VARIABLE
FREQUENCY
ROLF LINDEBORG
ITT Flygt AB, Sweden
Rolf Lindeborg, 52, grew up in Älvdalen,
a small city in the county of Dalecarlia,
Sweden.
In 1963, he moved to Stockholm. From
1974 to 1977, he studied at the Stockholm
Technical Institute. In 1977, he graduated
as an electro-technical engineer. He then
continued to study industrial electronics
majoring in drive systems at the Royal
Institute of Technology in Stockholm.
In 1985, he worked as a teacher in
electro-technology at the Solna high
school.
Mr. Lindeborg began his employment
with ITT Flygt in 1986, as head of the
motor test laboratory within the motor
design department.
Mr. Lindeborg is currently working in
the motor department with motor testing,
measurement methods, and technical
support for other departments.
SCIENTIFICIMPELLER
DRIVES ROLF LINDEBORG
Abstract • To achieve good manageability, efficiency, and energy economy in industrial
processes, it is necessary to resort to controllable drive systems. The typical drive system
nowadays is a squirrel-cage induction motor fed from a Variable Frequency Drive, or VFD.
The more recent generations of these variable speed drives perform very well and have few
complications. One complication of importance, however, is caused by the non-sinusoidal
output voltage. This circumstance has led to a number of undesirable consequences.
Increased motor losses, noise and vibrations, detrimental impact on the motor insulation
system, and bearing failure are examples of VFD-related problems. Increased motor losses
indicate a derating of the motor output power to prevent overheating. Tests in the Flygt
laboratory show that temperature rises may be as much as 40% higher with VFD compared
with conventional sinusoidal power grids. Ongoing intense research and improvement of
VFDs have solved many of the problems. Unfortunately, it seems that solving one problem
has accented another. Reducing the motor and VFD losses tends to increase the detrimental
impact on the insulation. The motor manufacturers are, of course, aware of this. New motor
designs (inverter-resistant motors) are beginning to appear on the market. Better stator-
winding insulation and other structural improvements promise motors that will be better
adapted for VFD applications.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the most serious objections to the squirrel-cage motor has been the difficulty of
adapting it to speed control.
The synchronous speed of an induction motor is determined by the following
equation.
120 · f
ns = (rpm) (1.1)
p
ns = synchronous speed
f = power grid frequency
p = pole number
The only way to change the speed, for a given pole number is to vary the frequency.
2. NOMENCLATURE
The Variable Speed Drive is known under several different names. One is Variable Speed
Drive (VSD). Others are Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD), and Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD). In this article, VFD is consistently used.
3. THE BASIC PRINCIPLE
In theory, the basic idea is simple, the process of transforming the stable power-line
frequency into a variable frequency is basically done in two steps:
1. The sinusoidal voltage is rectified into a DC voltage.
2. The DC voltage is chopped up into an AC voltage of the desired frequency. ➤
33 1998
A VFD basically consists of three blocks: the rectifier, the DC-link,
and the inverter.
Figure 1. Basic VFD configuration.
4. DIFFERENT TYPES OF VFDS
4.1. PWM Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
The PWM is widely used and dominates the VFD market. They
are available from a few hundred watts up to megawatts.
A PWM does not have to match the load exactly, it need only
ensure that the load does not consume more current than the
PWM is rated for. It is quite possible to run a 10-kW motor with a
50-kW PWM. This is a great advantage that makes operation
easier for the user.
Nowadays, the PWM’s inverter circuit is designed using fast
power transistors (IGBT). Modern PWMs perform very well, and
are not far behind designs using a sinusoidal power grid—at
least not in the power range up to 100 kW or so.
VSI – PW M
M non-sinusoidal voltage—more like a chopped square voltage. If
3 we supply a three-phase motor with a symmetrical three-phase
Figure 2. VSI circuit (PWM)
4.2. The Current Source Inverter (CSI)
The CSI is a rough and rather simple design compared with the
PWM. It uses simple thyristors or SCRs in the power circuits,
which makes it less expensive. It has also been judged to be very
reliable. The design makes it short-circuit proof because of the
large inductors in the DC link. It is bulkier than the PWM.
Earlier, the CSI was the best choice for big loads. A disadvant-
age with the CSI is the need of matching to the load. The VFD
has to be designed for the motor used. In fact, the motor itself is
a part of the inverted circuit.
The CSI supplies the motor with a square-shaped current. At
low speeds, the motor produces a cogging torque. This type of
VFD will generate more noise on the supply grid compared to
the PWM. Filtering is necessary.
Heavy voltage transients in the output voltage are an addi-
SCIENTIFICIMPELLER
tional disadvantage of the CSI. The transients can reach nearly
twice the nominal voltage in the worst cases. There is also a risk
that the winding insulation will be worn out prematurely, if this
VFD is used. This effect is most serious when the load does not
match the VFD properly. This can happen when running at part
load. This kind of VFD is losing its popularity more and more.
Conventional CSI
M
3
Figure 3. CSI circuit.
4.3. Flux Vector Control (FVC)
A FVC is a more sophisticated type of VFD that is used in applic-
ations having extreme control demands. In paper mills for
example, it is necessary to control speed and stretching forces
very precisely.
A flux-vector-controlled VFD always has some kind of feed-
back loop. This kind of VFD is generally of minor interest in
pump applications. It is expensive, and its benefits cannot be
taken advantage of.
5. EFFECT ON THE MOTOR
An induction motor operates best when supplied with a pure
sinusoidal-voltage source. This is mostly the case when connect-
ed to a robust utility grid.
When a motor is connected to a VFD, it will be supplied with a
square voltage, all the harmonics that are multiples of three, as
well as the even numbers, will be eliminated because of sym-
metry. But, still left are the numbers 5 ;7 and 11;13 and 17;19
and 23;25 and so on. For each pair of harmonics, the lower
number is reverse rotating and the higher number is forward
rotating.
The speed of the motor is determined by the fundamental
number, or number 1, because of its strong dominance. Now
what happens to the harmonics ?
From the point of view of harmonics, the motor seems to
have the rotor blocked, which means that the slip is approxi-
mately 1 for the harmonics. These provide no useful work. The
result is mostly rotor losses and extra heating. In our appli-
cation in particular, this is a serious outcome. With modern
technology, however, it is possible to eliminate much of the har-
monic content in the motor current, thereby reducing the extra
losses.
5.1. Early VFDs
The earliest VFDs often used a simple square voltage (see Figure 1)
to supply the motor. They caused heating-up problems and the
34 1998
 Switching frequencies up to 20 kHz are available for VFDs in
the medium-power range (up to some tens of kW). The motor
current with this type of VFD will be nearly sinus shaped. Figure
6 shows the motor current at 50 Hz for a pump fed from an ABB
ACS600 VFD.
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
At a high switching frequency, motor losses are kept low, but
losses in the VFD will increase. The total losses will become
higher at excessively high switching frequencies.

6. SOME MOTOR THEORY

The torque production in an induction motor may be expressed as

T = V· Γ ·B [Nm] (6.1)
Figure 4. Shown are the output voltage and the current in one V = Active rotor volume [m3]
phase from a 6-pulse inverter. Switch frequency = fbase. This type of Γ = Current per meter stator bore circumference
inverter provides a motor current far from sinusoidal-shaped. B = Flux density in the air gap

motors ran with a typical noise caused by torque ripple. Much E E

B = proportional to = (6.2)
better performance was achieved by simply eliminating the fifth ω 2·π·f
and the seventh. That was done through some extra switching of ω = angular frequency of the stator voltage
the voltage signal. E = induced stator voltage

Voltage/Frequency Ratio for Constant Torque and Square Torque

120
Field Weakening Range
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
80
Voltage %

60 Constant Torque
40
Square Torque
20

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 5. The output voltage and current from a 18-pulse inverter.

Switch frequency, about 200 Hz. This inverter provides a
Figure 7. Various torque characteristics.
considerably better motor current and thus smoother torque.
To obtain the best performance at various speeds, it becomes
5.2. VFD Today necessary to maintain an appropriate magnetization level for
Nowadays, the technique is more sophisticated and most of the the motor for each speed.
disadvantages are history. Development of fast power semicon- A range of various torque characteristics is shown in Figure 7.
ductors and the micro-processor has made it possible to tailor For the constant torque load, the V/F ratio must be constant. For
the switching pattern in such a way that most of the harmful the square torque load, a constant V/F ratio will result in excess-
harmonics are eliminated. ively high magnetization at lower speed. This will generate un-
Output Current from VFD Type ABB ACS 600
necessarily high iron losses and resistance losses (I2R).
Switching Frequency 11 kHz It is better to use a square V/F ratio. The iron losses and I2R-
60
losses are thus reduced to a level more acceptable for the actual
40 load torque.
20 If we look at Figure 7, we find that the voltage has reached its
0
maximum and cannot be increased above the 50-Hz base fre-
quency. The range above the base frequency is called the field-
-20
weakening range. A consequence of this is that it is no longer
-40 Current (A)
possible to maintain the necessary torque without increasing the
-60 current. This will result in heating-up problems of the same
Time (ms)
kind as with normal undervoltages run from a sinusoidal power
Figure 6. Motor current at 50 Hz, from an ABB ACS600 VFD, grid. The VFD’s rated current will likely be exceeded.
fswitch= 11 kHz. ➤
SCIENTIFICIMPELLER 35 1998
 7. RUNNING IN In order not to exceed 80°C, we have to reduce the shaft
power to
FIELD-WEAKENING RANGE
√ 1.3 · 300 = 263kW
THE 1
Sometimes, there is a temptation to run the pump at frequencies Preduced =
above the commercial power grid frequency in order to reach a The reduction can be achieved either by reducing impeller
duty point that would otherwise be impossible. Doing so calls for diameter or by speeding down.
extra awareness. The shaft power for a pump will increase with
the cube of speed. An overspeed of 10% will require 33% more 9. VFD Losses
output power. Roughly speaking, we can expect that the temper- When the total efficiency of a drive system is determined, the
ature rise will increase by about 75%. internal losses of the VFDs must be included. These VFD losses
There is, nonetheless, a limit to what we can squeeze out of are not constant and not easy to determine. They consist of a
the motor at overspeed. The maximum torque of the motor will constant part and a load dependent part.
drop as a function of 1/F in the field-weakening range.
Constant losses:
Cooling losses (cooling fan)—losses in the electronic circuits
Maximum Torque as Function of Speed and so on.
120 Load dependent losses:
Field Weakening Range
100 Switching losses and lead losses in the power semiconductors.
Maximum Torque %

80 T p= 1/F
60
VFD Losses as Function of Speed, at Cubic Load.
40 PWM with IGBT Switching Frequency= 3 kHz
97
20
Torque % 96
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

95
ETA VFD %

Frequency (Hz)
94

93 ETA 45 kW
Figure 8. Maximum torque drop in field-weakening range. ETA 90 kW %
92 ETA 260 kW %

It is obvious that the motor will drop out if the VFD cannot sup- 91
20

25

30

35

40

45

50

port it with a voltage that corresponds to that needed by the
torque.
8. DERATING
In many cases, the motor is run at maximum capacity from a
sinusoidal power grid and any extra heating cannot be tolerated.
If such a motor is powered from a VFD of some kind, it most
probably must be run at lower output power in order to avoid
overheating.
It is not unusual that a VFD for big pumps above 300 kW will
add extra motor losses of 25–30%. In the upper power range,
only a few of the VFDs have a high switching frequency: 500 to
1000 Hz is usual for the former generation of VFDs.
To compensate for the extra losses, it is necessary to reduce
the output power. Flygt recommends a general derating of
10–15% for large pumps.
Since the VFD pollutes the supply grid with harmonics, an
input filter sometimes is prescribed by the power company. This
filter will decrease the available voltage by typically 5–10%. The
motor will consequently run at 90–95% of nominal voltage. The
consequence is additional heating. Derating might be necessary.
Example
Assume that the output power for the actual pump motor is 300
kW at 50 Hz and the temperature rise is 80°C using a sinusoidal
power grid. Extra losses of 30% will result in a motor that is 30%
warmer. A conservative assumption is that the temperature rise
varies with the square of shaft power.
55
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 9. VFD efficiency curve.
Figure 9 shows the VFD efficiency as function of the frequency at
a cubic load for units rated at 45, 90, and 260 kW. The curves
are representative for VFDs in the power range of 50–300 kW;
with the switching frequency equaling about 3 kHz and with an
IGBT of the second generation.
10. EFFECTS ON MOTOR INSULATION
The output voltages from modern VFDs have a very short voltage
rise time.
dU = 5000V/µs is a common value.
dT
Such steep voltage slopes will cause undue stress in the insul-
ation materials of the motor winding. With short rise times, volt-
age in the stator winding is not uniformly distributed. With a
sinusoidal power supply, the turn-turn voltage in a motor wind-
ing is normally equally distributed. With a VFD on the other
hand, up to 80% of the voltage will drop across the first and the
second turn. Since the insulation between the wires constitutes a
weak point, this may prove to be hazardous for the motor. A
short rise time also causes voltage reflection in the motor cable.
In the worst case, this phenomena will double the voltage across
the motor terminals. A motor fed from a 690-volt VFD might be

SCIENTIFICIMPELLER 36 1998
exposed to up to 1 900 volts between phases.
The voltage amplitude depends on the length of the motor
cable and the rise time. With very short rise times, full reflection
occurs in a cable 10 to 20 meters in length.
To ensure function and ample motor life time, it is absolutely
necessary that a winding be adapted for use with a VFD. Motors
for voltages above 500 volts must have some form of reinforced
Might it be necessary to use insulated bearings in order to
prevent a zero-sequence current from finding its way to the
bearings?
Only when we have found all the answers, will we be able to
make intelligent decisions about the use of a VFD.

Gunnar Henriksson/ITT Flygt

insulation. The stator winding must be impregnated with a resin
that ensures an insulation free of bubbles or cavities. Glow dis-
charges often start around cavities. This phenomena will event-
ually destroy the insulation.
There are ways to protect a motor. Over and above a rein-
forced insulation system, it might be necessary to insert a filter
between the VFD and the motor. Such filters are available from
most well-known VFD suppliers.
A filter will typically slow down the voltage rise time from
dU = 5000V/µs to 500–600V/µs
dT

11. BEARING FAILURE

Breakdown of rotating machinery can often be related to bear-
ing failure. In addition to excessive heating, insufficient lub-
rication or metal fatigue, electric current through the bearings
may be the cause behind many mysterious bearing breakdowns,
especially with large motors. This phenomenon is generally
caused by nonsymmetry in the magnetic circuit, which induces
a small voltage in the stator structure, or by a zero sequence
current. If the potential between the stator structure and the
shaft unit becomes high enough, a discharge will take place
through the bearing. Small electric discharges between the
rolling elements and the bearing raceway will eventually dam-
age the bearing.
The use of VFDs will increase the probability of this type of
bearing failure occurring. The switching technique of a modern
VFD causes a zero-sequence current that, under certain circum-
stances, finds its way through the bearings.
The easiest way to cure this problem is to raise an obstacle for
the current. The usual method is to use a bearing with an insu-
lating coating on the outer ring.

12. CONCLUSIONS
The use of VFDs is not totally troublefree. Careful planning must
be done. There are a number of questions that must be sorted
out and solved during the design work. Will it be necessary, for
example, to limit the available shaft power to prevent excessive
heating? It may prove necessary to run at lower output power to
avoid this problem.
Will the motor insulation resist effects from the inverter? Is
filtering necessary? Modern, efficient inverters have detrimental REFERENCES
impact on the insulation due to high switching frequency and Thorborg Kjeld, Power Electronics, ISBN 0-13-686577-1.
short voltage-rise time. Persson Erik, Transient Effects in Application of PWM
Which maximum cable length can be used without produc- Inverter to Induction Motors, IEEE Trans. IAS, vol. 28 no. 5,
ing full voltage reflection? The voltage amplitude depends on september/oktober 1992.
both the cable length and the rise time. With very short rise
Lindeborg Rolf, Variable Frequency Drives, ITT Flygt, 1994.
times, full reflection will occur in cables 10 to 20 meters long.

SCIENTIFICIMPELLER 37 1998