M 2 + (T ) T 2 (3)
t t T Lt ( ) Lt
In each of these cases, each term has the same dimensions.
82
Note to p. 286
5 R
Ĉp = (1)
2M
RT
pV̂ = (2)
M
V̂ RT R
V̂ T = V̂ T T pM = V̂ T pM = 0 (3)
T p p
Hence, the only term that survives is the heat-capacity term, which is:
Ĥ Ĥ o =
5 R
2M
(T To ) (4)
83
Note to p. 299
T T0 x
= (temperature) = (distance) (1)
Tb T0 b
1
= Br (1 ) + (2)
2
d 1
= Br (1 2 ) + 1 = 0 (3)
d 2
1 1
max = + (4)
2 Br
84
Note to p. 309
d sinh N (1 )
d
=
cosh N
( N ) (1)
d 2 cosh N (1 )
d 2
=
cosh N
( +N ) 2
(2)
When the expression for (in Eq. 10.7-13) and its second derivative
(in Eq. 2) are substituted into Eq. 10.7-9, an identity results. Therefore,
Eq. 10.7-13 satisfies the differential equation.
The boundary condition at = 0 is satisfied, since
cosh N (1 )
= =1 (3)
cosh N
=0
d sinh N (1 )
d =1
=
cosh N
( N ) =0 (4)
=1
85
Note to p. 315
( 0, ) = C0 + C1 ln 0 + C2 (1)
2 4 3 1
= C0 = C (2)
=1 4 16
4 0
=1
1 2 4
4 16
(
= 0
4 + 4 + C2 1 2 d ) (3)
1 1
1
0 4 1( 2
d)
= 4
1
0 ( 3
d)
= 4 2 4
= (4)
2 4
1
3
5 5 7
1
( )
0 4 4 16 1 d = 4 0 4 16 + 16 d =
2
1 5 1 7
4 + = (5)
16 6 16 8 16 24 4
86
1
( ) 1
C2 0 1 2 d = C2
4
(6)
87
Note to p. 337
Û Û p
dÛ = dT + dV̂ = ĈV dT + p + T dV̂ (2)
T
V̂ V̂
T T
V̂
Then we can use this equation to obtain Eq. (I) in Table 11.4-1.
First we rewrite Eq. 2 for a fluid particle moving with the fluid,
and then we multiply by the density of the fluid. This gives:
DÛ DT p
DV̂
= ĈV +
p + T (3)
Dt Dt T V̂ Dt
Since V̂ = 1
, we may rewrite
DV̂ Dt as follows:
DV̂ D 1 1 D
= = 2 Dt (4)
Dt Dt
88
Then if we use Eq. (A) of Table 3.5-1, we may rewrite this last relation
as:
1
DV̂
Dt
( )
= 2 ( v ) = ( v ) (5)
Now substitute this expression into Eq. 3, and then make use of Eq.
11.2-2 to get:
DT p
ĈV + p + T
( v ) = ( q ) p ( v ) ( :v ) (6)
Dt T V̂
When the terms involving ( v ) are moved to the right side, there is
some cancellation and Eq. (I) of Table 11.4-1 is obtained:
DT p
ĈV = ( q ) T ( v ) ( :v ) (7)
Dt T V̂
89
Note to p. 341
Verify that Eq. (T) of Table 11.4-1 is the equation of change for
entropy.
We can start with the thermodynamic expression
DŜ DV̂
(
q ) p (
v ) ( : v ) = T p (3)
Dt Dt
DŜ 1 1 1 p D 1
= (
q ) p (
v ) ( : v ) + (4)
Dt T T T T Dt
The second and fourth terms on the right side may be seen to cancel
one another is one makes use of the equation of continuity in the
form of Eq. (A) of Table 3.5-1, so that we get
DŜ 1 1
= (
q ) ( : v ) (5)
Dt T T
90
t
( ) 1 1
Ŝ + Ŝv = ( q ) ( :v )
T T
(6)
t
( ) q
1 1
Ŝ = Ŝv
+ 2 (q T ) ( :v )
T T T
(7)
91
Note to p. 343
d 1 2 1 1
= + N 3 1 2 =0 (1)
d ln
ln
2 1 1 1
= + 1 2 (2)
2
N ln
ln
2 ln (1 )
max = (3)
( )
1 2 1 (1 N )
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2 ( + 1) 0.75 0.67 0.625
This suggests that the maximum occurs nearer the inner wall, where
the velocity gradient is larger.
92
Note to p. 346
Here we want to derive Eq. 11. 4-27 from Eq. 11.4-26 by follow-
ing the instructions in the text. First we rewrite Eq. 11.4-26 in terms of
dimensionless variables:
T T1
= = dimensionless temperature (1)
T T1
r
= = dimensionless radial coordinate (2)
R
d R d 2 d wr Ĉp
= where R0 = (3a,b)
d R0 d d 4 k
u R du
= (4)
2 R0 d
1 R R R 1
= ln u + ln C1 or C1 u = exp 0 (5a,b)
R0 R0 R
d R 1
C1 2 = exp 0 (6)
d R
93
1 2 R0 1 v R
C1 =
exp
R
d + C2 =
1 exp 0
R
v dv + C2
e ( 0 ) e ( 0 )
R R v R R
= + C2
( R0 R )
e ( 0 ) e ( 0 )
R R R R
= + C2 (7)
( R0 R )
e ( 0
R )
e ( 0 )
R R R
= R (8)
e ( 0
R )
e ( 0 )
R R
94
Note to p. 352
Fill in the missing steps, showing how to arrive at Eqs. 11.4-67, 11.4-
68, and 11.4-75.
4 μ dv pvx CIII vx
vx x = v x2 + (1)
3 1 v1 dx 1 v1 1 v1
Eq. 11.4-61 may be used to simplify the second term on the right side
to p
, and this may be further rearranged by using ideal gas
relations, thus:
p RT
= =
( ) (
C p C V T
) 1
= Ĉp ĈV T =
1
ĈpT = ( )
CI 12 vx2
M M
(2)
In the last step, use has been made of Eqs. 11.4-64 and 65, the second
of which should have been written as CI = ĈpT1 + 12 v12 . Then we get Eq.
11.4-67
4 μ dv + 1 2 1 C v
vx x = vx + CI III x (3)
3 1 v1 dx
1 v1
d 31 + 1
2 1
=
d 4 μ v1
2
v
x
2 RT1
v x
v
1 1
+ + ( Ĉ T +
M
1 v1
p 1 2 1
1 2
v )
95
3 1
+ 1 2 2 2 RT1 1
= Ma1
Ma1 4 μ v1 2
v1 v
1 +
M
+ ( +
p 1 2 1
Ĉ T 1 2
v )
2 + 1 2 RT1 1 ĈpT1 1
= Ma1 1 + +
v 2 + 2
2
+ 1
2
Mv 1
1
2 1 1 1 1 1
= Ma1 2
1 + 2
+ 2 +
+ 1
1 Ma 2 2 (4)
+ 1 Ma 1
1
d
= Ma1 ( 1) ( ) (5)
d
d
( 1) ( ) = Ma1d = Ma1 ( 0 ) (6)
xdx 1
( a + x ) ( c + x ) = a c a ln a + x c ln c + x (7)
d 1
( 1) ( ) = 1 1 ln 1+ + ln +
= Ma1 ( 0 ) (8)
In order to remove the absolute value signs, we note that < < 1 , so
that
96
1ln (1 ) + ln ( ) = ( 1) Ma1 ( 0 ) (9)
so that finally
97
Note to p. 375
d 2 u 2 du
erf u = e (1)
dx
dx
d d 2 u u 2 2 u u 2 u 2 u 0 2 0
erf u =
dx
0 e du =
0 x
e du + e
x
e
x
(2)
dx
b. Now turn to Eq. 12.1-8, where the left side is the dimension-
less temperature difference . Form the derivatives that appear in
Eq. 12.1-3:
2 y2 4 t y 1 3 2
= e t (3)
t 4 2
2 y 2 4 t 1
= e (4)
y 4 t
2
2 y 2 4 t 1 2y
= e (5)
y 2 4 t 4 t
98
When the results in Eqs. 3 and 5 are inserted into Eq. 12.1-3 it is found
that the equation yields an identity. Therefore, Eq. 12.1-8 does satisfy
the differential equation.
Eq. 12.1-8 also satisfies the boundary conditions at y = 0 and
y = , as may be seen from Fig. 4.1-2. At t = 0 , Fig. 4.1-2 tells us that
= 0.
[Note: Here, and elsewhere we have made use of the Leibniz formula
for differentiating an integral. For additional information and anec-
dotes regarding the Leibniz formula see R. P. Feynman, Surely You're
Joking Mr. Feynman, Bantam Books, New York (1986), p. 72 and p. 93.
Professor Feynman was a Nobel Prize winner in physics.]
99
Note to p. 377
( 1)n exp n +( ) (
2 cos n + 12 )
2
= 2 1
(1)
n=0 (n + ) 1
2
2
= 1 ( 1)
erfc
n + 12 12
n (
+ erfc
)
n + 12 + 12
( ) (2)
n=0
a. Solution in Eq. 1:
When Eq. 1 is substituted into Eq. 12.1-14, we get by
differentiating the exponential once with respect to and the cosine
twice with respect to
( 1)n
(
exp n + 12 ) 2 cos n + ( ) (n + ) 2 =
2 2
2 1 1
n=0 (n + ) 1
2
2 2
( 1)n
(
exp n + 12 ) 2 cos n + ( ) (n + )
(n + )
2
2 1 1 1
n=0 (n + ) 1
2
2 2 2
(3)
and this is clearly an identity, so that the partial differential equation
is satisfied.
When is set equal to zero and = 1 in Eq. 1, we get
( 1)n
1 = 2
n=0 (n + )
1
(
cos n + 12 ) (4)
2
100
We have to prove that this is an identity. To do this, multiply both
( )
sides by cos m + 12
and integrate over from –1 to +1:
( 1)n
+1
1 cos m + ( 1
2 ) d = 2 (n + )
n=0
1
+1
1 ( ) (
cos m + 12 cos n + 12 d )
2
(5)
Then performing the integrations we get
( 1) +1 cos2 n + n
( ) ( ) d
1 +1
sin m + 1
= 2 mn 1
1
( m + 12 ) 2 1
n=0 n + 2
1
( ) 2
or
( 1) m
(
2
m + 12
sin
)
m + 1
2
= 2 (
m + 12
) ( )
(7)
(
n + 12 12 ) n + 1 1 2
( )
erfc =
2
exp
2 2
n + 1 1 1 3 2
2 ( ) ( )
2 2
(8)
( ) n + 1 1 1
( )
2
n + 12 12
erfc =
2
exp
2 2
2 (9)
2 (
n + 12 12 2 ) n + 1 12
exp
( )
2 2
erfc =
2
101
( )
n + 1 1 1 1
2 2 2
2 2
(10)
Thus, the nth term satisfies the partial differential equation, and
hence the entire series does.
At = 0 , all of the complementary error functions are zero, so
that = 1 , and the initial condition is satisfied.
At = ±1 , = 0 as may be seen as follows. First consider
= +1 :
0 1 1 2 2 3
= 1
erfc + erfc
erfc + erfc +
erfc + erfc
(11)
Hence there is cancellation of between the nth and (n + 1)th terms,
and, since erfc 0 = 1, the dimensionless temperature is zero. A similar
argument can be made for = 1 .
102
Note to p. 379
k (T0 T ) = q0 y e
2 y
cos t y dy (1)
2
T T0 =
q0
k
2 y
y e {
e
i ti 2 y
}dy
=
q0
k { 2 y i 2 y
e i t y e dy }
q0
i t e (1+i ) 2 y
= e
k
(1 + i ) 2
y
q0 i t e (1+i ) 2 y
= e (2)
k
(1 + i ) 2
Next we remove from the braces that portion of the exponential that
is real; we also multiply numerator and denominator by (1 i ) . Then
we have
q e i t e i 2 y (1 i )
2 y
T T0 = 0 e
k 2 2
q 2 2 y
= 0
2k
e {
e i t e
i 2 y
}
(1 i ) (3)
103
In order to proceed, we need to rewrite (1 i ) in the form re i . Then
we find r and as follows:
r sin 1
= or tan = 1 or = 34
, 14
(7,8,9)
r cos 1
r2 = 2 or r=± 2 (11)
1 i = 2e i
4
(12)
T T0 =
q0
2k
2 2 y
e {
2e i t
i 2 yi 4
}
q 2 y
= 0
k
e (
cos t 2 y 14 ) (13)
104
Note to p. 386
The derivation of Eq. 12.3-6 from Eq. 12.3-5 is given here. First
we note that, if z = x + iy = re i , then
ln z = ln r + i = ln x 2 + y 2 + i arctan ( y x ) (1)
Now we have to resolve Eq. 12.3-5 into its real and imaginary parts.
We introduce the abbreviated notation Z = z b , X = x b , and
Y = y b . Then
1 sin Z 1 1 sin ( X + iY ) 1
w= ln = ln + i
sin Z + 1 sin ( X + iY ) + 1
= ln
( 2 2
)
1 sin X cosh Y 1 + cos X sinh Y + 2i cos X sinh Y
2 2
(2)
(sin X cosh Y + 1)2 + (cos X sinh Y )2
In going from the third to the fourth line, we have multiplied the
numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the
denominator.
The imaginary part of the expression in Eq. 2 is then
105
1 2cos X sinh Y
= arctan
sin X cosh Y 1 + cos X sinh Y
2 2 2 2
2 2
1 ( cos X sinh Y )2
1 2 tan A
arctan (3)
1 tan A
2 cos X 2 cos
x b
= arctan = arctan (4)
sinh Y
sinh
y b
106
Note to p. 388
Here we work through the missing steps to get the result in Eq.
12.4-16. We begin by evaluating the integral in the first term on the
right side of the equals sign in Eq. 12.-4-4 (the second term is zero,
because ve = v = a constant in this problem):
vx vx
v x ( v vx ) dy = v2 ( x )
0
1
0 v 1
v
d (1)
v x ( v vx ) dy
0
( )(
= v2 ( x ) 0 2 2 3 + 4 1 2 + 2 3 4 d
1
)
= v ( x ) ( 2 4 )
1
2
0
2
2 3 + 9 4 4 5 4 6 + 47 8 d
(
= v2 ( x ) 1 43 12 + 95 32 74 + 12 19 )
= v ( x )(
2
315+56718035
315 )= 37
315
v2 ( x ) (2)
Ĉp vx (T T ) dy
0
vx T T
= Ĉp v (T T0 ) T ( x )
0
1
v T T dT
0
vx T T0 T0 T
= Ĉp v (T T0 ) T ( x )
0
1
v T T T T dT
0 0
107
vx T0 T
= Ĉp v (T T0 ) T ( x )
0
1
v 1
T T dT (3)
0
Ĉp vx (T T ) dy
0
(
= Ĉp v (T T0 ) T ( x ) 0 2T 2T3 3 + T4 4
1
) (1 2 T )
+ 2T3 T4 dT
= Ĉp v (T T0 ) T ( x ) ( 2
15
140
3
3 + 180
1
4 ) (4)
2 μ v 37 d
= v2 (5)
315 dx
2k (T T0 )
T
= ( 2
15
140
3
3 + 180
1
)
4 Ĉp v (T T0 )
d
dx T
(6)
(7,8,9)
and Eq. 6 for T ( x ) may also be solved:
2k (T T0 )
T
= ( 2
15
140
3
3 + 180
1
)
4 Ĉp v (T T0 )
d
dx T
(10)
d 1 2k
T T = (11)
dx ( 2
15
140
3
3 + 180
1
4 Ĉp v )
108
T 2 x
0 T d T = 0 dx (12)
( 2
15
140
3
3 + 180
1
4 ) v
4 x
T = (13)
( 2
15
140
3
3 + 180
1
4 ) v
T 4 ( 37 1260 )
= = (14)
( 2
15
140
3
3 + 180
1
4 ) μ
Squaring both sides and collecting all the terms on the left side, we
find:
35 1
k 1
2
140 + 180 =
3 3 5 1 6
Pr= = (15)
15
315 Pr μ
Ĉp Ĉp μ k
For large Prandtl numbers, we can drop all but the lead term on the
left side and get
109
Note to p. 413
The object here is to fill in the missing steps between Eq. 13.4-11
and Eq. 13.4-16. First we multiply Eq. 13.4-11 by
d ( ) d
t
1 + = C0 (1)
d d
( )
d
t
= C0
0 d + C1 C0 I ( ) + C1
1 + (2)
d
d C0 I ( ) C1
= + (3)
( )
d 1 + (t ) 1 + (t )
( )
A second integration with respect to gives:
= C0 0
()
I
d + C1 0
1
d + C2 (4)
(
1 + ( )
t
) (
1 + ( )
t
)
in which we must remember that ( ) is now a function of . If next
t
110
( , ) = C0 + C0 0
()
I
d + C2 (5)
t
(
1 + ( )
)
Next, apply the boundary condition at
= 1 :
1 = C0
()
I
= C0 I (1) or C0 = I (1)
1
(6)
t
(
1 + ( )
=1 )
inasmuch as ( ) is zero at the wall. Next we want to get the driving
t
1 ()
I
0 0 d d
0 b = C0 0
1 I ( )
d C0
(
1 + ( )
t
)
1 + ( )
t
( ) 1
0 d
I ( ) ()
( ) 1 + ( ( ) ) d
1 C0 1 1 I
= C0 0 d d (7)
(
1 + ( )
t
) I (1) 0
t
()
C0 1
I ( 1) 0 ( 1
0 d 0 d
) ( )
1 +
I
(t )
d
I ()
=
C0 1
I (1) I
() d
I (1 ) 0 1 + ( )
t
( )
111
I ( ) I ( )
2
1 C 1
= C0 0 d + 0 0 d (8)
(
(
1+
t)
) I (1 )
1+
(
(
t)
)
The first term in Eq. 8 above just cancels the first term in Eq. 7, and
hence we are left with:
I ( ) I ( ) I (1)
2 2
C 1 1
0 b = 0 0 d = 0 d (9)
(
I (1) 1 + ( t )
) 1+
( ( t)
)
112
Note to p. 415
( ) F
(t ) F
(t ) 1
t
F + = r (1)
z r z z Pr(t ) r r r
(
make the change of variables
= r z and = ( ) w z , and further
t
)
let ( r, z ) = ( , ) = f ( ) , so that
1 f 1
= + = + 0 = (2)
r r r z z
r
( ) f r
t
f
= + = 2 + = 2 2
z z z z
w
z
z
(3)
Substitution of these expressions into Eq. 1 gives
( ) F f 1 (t ) F f r f
t
F
z z z z 2
2 z
( ) 1 f 1
t
= (t )
2 (4)
Pr
z
F f 1 1 f
F
[ f ] + ( F ) f + =
Pr(t )
(5)
113
On the left side, the terms involving F f cancel, and the equation
may be rewritten as follows:
1 d 1 1 f
( Ff ) = (t )
(6)
Pr
f
Pr( ) Ff =
t
+C (7)
f ( ) C32 2
= Pr ( )
F
d = Pr( ) 0
t
d = Pr( ) ln 1 + (C )
t t 2
0
1
ln
f (0)
(C )
2 4 3
1+ 1
4 3
(8)
or, taking the antilogarithm of both sides
2Pr( )
f ( )
t
= 1 + (C )
2
1
(9)
f ( 0 ) 4 3
When this result is compared with Eq. 5.6-21 for the velocity profile
in a circular jet, and use is made of the definition in Eq. 13.5-8, we
obtain finally
Pr( )
t
vz
= (10)
max vz ,max
114
Note to p. 454
Verify that Eq. 15.1-1 can be obtained from Eq. 11.1-9 by the method
described on p. 454.
We start by integrating Eq. 11.1-9 over the volume of the flow
system shown in Fig. 7.0-1:
V (t) t ( 2 v
1 2
+ Û +
)
ˆ dV =
V (t)
( ( 1
2
v 2 + Û +
ˆ v dV))
(
V (t ) ( q )dV
V ( t ) ( pv )dV
V (t ) [ v ] dV ) (1)
We next apply the Leibnitz formula to the left side of the equation
and the Gauss divergence theorem to the right side:
dt V (t )
( 1
2 )
ˆ dV
n
v 2 + Û + S(t ) ( ( 1
2
v 2 + Û +
ˆ v dS
S ) )
( (
=
S(t ) n 1
2
v 2 + Û + ))
ˆ v dS ( n q )dS
S(t )
( )
S( t ) ( n pv )dS S(t ) n [ v ] dS (2)
The integral in the first term on the left side is the total energy
(kinetic + internal + potential energy). The second term on the left
side can be combined with the first term on the right side. Thus we
get
d
dt
( ( (
Ktot + Utot + tot ) =
S t n 12 v 2 + Û +
()
ˆ ( v v ) dS
S ) )
S t ( n q )dS S t ( n pv )dS S t n [ v ] dS
() () () ( ) (3)
115
plane; therefore, at the entry ( n v ) = v , and at the exit ( n v ) = +v .
We make the further assumption that the internal energy and the
potential energy are constant over the cross section. Then when the
integration over the cross sectional area is performed we get:
S(t ) n ( ( 1
2
v 2 + Û + ) )
ˆ ( v v S ) dS
= 12 1 v13 S1 + 1Û1 v1 S1 + 1
ˆ v S
1 1 1
12 2 v23 S2 + 2Û 2 v2 S2 + 2
ˆ v S
2 2 2 (4)
The second term on the right side (the q-term) is the integral
over all surfaces of the normal component of the heat flux vector and
is thus the rate of total heat addition to the system, Q:
S
f +Sm +S1 +S2
(n q)dS = Q (5)
S
1 +S2
(n pv )dS = p1 v1 S1 p2 v2 S2 (6)
S
f +Sm
(n pv )dS = Wmp (7)
This term is the rate that pressure does work on the system at the
moving surfaces Sm ; there is no work done at the fixed surfaces S f ,
inasmuch as the rate of doing work is a force times a velocity, and at
S f the surface velocity is zero.
The fourth term on the right (the -term) is evaluated similarly
to the p-term. First the contributions at surfaces S1 and S2 are
considered, but it is assumed that these will be small compared to the
116
pressure terms in Eq. 6. On the solid surfaces there will be a
contribution similar to that for the pressure forces on the moving
surfaces:
S
f +Sm
(n [ v ])dS = W
m (8)
d
dt
( (
Ktot + Utot + tot ) = 12 1 v13 + 1Û1 v1 + 1 )
ˆ v S
1 1 1
(
12 2 v 23 + 2Û 2 v2 + 2 2 2 )
ˆ v S +Q+ W
2 m
(
+ p1 v1 S1 p2 v2 S2 ) (8)
d
dt
( (
Ktot + Utot + tot ) = 12 1 v13 + 1 Ĥ1 v1 + 1 )
ˆ v S
1 1 1
(
12 2 v 23 + 2 Ĥ 2 v2 + 2 2 2 )
ˆ v S +Q+W
2 m (9)
117
Note to p. 494
(e) 2 c 2 h 1
q(b ) =
e
0 qb d =
0 5 e ch KT 1
d (1)
5
1 KT ch 1
2 c h 5 d = 2 c h x 5 2 dx
2 2
ch KT x
2
( KT )
4
= 2 3
c h
( x ) dx
3
(2)
2
( KT )
4
x3
q(b ) =
e
2 3
c h
0 ex 1
dx (3)
(
e x 1 = 1 + e x + e 2x + e 3x + 1 ) (4)
2
( KT ) 2
( KT ) 1 2
( KT )
4
4 4 4
0 3 nx
x e dx = 6 4 = (5)
c 2 h3 n=1 c 2 h3 n=1 n c 2 h3 15
118
On p. 171 of Planck's book, The Theory of Radiation, Dover, New York
(1959), which is a translation of Vorlesungen über die Theorie der
Wärmestrahlung, 5th edition, Barth, Leipzig (1923), the Stefan-
Boltzmann equation is obtained as shown above. However, Planck
did not evaluate the summation in Eq. 5 exactly. Instead, he simply
evaluated the sum numerically as:
1 1 1
=1+ + + + = 1.0823 (5)
24 34 44
2 5K4
= (6)
15 c 2 h3
5
( e) 2 c 2 h 1 KT x 5
qb = = 2 c h x
2
(7)
5
e ch KT 1 ch
e 1
5
dq(b )
e
2 KT 5x
4
x5 e x
= 2
c h (8)
ch e x 1 e x 1
( )
2
dx
Then setting the derivative equal to zero gives the value of x at which
the maximum in the q(b ) curve occurs:
e
119
xmax e xmax
5 =0 (9)
e xmax 1
whence
(
xmax = 5 1 e xmax ) (10)
from which one can find, by trial and error, xmax = 4.9651... , or
maxT = 0.2884 cm K . This is Wien's displacement law.
120
Note to p. 529
We want to verify that Eq. 17.4-4, Eq. (I) of Table 17.8-1, and Eq.
(E) of Table 17.8-2 are dimensionally consistent.
If we put the dimensions of the quantities into the equation
instead of the mathematical symbols (and omit the numerical factors)
we get:
L2 M
t Lt
1
(a) = (1)
ML2 L
t 2 T (T )
moles moles L
(b) 2 = (2)
Lt L3 t
M L M L2 1
(c) 3 t = 3 t L (3)
L L
In each case, the dimensions on the left side are the same as the
dimensions on the right side.
121
Note to p. 534
MA
A = M + xA ( MB MA ) xB (1)
M2
Next use Eqs. (M) and (J) of the table, written for a binary system:
MA
A = ( x A MA + xB MB ) + x A ( MB MA ) ( x A )
( xA MA + xB MB ) 2
(2)
Within the bracket, the terms xA MA cancel each other, and the
remaining terms may be combined, since xA + xB = 1 . We are then left
with:
MA MB
A = + xA (3)
( xA MA + xB MB ) 2
122
Note to p. 535
Here we want to verify that Eq. 17.7-4 can be derived from Eq.
17.7-3 using the relations in Tables 17.7-1 and 2.
First we transform the last term in Eq. 17.7-3 into the analogous
term in Eq. 17.7-4, with a multiplying factor:
(
D AB A = ( cM ) D AB MA MB M 2 xA )
= cD AB xA ( MA MB M ) (1)
A ( v A v ) = ( c A MA ) v A ( A v A + B v B )
= ( c A MA ) B ( v A v B ) = (c A MA ) ( xB MB M ) ( v A v B )
(
= ( c A MA ) ( MB M ) v A ( xA v A + xB v B ) )
= cA ( v A v * ) ( MA MB M )
(2)
jA = A ( v A v ) JA = c A ( v A v * ) (3a,b)
which are given in Eqs. (E) and (I) of Table 17.8-1. It remains, then, to
verify that
jA = JA ( MA MB M ) (4)
123
jA = JA ( M ) ( MA M ) ( MB M ) = JA ( c ) ( A x A ) ( B xB ) (5)
Here Eqs. (G) and (O) of Table 17.7-1 have been used. The result in
Eq. 5 may also be written thus:
jA JA
= (6)
A B cx A xB
124
Note to p. 547 (i)
0 ( xB2 xB1 ) d
1
( xB2 xB1 )
1
xB,avg
= = (1)
xB1 1
ln ( xB2 xB1 )
0 d 0
cD AB x x cD AB xB2
NA =
B2 ln B2 = ln (4)
z= z1
z2 z1
xB1 xB1 z2 z1 xB1
=0
Next we obtain the solution for very small values of xA1 and xA2 :
125
cD AB ( xA1 x A2 ) ln (1 xA2 ) (1 xA1 )
NA =
z= z1
z2 z1 (1 xA2 ) (1 xA1 )
cD AB
= ln (1 xA2 ) ln (1 x A1 )
z2 z1
=
cD AB
z2 z1 (
xA2 1 xA2
2
2
1 3
3
x A2 + x ) (
A1 + 1 2
2
x A1 + x
1 3
3 A1 )
= 1+ 2
2
(
cD AB ( xA1 xA2 ) 1 xA1 xA 2
2
+3
1
3
x A1 ) (
xA2
3
+
)
z2 z1
( A1 A 2 ) ( A1 A2 )
x x x x
cD AB ( xA1 xA2 )
=
z2 z1 2 3 (
1 + 1 ( xA1 + xA2 ) + 1 x A1
2
+ x A1 x A2 + x )
2
A2 +
(6)
The Taylor expansion in Eq. C.2-3 has been used for expanding the
logarithms in line 2.
126
Note to p. 547 (ii)
xB xB2 z z1
= in which = (1,2)
xB1 xB1 z2 z1
xB
= 1 ( ) + (3)
xB1
xB xB2 d xB2
=
xB1 xB1
+
d xB1
( 0) +
=0 =0
x
= 1 +
1 ln B2 1 + (4)
xB1
ln x = ( x 1) 12 ( x 1) + 13 ( x 1) ( x 1) 4 +
2 3 1
4
(5)
Therefore,
127
xB x
1 x
2
1 x
3
= 1 + B2
1 B2
1 + B2
1 + + (6)
xB1 xB1 2 xB1 3 xB1
If xB2 is only slightly greater than xB1 (which would be the case if
species A is present only in a small amount), then we need retain
only the first term inside the bracket. The final result is then:
xB x
= 1 + B2 1 (7)
xB1 xB1
d 2 xA
=0 (8)
dz 2
d 2 xB
=0 (9)
d 2
xB x
= 1 + B2 1 (10)
xB1 xB1
128
Note to p. 555
d sinh (1 )
( )
= (1)
d cosh
d2
=
( )
cosh (1 )
+ 2
(2)
d 2 cosh
129
Note to p. 557
Here we show that Eq. 18.4-18 can be rearranged into a simpler form.
First we put the expression in the large parentheses over a common
denominator
sinh + (V S ) cosh
N = (3)
cosh + (V S ) sinh
As (V S ) 0 , N tanh , and as (V S ) , N coth .
130
Note to p. 563 (i)
f
z
1
= 4 exp 3
3 () z
( )
=
1
( )
( )( )
4
exp 3 13 yz 4 3 ( a 9D AB )
13
(1)
3
f f
y
1
= 4 exp 3
3 () z y
( )
1
= 4 exp 3
3 y () ( )
=
1
( )
( )
4
exp 3 ( a 9D AB z )
13
(2)
3
2 f
y 2
=
1
( )
4
( )
exp 3 ( a 9D AB z )
13
( 3 ) ( a 9D z )
2
AB
13
(3)
3
( )
ay + 13 yz 4 3 ( a 9D AB )
13
( )
= D AB +3 2 ( a 9D AB z )
23
(4)
ay 2
= 3D AB y 2 ( a 9D AB z ) (5)
3z
131
Note to p. 563 (ii)
c A0 3
( )
cA =
e d (1)
4
3
c A D AB c A0 d 3 d
N Ay = D AB = e (2)
y=0 y y=0 ()
43
d dy
y=0
Note that only the third term in Eq. C.3-2 contributes to the
derivative (i.e., the term involving the lower limit of the integral):
D AB c A0 3 a
13 13
N Ay
y=0
=
43
e
()
(
9D AB z
) =
D AB c A0 a
43 9D AB z
(3)
()
=0
Then the total molar flow across the surface of width W and
length L is given by the integral over that surface:
13
W L D c a L
WA = 0 0 N Ay dzdx = AB4 A0 W 0 z 1 3 dz
y=0 9D ()
3 AB
L
D c a
13
z2 3 2D AB c A0 WL a
13
= AB4 A0 W 0
= (4)
9D ()
3 AB
2
3
4
3
43 () 9D L
AB
132
In the last step, Eq. C.4-4 can be used to replace 4
3
( ) by ( ) to
4
3
7
3
agree with Eq. 18.6-10.
133
Note to p. 565
r c k1aR 2
= ; = A ; = (1,2,3)
R c AR DA
Then the differential equation in Eq. 18.7-6 and the solution in Eq.
18.7-9 may be rewritten as:
1 d 2 d 1 sinh
= 2 ; = (4,5)
d d
2
sinh
d 1 sinh cosh
= 2 + (6)
d sinh sinh
d sinh cosh
2 = + (7)
d sinh sinh
Division by 2 gives:
1 d 2 d 1 sinh
= 2 (9)
d d
2
sinh
134
But the right side of the equation is just , according to Eq. 5. We
have therefore shown that the differential equation is satisfied.
135
Note to p. 584
Here we show how to get Eq. 19.1-15 from the preceding equations.
Start with Eq. 19.1-10, and let c = cx , so that we get
x c
c + x = (
N ) + R (1)
t t
x N
c
t
+ x (
cv * ) R = ( N ) + R
+ (2)
=1
x
( )
N
c x (
cv *) + (
c v *) =
J + R x R
(3)
t =1
------------------------------
x ( cv *) + ( c v *) = x ( cv *) + ( x cv *)
= x ( cv *) + ( x cv *) + ( cv * x )
= c ( v * x ) (4)
The last two terms in Eq. 19.1-17 for a binary system are obtained thus:
RA xA ( RA + RB ) = (1 xA ) RA xA RB = xB RA xA RB (5)
because for a binary system N in the upper limit of the sum is 2, there
being just two components, A and B.
136
Note to p. 585
dc A d 2 cA
v0 = D AB k1c A (1)
dz dz 2
( )
v
a = 1 + 1 + 4D AB k1 v02
0
2D AB
(4)
( )
v z
c A = exp +1 1 + 4D AB k1 v02 0
2D AB
(5)
137
Note to p. 589
It is desired to show how to obtain Eq. (H) of Table 19.2-4 from Eq.
(E).
We move the ( q) term to the left side of the equation and
then perform mathematical operations on the new left side. First we
use Eq. 3.5-4 to rewrite the new left side as:
DĤ
Dt t
( )
+ ( q ) =
Ĥ +
vĤ + ( q ) (1)
N
( )
N H
DĤ
+ ( q ) = c H + vĤ ( kT ) + j (2)
Dt t =1 =1 M
Here we have also used the relation Eq. 19.3-9 to rewrite the first
term on the right side. Next we combine the second and fourth terms
on the right side to get
DĤ N N
+ ( q ) = c H + vcH + J H ( kT )
Dt t =1
=1
N N N
= c H +
v c H + J H (
k T ) (3)
t =1
=1 =1
DĤ N N
+ ( q ) = c H + N H ( kT ) (4)
Dt t =1 =1
138
Note to p. 590
( )
N H
e = Û + v v kT +
1
2
2
M j + pv + [ v ] (1)
=1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
We next move terms (c) and (d) to the left, and terms (b) and (f) to the
right:
( )
N H
e = kT + M j + Û + pV̂ v + 12 v 2 v + [ v ] (2)
=1
(c) (d) (a) (e) (b) (f)
N H
e = kT + M j + Ĥv + 12 v 2 v + [ v ] (3)
=1
(c) (d) (a+e) (b) (f)
N H N
e = kT + M c H v + 12 v 2 v + [ v ]
j + (4)
=1 =1
(c) (d) (a+e) (b) (f)
139
j j + v n
+ c v = = = N (5)
M M M
N
e = kT + H N + 12 v 2 v + [ v ] (6)
=1
(c) (d+a+e) (b) (f)
Then, for systems in which terms (b) and (f) may be neglected, we
finally arrive at Eq. 19.3-6.
140
Note to p. 591
f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , xn ) = k f ( x1 , x 2 , x3 ,xn ) (1)
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) f ( xn )
+ + = k k1 f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,xn )
( x1 ) ( x2 ) ( xn )
(2)
where, on the left side, it is understood that by f we mean the
function f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , xn ) . It is understood that the function f
has continuous first partial derivatives. We now perform the
differentiations on the left side to get
f f f
x1 + x2 + xn = k k1 f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,xn ) (3)
( x1 ) ( x2 ) ( xn )
f f f
x1 + x2 + xn = kf ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,xn ) (4)
x1 x2 xn
141
H
n n =H (5)
n ( ) ,T ,p
or
n H =H (6)
nAVA + nBVB = V
c AVA + cBVB = 1
142
Note to p. 615
1 erf ( Z )
X= (1)
1 + erf
dX 1 2 ( Z )2
= e (2)
dZ 1 + erf
d2X 1 2 ( Z )2
= e 2 ( Z ) (3)
dZ2 1 + erf
When the derivatives in Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 are substituted into Eq. 20.1-
9, it is seen that the latter equation is satisfied.
Next we substitute the first derivative from Eq. 2 into Eq. 20.1-
10 to get:
1 x 1 2 ( Z )2
= A0 e
2 1 xA0
1 + erf Z=0
2
x e
= A0 (4)
1 xA0
(1 + erf )
143
Note to p. 622
d2 g dg
+ 2 =0 (1)
d 2 d
cA z
= 1 erf (2)
cA0
c A z
N Az0 = D AB = D AB c A0 erf
z z
4D AB 0 S ( t ) S (t )
dt
t 2
z=0
z=0
(3)
Use Eq. C.6-2 to differentiate the error function, and get
1 2
2
4D AB 0 S ( t ) S (t )
dt
t 2
N Az0 = +D AB c A0
1 2
D AB 1
0 S ( t ) S ( t )
dt
t 2
= c A0 (4)
t t
144
The complementary error function "erfc (...)" is defined in §C.6. We
now insert this function into Eq. 5:
2 2
MA = S ( t ) c A0 z / e d dz = S (t ) c A0 ( z ) d
2 2
0
0 0
e d
(6)
In the second form, the order of integrations over and z has been
interchanged. Now the integral over z can be performed to give
2 2 1
MA = S ( t ) c A0 d = S ( t ) cA0
2
0 e
2
(7)
1 4D AB
MA = S ( t ) c A0 4D AB 0 S ( t ) S ( t ) dt = c A0 0 S ( t )
t 2 t 2
dt
(8)
which is Eq. 20.1-73.
Another expression can be obtained from integrating Eq. 20.1-
72:
0 S ( t ) N Az0 ( t )dt
t
MA =
4D AB t S( t )
= c A0
0 dt (9)
0 S ( t ) S ( t )
t 2
dt
It is relatively easy to show that Eqs. 8 and 9 are the same. We first
note that the S ( t ) in the denominator can be removed from the
integral, so that Eq. 9 can be rewritten as
S ( t )
2
4D AB t
MA = c A0
0 dt (10)
0 S ( t )
t 2
dt
145
Then we make use of the fact that the square root in the denominator
contains no t and hence can be removed from the integral over t to
give
0 S ( t )
t 2
4D AB dt
MA = c A0
()
2
0 S t dt
t
4D AB
0 S ( t ) dt
t 2
= c A0
4D AB
0 S ( t )
t 2
= c A0 dt (11)
This is the same as Eq. 8. Proving that the two expressions for MA are
the same is a stronger statement than that the two expressions give
the same results for dMA dt .
This example is also a good illustration of the importance of
using a symbol for the dummy variable of integration that is different
from that used as one of the limits in the integral.
146
Note to p. 626
We want to verify that the limiting solutions for slow and fast
reactions in Eqs. 20.2-16 to 18 and 20.2-19 are correct.
1 4 d 3
= + 3 + 2 (1)
Sc 3 d
(
= Sc 1 3 1 + a1 + a2 2 + ) (2)
( ( )
2 = Sc 2 3 1 + 2a1 + a12 + 2a2 2 + ) (3)
3 = Sc 1 (1 + 3a + ( 3a + 3a )
1
2
1 2
2
+ ) (4)
1=
4
3
( ( ) ) (
3a1 + 2 3a12 + 3a2 2 + + 1 + 3a1 + 3a12 + 3a2 2 + ( ) )
(
+ Sc1 3 1 + 2a1 + a12 + 2a2 2 + ( ) ) (5)
Second power of : 0= 8
3 (a 3
1 ) ( )
+ 4a1 a2 2 + a13 + 4a1 a2 2 + 2Sc1 3 a1 2
or ( )
0 = 11 a12 + a2 + 2Sc1 3 a1
147
or 0 = 11 ( 1
49 ) (
Sc 2 3 + a2 + 2Sc1 3 17 Sc1 3 )
or a2 = + 539
3
Sc 2 3 (8)
= K m m<0 (9)
1 4
= ( 3m ) K 3 3m + K 3 3m + K 2 2m+1 (10)
Sc 3
The ratio of the last term to either of the first two terms is
proportional to m+1 , which is a positive quantity. For large , the
last term is the dominant term on the right side. Therefore Eq. 1
becomes
1
= 2 (11)
Sc
= ( Sc )
1 2
(12)
148
Note to p. 628
Example 20.2-2 is, for the most part easy to follow, except for the
steps going from Eq. 20.2-30 to Eq. 20.2-34. Here we provide those
missing steps.
First, we assume will be a function of alone. Then the
derivatives of with respect to x and y must be converted to
derivatives with respect to , using Eq. 20.2-33:
d
d v 1 3 2
d 1
x = x = y 2 x = d 2 x (1)
y
d y
d 2
d
d v d
y = = = (2)
x
d y x d 2
x d y
2
2
d v
d 2 v d 2
2 = y d 2
x = = 2
(3)
y x d 2
x d y
2
d 1 v0 ( x ) y
2
d
d 2
x 0 v d y v
d 2 y
v + dy = (4)
d 2 x v
d v ( x) y 2v
x d 1 d 2
v + 0 dy = (5)
d v
x 0 v
d d 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
149
Let us, therefore, proceed to an analysis of term (c). We begin
by replacing the integral over y by an integral over :
y 2
x
x 0 v
dy =
x 0 v
d
v
=
2v x
( d )
0 v
2
x
v x ( d )
0 v (6)
y
x 0 v
dy =
2v x
( d )
0 v
2
x d
v d 0
v d
y
v 1 3 2
x
2
2
2v x ( )
=
0
d v+
2v x v
(7)
y
x 0 v dy
2v x d
d
(
= 0 v d
d
)
d
+ v
d
d
(8)
( c1 ) ( c2 )
Thus, term c 2 cancels term a, and the remaining term appears in the
final equation for :
(K ( x)
0
)
v d
d 1 d 2
=
d d 2
(9)
150
43, which is obtained by setting d d = ( ) in Eq. 9 and then
solving the first-order differential equation for ( ) . One obtains
d
+ f = 0 (10)
d
d
d
(
= = C1exp 0 fd ) (11)
( ( ) )
( , , K ) = C1
0 exp
0 f , K d d + C2
(12)
( , , K ) =
(
( ) )
0 exp 0 f , K d d
exp ( f ( , K ) d ) d
(13)
0 0
151
Note to p. 692
Solid Liquid
Cs 1 2 Cs Cs
= 2 (1) = NCl (5)
=1
Cs = finite at = 0 (2)
Cs = Cl at = 1 (3)
Cs = 1 at = 0 (4)
Solid Liquid
1 d 2 dCs dCs
pCs 1 = 2 (6) = NCl (9)
d d d =1
Cs = finite at = 0 (7)
Cs = Cl at = 1 (8)
K1 K
Cs,cf = cosh p + 2 sinh p (10)
1
Cs,pi = (11)
p
K1 K 1
Cs = cosh p + 2 sinh p + (12)
p
152
The boundary condition in Eq. 7 requires that K1 = 0 . The boundary
condition in Eq. 8 requires that
1
Cs =1
= K 2 sinh p + = Cl (13)
p
(
NCl = K 2 sinh p + p cosh p ) (14)
1 N sinh p
Cs = (15)
p p p cosh p + ( N 1) sinh p
MA 1 1 N p x sinh x
= 0 Cs d = 2 0
2
dx
4 R 3 c0 3p p p cosh p + ( N 1) sinh p
1 N p x sinh x
= 2 0 dx
3p p p cosh p + ( N 1) p
p
1 N x cosh x sinh x
= 2
3p p p cosh p + ( N 1) sinh p
0
153
1 N Nsinh p
= 1
3p p 2 p cosh p + ( N 1) sinh p
1 N N2
= + (16)
3p p 2 p 2 p coth p + ( N 1)
MA 1 2 1 1
= N + N L (17)
4
R 3 c 0 3 p
2
( p coth p + ( N 1)
)
To get the inverse transform of the last term, we can use the
Heaviside partial fractions expansion theorem for repeated roots,
which is:
f ( p ) = N ( p ) D ( p ) with D ( p ) = ( p a1 ) ( p a2 )m ( p an )m
m1 2 n
If ,
N ( p ) is a polynomial of degree less than ( m ) 1 , and
j ai
ak for
i
k , then
n mk kl ( ak )
f (t ) = t mk l e akt
k=1 l=1 ( mk l ) ! ( l 1) !
d l1 N ( p ) D ( p)
with kl ( p ) = l1 and D ( p ) = .
dp Dk ( p ) ( p ak )
k mk
11 ( 0 ) 12 ( 0 )
t+ = 11 ( 0 ) + 12 ( 0 ) (18)
( 2 1) !(1 1) ! ( 2 2 ) ! ( 2 1) !
where
154
N2 N2
11 ( 0 ) = = = N (19)
p coth p + ( N 1) 1 + ( N 1)
p=0
d N2
12 (0 ) =
dp p coth p + ( N 1) p=0
= N 2
(
( d dp ) p coth p + ( N 1) ) =
1
(20)
(
p coth p + ( N 1) )
2
3
p=0
The contributions in Eqs. 19 and 20 just exactly cancel the first two
terms in Eq. 17.
The contribution from the remaining factor in L1 { } is
MA ( ) N ( p )
N ( ak ) + a
=
1
=L e k (21)
4 R c0 D ( p ) k= 2 D' ( ak )
3
e + ak
=N 2
k= 2 p2
( 1
2 )
p1 2 coth p 12 csch 2 p + 2p ( p coth p + ( N 1) ) p= ak
------------------------------
N ( p )
sinh 2 p 2
1
L
== 2N
2
e k
D ( p ) (
k= 2 p 2 p 1 2 sinh p cosh p 1
)
p= k2
155
i 2 sin 2 k i k 2
= 2N 2
e k
k= 2 ( )( i sin
4
k k cos k ik )
sin 2 k 2
= 2N 2
e k (22)
k= 2 ( )
k3 ( k sin k cos k )
Therefore, the total amount of A within the sphere is at any time t is:
MA ( t )
4
R 3 c0 n=1
(
= 6N 2 Bn exp n2D AB t / R 2 ) (23)
3
n cot n + ( N 1) = 0 (24)
N 2 sin 2 n
Bn = (25 )
n3 ( n sin n cos n )
For infinite N these last two expressions may be simplified. If, in Eq.
24, N is infinite, sin k must be zero, and therefore k must be n . If,
in Eq. 25, N
(
Bn 3
n cot n ) sin 2 n
2
n2
= 4 =
1
(26)
n ( n sin n cos n ) n (n )2
156
übertragung, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 3rd edition (1961), pp. 55-62.
157
Note to p. 766
in which
N
DÛ
= ( q ) ( :v ) + ( j g ) Table 19.2-4, Eq. D (2)
Dt =1
[Note footnote b to Eq. D!!]
DV̂ D 1 1 D 1
=
Dt Dt
= = +
( v ) Table 19.2-3, Eq. A (3)
2 Dt
D
= ( j ) + r Table 19.2-3, Eq. B (4)
Dt
DŜ 1 N
p
= ( q ) ( :v ) + ( j g ) + ( v )
Dt T =1
T
1 N G
T =1 M
(
( j ) + r )
1 N G
1 1 N G
= (
q)
T
(
j ) T (: v ) T M r
=1 M =1
1 N
+ ( j g )
T =1
158
1 N G
1
= q j q 2 T +
T =1 M T
N 1 G 1 1 1 N G
j g ( : v ) r (5)
=1 T M T T T =1 M
Comparison of Eq. 5 with Eq. 24.1-1 gives the entropy flux vector and
the entropy production rate (Eqs. 24.1-3 and 4):
1 N G
s = q j (6)
T =1 M
1
N 1 G 1
1 1 N G
gS = q
2 T j
g ( : v ) r
T =1 T M T T T =1 M
(7)
N
Next we rewrite Eq. 6 by replacing q by q( ) +
h
( H )
M j --that is,
=1
we subtract off the heat flux associated with the diffusion of the
chemical species. This gives us then for the entropy flux (Eq. 24.1-5):
1 ( h) N S
s = q j (8)
T =1 M
The entropy flux is now written as the sum of two terms: the first
term is the entropy flux associated with heat flow, and the second
term is that connected with diffusion of the chemical species. (For
N
more on the reasons for replacing q by q( ) + ( H )
h
M j , see S. R.
=1
de Groot and P. Mazur, Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics, North-
Holland, Amsterdam (1962), pp. 24-25.)
In order to rewrite the entropy production term, we make use
of the Gibbs-Duhem relation in the entropy representation (see H. B.
Callen, Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatics, Wiley,
New York (1985), pp. 60-62):
159
1 p N G
Ud + Vd n d = 0 (9)
T
T
=1 T
N H 1 1 N 1 G
T + p
=0 (10)
=1 M T 2 T =1 T M
Next, in Eq. 7, we add four terms inside the bracket in the second
term on the right side in such a way that the term is not changed:
1 G 1 H 1
p + 2 T
N j
1 T M T M T
gS = q 2 T
T =1
H 1 1 1 N
2 T g + g
M T T T =1
1 1 N G
T
( ) T M r
: v (11)
=1
The terms containing H clearly cancel one another, and the terms
containing p and g do not contribute to the sum, inasmuch as
j = 0 . Thus, Eq. 11 may now be rewritten as:
1 G 1 H 1
p + 2 T
N j T M T
h 1 M T
gS = q( ) 2 T
T =1 1 1 N
g + g
T =1
T
1 1 N G
( : v ) r (12)
T T =1 M
or
160
( ) j
1
N
1 N G
TgS = q( )
lnT
cRTd T ( : v ) T M r
h
=1 =1
(13)
The d are the generalized driving forces for diffusion . Note that the
above development guarantees that d = 0 , as is required, since
j = 0 . We can see that d = 0 , since the first three terms in the
bracket in the first line of Eq. 12 sum to zero according to the Gibbs-
Duhem equation, and the fourth and fifth terms clearly combine to
sum to zero.
The above development has led us to the expression for the
generalized driving forces for diffusion:
G N
cRTd = c T + c H lnT p g + g (14)
T
=1
To get the alternative form for d given in the second line of Eq. 24.1-
8, we follow the discussion of Ref. 5 on p. 766.
The quantities G , H , and p are functions of the state of a fluid
element, which may be described by the temperature T, the pressure
p, and the set of (N – 1) mole fractions x where = 1, 2,3, ... ( N – 1).
Then the first term in Eq. 14 may be written by expanding G using
the chain rule of partial differentiation to give:
G
c T = c G c G lnT
T
N 1 G
G
G
= c x x + c T + c p c G lnT
T
=1 p
N 1 G
= c x x c TS lnT + c V p c G lnT (15)
=1
161
When Eq. 15 is combined with Eq. 14, it is seen that the lnT terms
exactly cancel, and the p terms may be combined. Furthermore,
when the relation dG = RTdlna is used, we get finally
N 1
lna
N
cRTd = c RT
x + ( ) p g +
g
=1
lnx =1
T ,p,x
(16)
N 1 lna
x T ,p lna (17)
=1 lnx
T ,p,x
is used (this is just the chain rule applied to lna with the p and
T terms omitted). This notation has also been used by E. N.
Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena and Living Systems, Wiley, New York
(1974), Eqs. 1.2.7 and 12, on p. 163, and W. M. Deen, Analysis of
Transport Phenomena, Oxford University Press (1998), Eq. 11.6-2.
Deen, however, states that his treatment is for dilute mixtures. Both
of these authors, however, appear to have their summations going
from 1 to N (instead of 1 to (N – 1).
The discussion in Multicomponent Mass Transfer, by R. Taylor
and R. Krishna, Wiley, New York (1993), also uses essentially the
notation of Eq. 17 above, with the summation going from 1 to (N – 1)
as may be seen on pp. 23, 24, and 29 (their Eq. 2.3.10 is, aside from
some notational differences, the same as Eq. 16 above).
162
In Advanced Transport Phenomena, by J. C. Slattery, Cambridge
University Press (1999), p. 450, Eq. 8.4.3-4, gives a result that is
consistent with Eq. 16 above, although the notation is considerably
different from ours.
There is also a discussion of multicomponent systems in
Transport Phenomena Fundamentals, by J. L. Plawsky, pp. 66-69 (heat
flux) and pp. 69-73 (mass fluxes); however, no derivations of the
expressions are given.
Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes, by G. D. C. Kuiken,
Wiley, New York (1994), has a discussion of the driving force d on
p. 183.
163
Note to p. 767
jA = +
A ( D AAd A + D ABd B ) (1)
Use Eqs. (A) and (C) of Table 24.2-1 and the equation d A + d B = 0 (see
line 2 on p. 767), to eliminate the generalized Fick diffusivities in
favor of the Maxwell-Stefan diffusivities:
B2
jA = + A DABd A A B DABd A (2)
x A xB x A xB
A B
jA = D d (3)
xA xB AB A
Next use the second line of Eq. 24.1-8, omitting the terms for thermal
diffusion, pressure diffusion, and forced diffusion. This yields:
A B ln aA
Then, to obtain the molar flux of species "A" we use Eq. 17B.3-1 to get
the relation J*A = ( cxA xB
A B ) jA . Finally, combine this equation
with Eq. 4 and introduce the binary diffusivity D AB from Eqs. 24.3-2
and 4, to get:
This is the form of Fick's (first) law given in Eq. B of Table 17.8-2 for a
binary system.
164
Note to p. 768
j# N
= D d (1)
=1
x x j# j#
x x
(D )
N
= D d (2)
D D =1
x x j# j#
N
( )d
x x
D = D D
D
(3)
=1
x x j# j#
N
( )
N
D d = d (0) = d
= d = d
=1 =1
165
x x j# j#
or = d (4)
D
(D )
x x
D D = (5)
x x
D
(B )
= ( ) (6)
(D
)
D
+ D
= 0 or ( B ) +D = 0 (7)
166
Then we multiply Eq. 6 by B1 ( )
and sum on
to get:
x x
D
= B1
( )
(8)
and summing on
gives
( )
= D B1
(9)
x x
D ( adjB )
D = (10)
( adjB )
In the last step we have also made use of the fact that
(B ) = (adjB ) (det B )
1
(11)
167
Note to p. 769
x1 x2 +D12D33 D13D 23
= (4)
1 2 D12 + D 33 D13 D 23
In the last step, we have made use of the symmetry of the D .
168