Electromagnetic Waves‘Tue Bevy Tecernont Lanoratortes Seales PROBABILITS AND ITS ENGINEERING USES | By THomvron ¢, Fer ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS | By Tronrox C Ber TRANSMISSION NETWORKS AND W: Put ECONOMIC CONTROL OF QUALITY SR ANORRCrUgED PRODOCT WA Saewsurt, SLXCIROMECHANICAL TRANEDUCERS AND WAVE FILTERS By Warren P Mason Second Fd ton RHOMBIC ANTENVA DESIGN By A E Hanren. POISSON S EXPONENTIAL BINOMIAL LIMIT By EC Mouna ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES By 8, A, Seneunva NECROHK ANALYSIS AND FEROBAGK AMPLIFIER DESIGN By Henox cx W Boot CAPACITORS--THEIR USE IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS By M Brove TOF POURIER INTEGRALS FOR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS By Gxzorcz Camppert and Rona M Foster AlpLDD MATHEMATICS FOR ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS By sat ‘eNBUCTion EFFECTS IN TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS By LNG INDE THEORY AND DESIGN OF ELECTRON BEAMS By J R Prerce Second ton eT CRYSTALS A AND THEIR APPLICATION TO ULTRA sere awe Ml A OAS “By Joun C PRINCIPLES AND ‘APPLICATIONS OF StaeDE TRANSMISSION By Gzorat C borricrrm. TRAVELING WAVE TUBES By J _R. Prerce ELECTRONS AND WOU IN SEMICONDUCTORS By W ur aw Srocxter FERROMAGNETISM By R cranp M_Bozorra: THE DESIGN OF EXIT CHING CIRCUITS By Wituane Ke ster Arasrar E R rege end Sern H Was SPEECH AND HEARING IN. COMMUNICATION By Harvey Furtcren Second Edt on MODULATION THEORY Hy Havotn § Brack SWITCHING RELAY DESIGN By ROL Prex Jr and N Wacan TRANSISTOR TECHNOLOGY Volume I Fd ted by H E Bamerrs J TRANSISTOR TECHN ANSI: ECHNOLOGY Volume II Fé ted by F J Bosor TRANSISTOR TECHNOLOGY Volume IIL Ed ted b iF J Bonpi PHYSICAL ACOUSTICS AND THE PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS. By r Warren P Mason ‘HE PROPERTIES PHYSICS AND DESIGN OF SEMICO! DEVICES By J N Sue INDUCTOR _ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES By S. A. SCHELKUNOFF Member of the Technical Staff Beit Tevepnone Laporatonies, Inc, TENTH PRINTING GR, . D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, ING, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY TORONTO LONDON NEW YORKD VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC 120 Alexander Se , Princeton, New Jersey (Prancipat offite) 24 Voest 40th Street, New York 18, Neve Yorks D Vax Nostranp Cowrany, Lop 358, Kensington H gh Screet London, W 14, England D Vay Nosrranp Cowra (Canada), Lio 25 Holkager Road Toronto 16, Canada Corsmtonr © 1443, or D VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Ine. 41Y, RIGHTS RESERVED Tins bool or ans parts thereof mas rot be reproduce? tn any form withoet uritten rermision from the a thor ant p sbhsher Fast Published, Apnt 1943 Reprinted Fuly 1943, May 19th, Octabur 1945 February 1947, February 194) February 195t January 1956 No ember (957, March £960 PRINTED IV THE UNITED GTATES GF AMERICAPREFACE In the summer of 1942 it was my pleasure to give a course on Electro- magnetic Waves at Brown University in connection with its Program of Advanced Instruction and Research in Mechanics. There I not only enjoyed the opportunity to test this book in manuscript but, through generous arrangements made by the University, I was enabled to put it‘in final shape for publication. To the Officers of Brown University, and particularly to R. G. D. Richardson, Dean of the Graduate School, I am grateful for their interest in the book and for the facilities which they put at my disposal. As a whole, the book is an outgrowth of my research and consulting activities in Bell Telephone Laboratories. Its first draft was prepared in connection with courses of lectures in the Laboratories’ ‘ Out-of-Hour ” program. Courses were given in 1933-34 and 1934-35, for which the lectures were mimeographed under the title ‘“‘Electromagnetic Theory and Its Applications.” A third course was given in 1941-42, when the notes were revised under the present title “ Electromagnetic Waves.” If this book proves to be a “ practical theory ” of electromagnetic waves it will be largely due to my close association with experimentalists in the Bell Laboratories. Some credit for its final issuance is due to Dr. H. T. Friis who for years urged me to publish my notes. To Dr. M. J. Kelly and Dr. Thornton C. Fry I am grateful for arranging a leave of absence for my work at Brown University. I am particularly indebted to Miss Marion C. Gray for her invaluable assistance throughout the entire preparation of this book, S.A. S. New York, N. Y. January, 1943TO THE READER Since 1929 the opportunities for practical applications of electromagnetic theory have increased so spectacularly that a new approach has become almost a necessity. The old practice of working out each boundary value problem as if it were a new problem is being abandoned as repetitious and uneconomical because it fails to coordinate the various results. In the interest of unity, simplicity, compactness and physical interpretation, the con- ceptions of one-dimensional wave theory are being extended to waves in three dimensions and field theory is no longer considered as something apart from circuit and transmission line theories. All physical fields are three dimensional; but in some circumstances either two or all three dimensions are unimportant; then they may be “integrated out” and thus “concealed”; in the first case the problem belongs to “‘ transmission line theory” and in the second to “ network theory.” This suppression of some or all physical dimensions is analogous to the method of “ ignoration of coordinates ” in mechanics; and it may or may not involve approximations. It is a mistake to say that the circuit and line theories are approximate while only the field theory is exact. In fact in many important cases a three-dimensional problem is rigorously re- ducible to a set of one-dimensional problems. Once the one-dimensional problem has been solved in sufficiently general terms, the results can be used repeatedly in the solution of more general problems. This point of view leads to a better understanding of wave phenomena; it saves time and labor; and it benefits the mathematician by suggesting to him more direct methods of attacking new problems. Once these ideas are more generally disseminated, large sections of electromagnetic theory can be explained in terms intelligible to persons with elementary engineering education. The classical physicist, being concerned largely with isolated transmission systems, has emphasized only one wave concept, that of the velocity of propagation or more generally of the propagation constant. But the com- munication engineer who is interested in “ chains” of such systems from the very start is forced to adopt a more general attitude and introduce the second important wave concept, that of the impedance. The physicist concentrates his attention on one particular wave: a wave of force, or a wave of velocity or a wave of displacement. His original differential equa- tions may be of the first order and may involve both force and velocity; but wnm TO THE READER by tradition he dumnates one of these vanables, obtzins a second order differential equation an the other and calle at the ‘wave equation” Thus he loses sight of the interdependence of force and velocity waves and he does nat stress the difference whuch may ewst between waves mm different media even though the velocity of wave propagation 1s the same The engineer, on the other hand, thinks in terms of the original pair of wave equations and keeps constantly in mud this interdependence between force and yeloaty waves Jn this book I have injected the communication engineer's attitude into an orderly development of ‘ field theory If the modern theory of clectromagnetism were to be presented in four sdea) volumes, then the first volume would treat the subject broadly rather than thoroughly, with emphams on more elementary topics The second volume would be devoted to clectromagnetic Waves is passtve media free feom space charge, in this volume electris generators would appear merely as given data, either as electric intensities tangential to the boundaries of the “ generator regions ” or as given currents mside these regions Ancther yolume, on “ clectromechamical transducers,” would deal with interaction between mechanical and electrical forces and the final volume on “ space charge waves ’ would be devoted to phenomena in vacuum tubes The present book ts confined to the material which would properly belong to the second of these volumes hos intended as a textbook and for reference In vt a practicing engineer wll find basic theoretical information on radiation, wave propagation, wave guides and resonators Those engaged in. theorctical rescarch will find a stock of equations which may serve a5 a starting pont for further invest: gations Chapters 1 and 3, dealing with vector analysis and special functions, such as Bessel functions and Legendre fanctions, are intended for ready reference These chapters are brief because at 1s only necessary for the reader to be familar with the language of vectors and, in most cases, only elementary properties of the special fanctions are needed Chapter 2 deals with appheations of complex vanables to the theory of oscillanons and waves and Chapter 4 reviews the fandamental conceptions and equations Ele. ments of circuit theory are presented in Chapter 5, there the three-dsmen sional character of electromagnetic fields 1s suppressed and the discussion ts conducted in terms of resistance, inductance and capacitance Chapter 618 convemed with some general aspects of waves in fiee space, on wires, and m wave guides Its last few sections cover electrostatics and magnetostatics to the extent needed in wave theory The onc-dimcastonal wave theory 1s presented in great detail in Chapter 7 The following chapter treats the sumplest types of waves in free space and in wave guides Chapter 10 con- tains a more general systematic treatment of such waves Chapter 9 1sTO THE READER ix devoted to radiation from known current distributions and to the directive properties of antennas, antenna arrays and electric horns. Chapter I1 presents a recent antenna theory and, finally, Chapter 12 deals with certain impedance discontinuities in wave guides. There is enough material for an intensive six-hour course; the particular order adopted is best suited to students of communication engineering and microwave transmission. In the case of radio engineers, the first four sections of Chapter 8 may be followed by Chapter 9; and in the case of students of physics or applied mathematics these four sections may be followed directly by Chapter 10. For a shorter course the instructor will find it easy to select the material best suited to the needs of his students. THE AUTHOR.CONTENTS CHAPTER I. VECTORS AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS..........-.:2: seer seen 1.1 Vectors........... eee eee 1.2 Functions of position. ...cceceseee cette sence eter ee tee ner ee aaes 1.3. Divergence... .. cc cece cree cece e tere tener et ee ences nn eee 14 Line integral, circulation, curl. .... 6. eee eee eee eee eee ete eee 1.5 Coordinate systems. ........... cence te cree eet eee eee n ee ee eee 1.6 Differential expressions for gradient, divergence, curl............+.. 1.7 Differential invariants and Green’s theorems..........++.-sereeeee 1.8 Miscellaneous equations........ center c eee e eee ener eee eens ll. MATHEMATICS OF OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES...... te eeeeeeeee 2.1 Complex variables... 00... ccc eee eee eens weet e cence ee eee eens 2.2 Exponential functions.............- 2.3. Exponential and harmonic oscillations. ........- 24 Waves... ccc ccc cece eee eee ete ene 2.5 Nepers, bels, decibels 2.6 Stationary waves ........... . 2.7 Impedance concept... 2.2... 0. cee eee ete nee enaee 2.8 Average power and complex power. 2... eee ee ee teens 2.9 Step and impulse functions. 0.0.0... 0 eee cee eee ee ene 2.10 Natural and forced waves........ cn be wee eee e nen eee HI, BESSEL AND LEGENDRE FUNCTIONS. .........0. cece ceeee neces 3.1 Reduction of partial differential equations to ordinary differential EQUATIONS. 6 cee teen renee teen teen en eaeee 3.2. Boundary conditions.......... 3.3 Bessel functions......... 0c ccc eee eect cece tee eee te nee ee een eeeee 3.4. Modified Bessel functions 3.5 Bessel functions of order » + 4 and related functions .. oe 3.6 Spherical harmonics and Legendre functions........0.cceceeeeeees 3.7 Miscellaneous formulae... 0.0.0.0 cee cence ete cea teenees . iV. FUNDAMENTAL ELECTROMAGNETIC EQUATIONS.... ......... : 4.1 Fundamental equations in the MKS system of units..........005 ve 4.2 Impressed forces... cece cece ene cee cece nee eeeeeeenee nae ne 4.3 Currents across a closed surface.......0.cs.ccceesececucecerere 44 Differential equations of electromagnetic induction and boundary con- ROOTS eee cee tee eee ee tee rete ee eee e ete eee nee oe 4.5 Conditions in the vicinity of a current sheet. ...........0005 beveee 4.6 Conditions in the vicinity of linear current filaments........ tesweas 4.7 Moving surface discontinuities...... detec e teen eeeeeeenees : 48 Energy theorems 4.9 Secondary electromagnetic constantS.........esceseceuee vee eeere 4.10 Waves in dielectrics and conductors... ...000.ccceucecveseeeeees aut Polarization. ©... eee eee eee eet naseteeeeteaees Special forms of Maxwell’s equations in source-free regions ximm CONTENTS cartes AGE ¥ IMPEDORS, TRANSDUCERS, NETWORKS 7 $1 Impedors and networks 37 52° Transducers 104 £3 Treraned structares ‘10g $4 Chains of symmetne T networks 10 33 Chams of symmetne Il networks: WwW $6 Conuayous transmission I nes 12 S37 Filters 2 $8 Forced ascillatoas in as mple senes cirewt us $9 Natural onalistions im as mple series errcurt ug 310 Forced osciljac ons in as mple parailel crewe no $11 Expansion of ehe input impedance function yz VI ABOUT WAVES IV GENERAL 126 60 Introdyction 126 61 The field produced by 2 given distribution of currents im an infinite homogeneous medium 16 62 The field of an electric current element 13 63 Radianon from an tlectnie current element 133 64 The mutual mmpedance between two current elements and the mutual radiated power AW 65 Impressed curfents varying arbietanly with ume 8 66 Potential disrnbution of pertecely conduenng straight wires 140 67 Currencand charg: dsoibuvoa on infncely chun perfectly conducting, wires 2 68 Radiation from a wire energ zed at the center, et 69 The mutual impedance between two current loops, the impedance of at a 610 Rediuon from 2 emall plane loog carrying tn form current W 644 Transmission lines and wave gu des 143 612 Refleetron 156 613 The indact on theater we 614 The equivalence theorem. 138 618 Stanonary fields 159 616 Conditions in the viciat ¢s of simple and double layers of charge 160 617 Equivalence of an electric current boop and 2 magnetic double layer 162 618 Indaction and equivalence theorems for stacionary felds 164 419. Eotenual and capacitance cocficients of a system of conductors 165 620 Representanon of a system of condcrars by an eqavalent network ‘of capacitors 156 621 Energy theorems for stationary fields 468 622 The method of mages 169 62% Two-dimensional stationary Relds rr 624 The inductance of a system of parallel currents 176 625 Functions of complex vanables and stationary fields 9 VIt_ TRANSMISSION THEORY 188 70° Tntreduction 188 1 expressed forces and currents bs 22 Point soures 19 43° The energy theorem it 7% Rundamental sets of wave funztions for unsform lines 192 4.8 Characeerssue constants of unsform transmission lines 195 76 ‘The mpat ampedance iy 77 Transmssion lites as transducers 201 38 Waves produced by point sources 30) 79 Waves produced by arbucary d strsbutions of sources 204 710 Nonomform tzansmisnon knes ant 711 Calealauen of nonumform wave functions by svecessive approsuma ‘uons 207CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER . PAGE 7.12 Slightly nonuniform transmission lines. ......6...s0e sees eee eee 209 713 Reflection in uniform lines... .----.. esses eee eee ee tte eeeenee 210 7.14 Reflection coefficients as functions of the impedance ratio.......... 212 7.15 Induction and equivalence theorems for transmission lines... 0... eee 217 7.16 Conditions for maximum delivery of power to an impedance........ 218 7.17 Transformation and matching of impedances. .......6..00eseeeeee 219 7.18 Tapered transmission lines and impedance matching. 222 7,19 Transmission across a section of a uniform line..... 223 7.20 Reflection in nonuniform Jines... 6... 6s eee eee peeeeeeee een 226 .721 Formation of wave functions with the aid of reflection coefficients... 227 7.22 Natural oscillations in uniform transmission lines......6. cee eres 229 7,23 Conditions for impedance matching and natural oscillations in terms of the reflection coefficient. .... cc ssceseceecee tt eneterenn renee 232 7.24 Expansions in partial fractions... esse cree eee e ene e cece e eee ee ees 232 7.25 Multiple transmission lines. ......:eccee cess e eet e eer arene eens 235 726 Iterative structures... 0... cece eee tee eee estes tees 236 727 Resonance in slightly nonuniform transmission lines.............5- 237 VIII, WAVES, WAVE GUIDES AND RESONATORS —1............00000: 242 8.0 Introduction. ... 0. cc cc ce cece eee bbe eee een e eens 242 8.1 Uniform plane waves... .... cece eee cnet eee eee e eee 242 8.2 Ellliptically polarized plane waves... . 0... c cece cece eee ene eee 248 8.3 Wave impedances ata point......60. 0. vie cece eee cece een eee 249 8.4 Reflection of uniform plane waves at oblique incidence. ............ 251 8.5 Uniform cylindrical waves.......-e cece eee cee e ater eeeneees 260 8.6 Cylindrical cavity resonators... 6... cece eee vee ve. 267 8.7 Solenoids and wedge transmission Jines..........0 04. 273 8.8 Wave propagation along coaxial cylinders 275 8.9 Transverse electromagnetic plane waves. ..... 0c cece eee e cere e eee 281 ‘ 8.10 Transverse electromagnetic waves on parallel wires..... 0 -2....0005 283 8.11 Transverse electromagnetic spherical waves.......0.0 cece aee ees 285 8.12 Transverse electromagnetic waves on coaxial cones... .......00000+ 286 8.13 Transverse electromagnetic waves on a cylindrical wire.... 2.205655 290 8.14 Waves on inclined wires... 0... ec eee eee ee entree ee ee nee 292 8.15 Circular magnetic waves inside a hollow metal sphere............ +» 294 8.16 Circular electric waves inside a hollow sphere... .......0.008 teens 298 8.17 Two-dimensional fields........0... 0.20 c ces veces vee eeeeceees 299 8.18 Shielding theory... 0.0.0... cece cece eee eee » 303 8.19 Theory of laminated shields 312 8.20 A diffraction problem...........06. 200. c cece ee eee neces .» 315 8.21 Dominant waves in wave guides of rectangular cross-section (TE1- MOde)..... eee cee eee eet et ce eet ete t eset iestceseceeenre S16 8.22 Dominant waves in circular wave guides (TE,,:-mode) ............ 322 8.23. The effect of curvature on wave propagation... ........0.. 0. .cceees 324 IX. RADIATION AND DIFFRACTION.............ccccccecceccecceseves 331 9.0 Introduction... 0.2... cee cece eee cece ee eee ceevwees 33f 9.1 The distant field......... Lobaeeees peed teecetetevereeeeeee, 331 9.2 Ageneral radiation formula.........0 cc ccc c ec eee e ace ceuweeeen 333 9.3. On calculation of radiation vectors.............. Loc e cece cece 334 9A Directivity. Po... cece eee cee teeeteneenes ee ee 335 9.5, | Directive properties of an electric current element......... ...,... 336 9.6 Directive properties of a small electric current loop.. ... . ..... 338 9.7 Directive properties of a vertical antenna............0...0.0...6, 339 9.8 The effect of the radius of the wire on the radiated power........, 341 9.9 Linear arrays with uniform amplitude distribution 342 910 The gain of end-fire artays of current clements..... .. 345 eu The gain of broadside arrays of current elements. ... 348 Radiation from progressive waves on a wWite............. -....., 348