I

STRUCTURAL
E ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
--1t. . E

,';i::::
-.r,..-'-;;,r&.

Mqon H. Jowod
Nooter Corporation
St. Louis, M issouri
-
E

Jomes R. Fqrr
t
- Babcock & Wilco.r Company
Barberton, Ohio

7 A Wiley-lnterscience Publicqtion
JOHN WILEY & SONS
I .r/C* N*w York Chichester Brisbone Toronto Singopore
 To Our Wives,
Dixie and Barbara

Copyright O 1984 by hhn Wilev & Sons, Inc

All righis reserve{]. Publishcd simultaneously in Canada

Reproduction or transiation ()f any part oi this work

hcyond that permitted by Secton 107 or 108 of ihe
It)?6 linited States Copyrighl Act wrthout lhe permrssron
,,1 rlr .i't)\rfi!hl owner is unl.rwlul Requests iot
| ,"' ,1,,, !,, lrrrhcr infomati,)n sbould be addrcssed lo
'! | ',L , , I'1 t,.,rlrjitrrl. John Wil'v & Sons, lnc

| ,r,, .., , .r , , ,'r', , ( nitrl.'riins in l\rhlication Data:

',|,l ,r'' 'l '!!! \ Lil'rrl)r"crl

\ \\ '1, r I i, | ,
', 'r, ' 1,, I lr,.rlr"rr
| 1",1, l,rl,lr,,fr,r|l'r., .rrrl rirtl.\
',
I ( lrcr)rcrl t,hnts lilLrrl)rrrcrn :trrl s(ri)l)lr(5 l)esirn
arrl conslroction L Farr. James R ll. lrllc
'tPr55.5.J.14 lq8l 660.2'83 83 12475
lslJN (, .171 (lt).)07 x
l,riIl.rl r!r rln | "rr,al \rlrr'\ lrl America
l09lJ/r)'il1 |
 PREFACE

We wrote this book to serve three purposes. The first purpose is to provide
structural and mechanical engineers associated with the petrochemical industry
a reference book for the analysis and design of process equipment. The second
is to give graduate engineering students a concise introduction to the theory of
plates and shells and its industrial applications, The third purpose is to aid
process engineers in understanding the background of some of the design equa-
tions in the ASME Boiler and hessure Vessel Code. Section VIII.
The topics presented are separated into four parts. Part 1 is intended to
familiarize the designer with some of the common "tools of the hade." Chapter
I details the history ofpressure vessels and various applicable codes from around
the world. Chapter 2 discusses design specifications furnished in purchasing
process equipment as well as in various applicable codes. Chapter 3 establishes
the strength criteria used in different codes and the theoretical background
needed in developing design equations in subsequent chapters. Chapter 4 in-
cludes different materials of construction and toughness considerations.
Part 2 is divided into three chapters outlining the basic theory of plates and
shells. Chapter 5 develops the membrane and bending theories of cylindrical
shells. Chapter 6 discusses various approximate theories for analyzing heads and
transition sections, and Chapter 7 derives the equations for circular and rectan-
gular plates subjected to various loading and support conditions. These three
chapters form the basis from which most of the design equations are derived in
the other chapters.
Part 3, which consists of flve chapters, details the design and analysis of
components. Chapters 8 and 9 derive the design equations established by the
ASME Code, VI[-l and -2, for cylindrical shells as well as heads and transition
sections. Chapter 10 discusses gaskets, bolts, and flange design. Chapter ll
presents openings and their reinforcement; Chapter l2 develops design equations
tor support systems.
Part 4 outlines the design and analysisof some specialized process equipment.
Chapter 13 describes the design of flat bottom tanks; Chapter 14 derives the
 ftitAct
cquations for analyzing hest transfer equipment. Chapter l5 describes the theory
of thick cylindrical shells in high-pressure applications. Chapter l6 discusses the
stress analysis of tall vessels. Chapter 17 outlines the procedure of the ASME
Code, VI[-l, for designing rectangular presswe vessels.
To simplify the use of this book as a reference, each chapter is written so that
it stands on its own as much as possible. Thus, each chapter with design or other
mathematical equations is written using terminology frequently used in industry
for that particular type of equipment or component discussed in the pertinent
chapter. Accordingly, a summary of nomenclature appears at the end of most of
the chapters in which mathematical expressions are given.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In using this book as a textbook for plates and shells, Chapters 3, 5,6 md7
form the basis for establishing the basic theory. Instructors can select other
chapters to supplement the theory according to the background and needs of the
graduate engineer.
We are indebted to many people and organizations for their help in preparing this
In deriving the background of some of the equations given in the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, attention was focused on Section VIII, Di- book. A special thanks is given to the Nooter Corporation for generous support
visions 1 and 2. Although these same equations do occur in other sections of the rluring the preparation of the manuscript. Also a special thanks is given to the
ASME Code, such as the Power and Heating Boilers, no consideration is given American Society of Mechanical Engineers for supplying many of the illustra-
in this book regarding other sections unless specifically stated' tions used in this book and also to the American Petroleum Institute and the
Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association.
MAAN JAWAD We also give thanks to Messrs. W. D. Doty, G. Hays, G. G. Karcher, T. W.
JAMES FARR [,odes, H. S. Olinger, and R. F. O'Neill for reviewing the manuscript, and to
Saint Louit, Missouri Mr. W. H. Schawacker for supplying many of the photographs.
Barberton, Ohio We would also like to extend our appreciation to Mrs' Y. Batteast for typing
September 1983 portions of the manuscript.

M. J.
 CONTENTS

PART I BACKGROUND AND BASIC

CONSIDERATIONS
3
Chopter I Hisiory ond Orgonizotion of Codes
4
l.l Use of Process Vessels and Equipment
History of Pressure Vessel Codes in the
United
1.2
States
Organization of the ASME Boiler and
Pressure
1.3
Vessel Code

Organization of the ANSI B31 Code

for Pressure
1.4
Piping
Standards
1.5 Some Other Pressure Vessel Codes and
8
in tie United States
9
1.6 Worldwide Pressure Vessel Codes 'r0
References
BibliograPhY
ll

Chopter 2 Selection of Vessel, Specificotions'

Reports, ond Allowoble Slresses
l3
14
2.1 Selection of Vessel
14
2.2 Which Pressure Vessel Code Is Used
l5
2.3 Design Specifications and Purchase Orders
l5
2.4 Special Design Requlrements
t6
2.5 Design RePons and Calculatjons
16
2.6 Materials' SPecifi cations
 CONTINT!
CONTENTS xlll

2.7 Dcsign Data tbr Ncw Materials 't7 4.5.2 'l'heory ol' Brittle Fracture 70
2.8 Factors of Safety 17 4.5.3 Hydrostatic Testing 74
2.9 Allowable Tensile Stresses in the ASME Code t7 4.5.4 Factors Influencing Brittle Fracture 75
2.10 Allowable Extemal Pressure Stress and Axial 4.6 Hydrogen Embrittlement 76
Compressive Stress in the ASME Boiler and Pres- 4.7 Nonmetallic Vessels 77
sure Vessel Code l9 References 78
2.11 Allowable Stresses in the ASME Code for Pressure
Bibliography 79
Piping B31 22
2.12 Allowable Stress in Other Codes of the World 22
References 26 PART 2 ANAIYSIS OF COMPONENTS 8l
Chopter 3 Strength Theories, Design Criierio, ond Chopfer 5 Slress in Cylindricol Shells 83
Design Equotions 29 5.1 Stress Due to Intemal Pressure 84
3.1 Strength Theories 30 5.2 Discontinuity Analysis 92
3.2 Design Criteria 3l 5.2.1 Long Cylinders 96
3.3 Design Equations 33 5.2.2 Short Cylinders lO7
3.4 Stress-Strain Relationships 33 5.3 Buckling of Cylindrical Shells I 14
3.5 Strain-Defl ection Equations 35 5.3.1 Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides Only 114
3.6 Force-Stress Expressions 39 5.3.2 Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides and
References 42 Ends 116
Bibliography 43
5.3.3 Pressure on Ends Only lr8
5.4 Thermal Stress 119
Chopter 4 Moteriqls of Construction 45
5.4.1 Uniform Change in Temperature 124
5.4.2 Gradient in Axial Direchon 127
4.1 Material Selection 46
5.4.3 Gradient in Radial Direction r30
4,l.l Corrosion 46 Nomenclature 137
4.1.2 Strength 49 References r38
4. 1 .3
Material Cost 52
Bibliography 139
4.2 Nonferrous Alloys 53
4.2.1 Aluminum Alloys 53
4.2.2 Copper and Copper Alloys 3J Chopter 6 Anolysis of Formed Heods ond Tronsition
4.2.3 Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys 56 Sections 141
4.2,4 Titanfum and Zirconium Alloys 56 6. I Hemispherical Heads 142
4.3 Ferrous Alloys 60 I
6.1 . Various Loading Conditions 146
4.4 Heat Treating of Steels 6l 6.1.2 Discontinuity Analysis r52
4.5 Brittle Fracture 63 6.1.3 Thermal Stress 158
4.5. I ASME Presssure Vessel Criteria 68 6.1.4 Buckling Strength 159
 CONTENTS xv
xiv CONTENTS

163 Chopier 9 Design of Formed Heods ond Tronsifion

6.2 Ellipsoidal Heads
167
Seclions 243
6.3 Torispherical Heads
6.4 Conical Heads r68 9.1 Introduction 244
6.4.1 Unbalanced Forces at Cone{o-Cylinder 9.2 ASME Equations for Hemispherical Head
Junction 169 Design 247
6.4.2 Discontinuity Analysis 172 9.3 ASME Design Equations for Ellipsoidal and
Flanged and Dished Heads 249
6.4.3 Cones Under Extemal Pressure 175
Nomenclature 178 9.3.1 Ellipsoidal and Torispherical Heads
'r80 under External Pressure 255
References
9.4 ASME Equations for Conical Head Design 256
Bibliography t8t
9.4.1 ASME Simplification of Discontinuity
Analysis due to Intemal Pressure 256
Chopter 7 Stress in Flot Plotes 183 9.4.2 Conical Shells under External Pressure 26r
7.1 Introduction 184 9.4.3 ASME Simplification of Discontinuity
184 Analysis due to External Pressure 261
7.2 Circular Plates
193 Nomenclature 265
7.3 Rectangular Plates
197 References 266
7.4 Circular Plates on Elastic Foundation
200 Bibliography 267
Nomenclature
References 201
Bibliography 201 Chopter l0 Bfind Flonges, Cover Ploles, ond Flonges 269
l0.l Introduction 270
ro.2 Circular Flat Plates and Heads with Uniform
PART 3 DESIGN OF COMPONENTS 203 Loading 274
r0.3 ASME Code Formula for Circular Flat Heads
Chopter 8 Design of Cylindricol Shells 205 and Covers 276

8.1 ASME Design Equations 206 10,4 Comparison of Theory and ASME Code Formula
for Circular Flat Heads and Covers without
8.2 Evaluation of Discontinuity Stresses 208
Bolting 278
8.3 ASME hocedure for Extemal Pressure Design 218
10,5 Bolted Flanged Connections 278
8.4 Design of Stiffening Rings 226
10.6 Contact Facings 279
8.5 Allowable Gaps in Stiffening Rings 23r
1O.7 Gaskets 281
8.6 Out-of-Roundness of Cylindrical Shells under
10.7.1 Rubber O-Rings 281
External Pressure 235
8.7 Design for Axial Compression 238 10.7.2 Metallic O- and C-Rings 281

Nomenclature 240
10.7.3 Compressed Asbestos Gaskets 282

References 240 10.7.4 Flat Metal Gaskets 283

Bibliography 241
10.7.5 Spiral-Wound Gaskets 285
 CONTENTS CONTENTS xvii

1O.7.6 Jacketed Gaskets 285 I I.5 Ligament Efficiency of Openings in Shells 387
10.7.7 Metal Ring Gaskets 285 I 1.6 Fatieue Evaluation of Nozzles under Internal
10.7.8 High-Pressure Gaskets 285 Pressure 392
10.7.9 Lens Ring Gaskets 286 1t.7 Extemal Loadings 394
'10.7. I0
Delta Gaskets 287 11 .7.1
Local Stresses in the Shell or Head 394
10.7.1I Double-Cone Gaskets 288 I 1.7.2 Stresses in the Nozzle 407
I0.7. l2 Gasket Design 290 Nomenclature 415
10.8 Bolting Design 292 References 416
10.9 Blind Flanges 294 Bibliography 417
10. 10 Bolted Flanged Connections with Ring-Type
Gaskets 298 Chopter l2 Vessel Supports 421
l0.l I Reverse Flanges 307 12.1 Introduction 422
10. l2 Full-Face Gasket Flange 310 12.2 Skirt and Base Ring Design 423
10. l3 Flange Calculation Sheets 317 12.2.1 Anchor Chair Design 434
10, l4FlatFace Flange with Metal-to-Metal Contact 12.3 Design of Support Legs 438
Outside of the Bolt Circle 317 12.4 Lug-SupportedVessels 442
10.15 Spherically Dished Covers 324 12.5 Ring Girders 443
Nomenclature 330 12.6 Saddle Supports 449
References 332 Nomenclature 456
Bibliography 332 References 456
Bibliography 457
Chopter I I Openings, Nozzles, ond Externol
[oodings 335 PART 4 THEORY AND DESIGN OF SPECIAL
ll.l General 336 EQUIPMENT 459
I 1.2 Stresses and Loadings at Openings 338
I 1.3
'|
Theory of Reinforced Openings 343 Chopter l3 Flot Bottom Tonks 461
1.4 Reinforcement Limits 346 13.1 Introduction 462
I I .4.I Reinforcement Rules for ASME. 13.2 API 650 Tanks 462
Section I 349 13.2.1 Roof Design 462
I I .4.2 Reinforcement Rules for ASME,
13.2.2 Shell Design 470
Section VIII, Division I 359
13.2.3 Annular Plates 476
l l.4.3 Reinforcement Rules for ASME,
13.3 API 620 Tanks 482
Section VIII, Division 2 368
13.3. I Allowable Stress Criteria 487
II .4.4 Reinforcement Rules for ANSUASME
831. I 379 I 3.3.2 Compression Rings 490
I L4.5 Reinforcement Rules for ANSI/ASME 13.4 ANSI 896.1 Aluminum Tanks 496
83 t.3 383 13.4. I Design Rules 496
 CONTENTS
xviii coNTENrs
498 I 6.3.2Dynamic Analysis from Wind Effects 577
13.5 AWWA Standard D100 16.4 Vessel Under Intemal Pressure Only
499 581
References
499 16.5 Vessel Under Internal Pressure and Extemal
BibliograPhY Loading 585
501 16,6 Vessel Under External Pressure Only 588
Chopter 14 Heql Tronsfer Equipmeni
502
16.7 Vessel Under External Pressure and External
- l4.l of Heat Exchangers
TYPes Loading 591
14.2 TEMA Design of Tubesheets in U-Tube 505
References 593
Exchangers Bibliography 593
Theoretical Analysis of Tubesheets
in U-Tube
14.3 508
Exchangers
Equations for
Chopter 17 Vessels of Noncirculor Cross Section 595
14.4 Background of the ASME Design
Tubesheets in U-Tube Exchangers
514 17,1 Types of Vessels 596
Theoretical Analysis of Fixed Tubesheets
519 17.2 Rules in Codes 601
14.5 523 17.3 Openings in Vessels with Noncircular Cross
14.6 TEMA Fixed Tubesheet Design
523 Section 601
l4'6'l Local Equivalent Pressure 527 17.4 Ligament Efficiency for Constant Diameter
l4'6'2 General Equivalent Pressure
Openings 601
14'6'3 Relationship Between Local and 17.5
533 Ligament Efficiency for Multidiameter Openings
Equivalent Pressure
537 Subject to Membrane Stress 603
14.7 ExPansion Joints
537 17,6 Ligament Efficiency for Multidiameter Openings
Nomenclature Subject to Bending Stress 606
538
References 17.7 Design Methods and Allowable Stresses 610
539
BibliograPhY 17.8 Basic Equations 612
17.9 Equations in the ASME Code, VIII-I 619
541
Chopfer 15 Vessels for High Pressure t7.to Design of Noncircular Vessels in Other Codes 626
541
15.l Basic Equations I 7. 10. I Method in Swedish Pressure Vessel
543 Code
15.2 Pres$essing of Solid Wall Vessels 627
547 I 7. 10.2 Design by Lloyd's Register of Shipping
15.3 Layered Vessels
15.4 Prestressing of Layered Vessels
558 Rules 630
Nomenclature
562 References 633
Biblio$aphY
563 Bibliography 633

565 APPENDICES 635

Chopter 16 Toll Vessels
566
l6.l DesignConsiderations
567 Appendix A Guide to Various Codes 636
16.2 Earthquake Loading
573 Appendix B Sample of Heat Exchanger Speciflcation Sheet U6
16.3 Wind Loading
573 Appendix C Sample of an API Specification Sheet 648
16.3'1 Bxternal Forces from Wind Loading
 II CONIENTS

Appendix D Sample of a Pressure Vessel Design Data Sheet 652

Appendix E Sample of Various Materials for Process Equipment 668
Appendix F Required Data for Material Approval in the ASME
Section VIII Code
Appendix G Procedure for Providing Data for Code Charts for
Extemal Pressure Design 675
-
Appendix H Corrosion Charts 678
Appendix I Various ASME Design Equations 683
PART
Appendix J Joint Efficiency Factors 686
Appendix K Simplified Curves for Extemal Loading on Cylindrical

Appendix L
Shells
Conversion Tables
689
698 BACKGROUND
INDEX AND BASIC
CONSIDERATIONS
 CHAPTER

HISTORY AND
ORGANIZATION OF CODES

TIMERS [(lop) Courtesy Bobcock & Witcox Compony, (bol|or,) ( iuroly ,",r,,, , ,"r,,,,r,,,1
-OtD
2
 -Y

HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION OF CODES

I.I USE OF PROCESS VESSELS AND EQUIPMENT

'I'hroughout the world, the use of process equipment has expanded considerably.
ln the petroleum industry, process vessels are used at all stages of processing oil.
At the beginning of the cycle, they are used to store crude oil Many different
types of these vessels process the crude oil into oil and gasoline for the con-
surner. The vessels store petroleum at tank farms after processing and, finally,
scrvc to hold the gasoline in service stations fol the consumer's use. The use of
Droccss vessels in the chemical business is equally extensive. Process vessels are
uscd everywhere.
Prcssure vessels are made in all sizes and shapes. The smaller ones may be
no larger than a fraction of an inch in diameter, whereas the larger vessels may
be 150 ft or more in diameter. Some are buried in the ground or deep in the
occan; most are positioned on the ground or supported on platforms; and some
lctually are found in storage tanks and hydraulic units in aircraft
The internal pressure to which process equipment is designed is as varied as
thc size and shape. Intemal pressure may be as low as I in water gage pressure
to as high as 300,000 psi or more. The usual range of pressure for monoblock
construction is about 15 to about 5000 psi, although there are many vessels
designed for pressures below and above that range. The ASME Boiler and
Itcssure Code, Section VIII, Division t*, specifies a range of intemal pressure
liom 15 psi at the bottom to no upper limit; however, at an intemal pressure
abovc 3000 psi, the ASME Code, VIII-I, requires that special design consid-
crations may be necessary.r However, any pressure vessel that meets all the
rrquircrncnts of the ASME Codc. regardless of the intemal or external design
prcssuro. rnay slill bc acccptcd by thc authorized inspector and stamped by the
nrlrnrllclurcr with thc ASMI'l ('rxlc syrttbol. Some other pressure equlpment,
srrch as Al'l'' sl(nagc t Dks. rrriry bc dcsigned and contain no more intemal
pf('ssur( llriur lhitl gcncrirlc(l l)y lllc sllllic hcird of fluid contained in the tank.

I,2 HISIORY OF PRISSURE VESSET CODES IN THT UNITED STATES

llrt(,rt1lr llr( lrlr' lS(X):, ;rrrrl lrrtlv ltX)O\. (\l)losiotls in boilers and pressure
vcsscls rlcrc lr({tr{nt /\ lrrctrllx lrorlt t trplosiott tlrr thc Mississippi River
:,1{rlrlx);rt .\rtlt,ttt,t.t '\1rrrl .'/ lStr5. rcsttllctl itt thc boat's sinking within 20
nrnrt(.\,rr,l tlrrr|..rtlr,,l |')l)ilr,(,llr(r\JtoittlllrotrtcaliertheCivilWar.Thistype
r,l r rrtrr,,tr,rlrlrl r.trltttttr'rl un,rl)irl( (l rrrlo tlrc clrr'ly 1900s. In 1905, a destructive
, rlrl,,.r,,rr (,1 .r lr, lrlr( l!,rl(-r rrr ir sllrr'' lltellrly in Brockton, Massachusetts (Fig.
I l r. l rlllrl ''Il rr ,'r'l( . rrrlrrr, rl l l / otlrcls. and did Xi400,000 in property damage
'1,' rlL, r,\r \'.Alt r,rl, \'lll l,rrrrl VIII .'. rsrrrie(l lo (lcscribc thc ASME Boilcr and I'rcsstrrc
Vi....tl(,trit ,, l',," \'ftl ffl\, r'r l. /,,,'r.vt( V, rfry'.r, and l)ivisitttl2, Alk'r'ttttiK |tttll li'r l.l Firerub€ boiler explosion in sho€ focrory in Brockron, Md!3ochuseits in 1905. (Courlesy Horrford
Fisure
/!,11r,, l, \ \, /, St@m Boiler Inrpection ond Insurdn.e Co., Horrford, Cr.)
 6 HISIORY AND ORGANT/N rION Of CODTS ].4 ORGANIZATION OF THT ANSI 83 ] CODI] IOR PRISST'RE PIPINO 7

Irr l(X)(r, l'r.llre'cx;rkrsi.rr irr . rlrr)c llrel.ry i'l,yrrrr. Massirclrrtsc.s, r.cs.ltcd T cqUipl c|l{ irrrtl ir;lrlielrliorr; olllcrs fctalc lo sl)ccilic Illillcliltls all(l tlrclll{xls l()f
irr dcalh, injrlry, a|ld cxtcnsivc propcrty darragc. Aticr this accidcnr, the Massa_ ()l
applicatiOn rn(l cot)trol ol cclt'tiprnctrt; lnd tlthcrs rclate ttt care !lnd inspoctioll
clrusctt$ governor directed the fbrmation of a Board of Boiler
Rules. The first set installed cquipnrctrt. 'l'hc tirllowing sections specifically relate to boiler and
of rules for the design and construction of boilers was approved pressure vessel design and constructlon:
in Massachusetts
on August 30, l9O7 . This code was three pages long-!-
In 1911, Colonel E. D. Meier, the president of-the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, established a committee to write a set of Section I. Power Boilers (one volume)
rules tbr the
design and construction of boilers and pressure vessels. On February
13, 1915,
Section III
the first ASME Boiler Code was issuid. It was entitled ,,Boiler
Construction
Division 1. Nuclear Power Plant Components (7 volumes)
Code, 1914 Edition." This was the beginning of the various
sechons of the
Division 2. Concrete Reactor Vessels dnd Containment (one volume)
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which ultimately became Code Case Class I Components in Elevated Temperature Service (tn
Section 1,
Power Boilers.3 N-47 Nuclear Code Case book)
The first ASME Code for pressure vessels was issued as ,,Rules fbr Section IV, Heating Boilers (one volume)
^
construction
the
ofUnfired Pressure Vessels,', Section VIII, 1925 edition. The rules Section VIII
applied to vessels over 6 in. in diameter, voiume ove. 1.5 ft3,
and pressure over Division 1. Pressure Vessels (one volume)
30 psi. In December 1931, a Joint API_ASME Committee wis ibrmed Division 2. Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels (one volume)
to
develop an unfired pressure vessel code for the petroleum indusiry. .l.he
edition was issued in 1934. For the next 17 years,iwo separate unfiied
first Section X. Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels (one vol-
pre;sure ume)
vessel codes existed. In 1951, the last API_ASME Code
;as issued as a separare
document.a In 1952, the two codes were consolidated into one
code_the ASME
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII. This continued
until the 196g A new edition of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is issued on July
edition. At that time, the original code became Section VIII, Oivislon
I pres_
sure Vessels, and another new part was issued, which was
, I every three years and new addenda are issued every six months on January I
Seciion VI II, Division
2, Alternatiye Rules for pressure Vessels. and July l. A new edition incorporates all the changes made by the addenda to
The ANSUASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Code is issued the previous edition; it does not incorporate, however, anything new beyond that
by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers with approval by the American'National coniained in the previous addenda except for some editorial corections or a
Stan_ change in the numbering system. The new edition of the code becomes manda-
dards lnshtute (ANSI) as an ANSI/ASME document.
One or morc sections of
the ANSI/ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Code have been tory when it appears. The addenda are permissive at the date of issuance and
established as the
legal requirements in 47 of the 50 states in the United Str,", become mandatory six months after that date.
,,",f in all the Code CasesT are also issued periodically after each code meeting They
prwinces of Canada. Also, in many other countries of the
worlti, the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is used to construct boilcrs arrc contain permissive rules for materials and special constructions that have not
pressure
vessels. been sufficiently developed to place them in the code itself. Finally, there are the
In the United States most piping systems are built to the ANSI/ASME Code Interpretations8 which are issued every six months These are in the form
Code of questions and replies that further explain items in the code that have been
for P.ressure Piping B3l . There are a number of different
piping couc sectrons
for different types of systems. The piping section that i" ,ir".i tiu. misunderstood.
boiiers in
combination with Section I of the ASME Boiler and pressure
Vcsscl (ixle is the
fo1!-o1er Piping, 831.1.5 The piping secrion thar is olicn uscrt with
!o09 -Cheniical
Section VIII, Division I , is the code for piant and lretnricLrrrr t{clinery
Piping, 831.3.6 I.4 ORGANIZATION OF THE ANSI 83I CODE TOR
PRESSURE PIPING

I,3 ORGANIZATION OF THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE

VESSET CODE In the United States the most frequently used design rules for pressure piping are
the ANSI 83l Code for Pressure Piping. This code is divided into many sections
The ASME Boiler ancl pressure Vessel Code is clivided into for different kinds of piping applications Some sections are related to specific
many sectrons,
divisions, parts, and subparts. Some ofthese sections relat",u sections of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code as follows:
ro"lrti. tina of
"
 HISTORY AND ORGANIZATION OF CODES
I.6 WORLDWIDE PRESSURE VESSEI CODES q

Stanlarh of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th ed.,

R!1.1. Power Piping (which is related to Section I)
F.31.2. Fuet Gas Piping (which may be related to Section VIII)
831.3. Chemical Plant an(l Petoleum Refnery Piping (which may be
related to Section VIII)
R31.4. Liquitl Petroleum Transporting Prping (which may be related to
Section VIII)
831.5. Refrigeration Piping (which may be related to Section VIII)
831.7, Nuclear Power Piping (which has been discontinued and incorpo-
rated into Section III)
B31,8. Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems (which may be
related to Section VIII)
The ANSI B31 Piping Code Committee prepares and issues new editions and
addenda with addenda dates that correspond with the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code and addenda. However, the issue dates and mandatory dates do not
always correspond with each other.
I.5 SOME OTHER PRESSURE VESSEL CODES AND STANDARDS IN
THE UNITED STATES
In addition to the ANSVASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and the ANSI
B31 Code for Pressure Piping, many other codes and standards are commonly
used for the design of process vessels in the United States. Some of them are:
Tu_
bular Exchanger Manufacturer's Association, New york.
Standnrds of the Expqnsion Joint Manufacturers Associ(ltion, 4th ed. , Exoan_
sion Joint Manufacturer's Association, New york.
I.6 WORI-DWIDE PRESSURE VESSEL CODES
In addition to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which is used
worldwide, many other pressure vessel codes have been legally adopted in
various countries. Difficulty often occurs when vessels are designed in one
colntry, built in another country, and installed in still a different country. With
this worldwide construction this is often the case.
The following list is a partial summary of some of the various codes used in
different countries:
Australia.
Australian Code for Boilers and Pressure Vessels, SAA Boiler Code (Series
AS 1200): AS 1210, Unf.red Pressure Vessels and Class 1 H, pressare
Vessels of Advanced Design and Constuction, Standards Association of
Australia.
Belgium.
Good Practice
Code for for the Construction of Pressure Vessels, Belgian
Standard Institute (IBN), Brussels, Belgium,

ANSUAPI Standard 620. "Recommended Rules for Design and Construction France.
of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks," American Petroleum Insti-
tute (API), Washington, D.C. Constructton Code Calculation Rules for Unfred pressure Vessels, Syndicat
ANSVAPI Standard 650. "Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage," American National de la Chaudronnerie et de la Tuyauterie Industrie e (SNCT), paris,
Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. France.
ANSI-AWWA Standard D100. "Water Steel Tanks for Water Storage"'
American Water Works Association (AWWA), Denver, Colorado' Germany.

ANSVAWWA Standard D101. "Inspecting and Repairing Steel Water Tanks, A.D. Merkblatt Code, Carl Heymanns Verlag KG, Koln/Berlin, Federal
Standpipes, Reservoirs, and Elevated Tanks, for Water Storage," American Republic of Germany.
Water Works Association, Denver, Colorado.
ANSI 896.1. "specification for Welded Aluminum-Alloy Field Erected Stor- haly.
agc Tanks," American National Standards Institute, New York'
Itqlian Pressure Vessel Code, National Association for Combustion Control
lll, (A4. Standartl for Conk ner Assemblies.lor I'P-Gas, 4th ed, Under- (ANCC), Milan, Iraly.
wlitcrs Laboratories. Nolthbrook, Illinois.
 t0
HISTORY AND ORGANTZATION OF
CODES BIBTIOGRAPHY
,ltpun.
ll
,lqnnt'st' l)tt,.t,rurt Vt,l;scl Code. Ministry of 8. ASME Boiler and pressureVessel Code, _fu terpretations, (isstred every
Labor, published by Japan Society of Mechanial Engineers, New york.
six months), Amedcan
lJoilcr Associution. Tokyo, Japan.
Juyuu'ts-t' Standarrl, Construction of pressure
by the Jupan Srandards Association. Tokyo, "- B- g24j,
Vessels,JIS e' 'J' published
Y'
Japan. BIBTIOGMPHY
Jap,ayle High pressure Gas Control Law,
Ministry of International Trade
1i1,1,".t":,ry.Jibtished by rhe rnstitution for
tngtneering, Tokyo, Japan.
sffi riigi;;Jrr*" c", ' Steel Tanks forLiquid Stoege', in Steel plate Engifieerin| Data, Vol.
l, 1976 ed., American Iron
"r and Sreel lnslirute, Washingron, D.C.

Netherlands.
vessets. Dienst voor het stoomwezen,
f,:|;:#i:"*-e The Hague, the

Sweden.
Swedish Pressure Vessel Code,-Tryckkarls
kommissioner, the Swedish pres-
sure Vessel Commission, Stockholm,
Sweden.
United Kingdom.
British Code 85.5500, British Standards
Institution, London, England.
More complete details. discussions of
factors of safety. and applications of
the codes mentioned are given in
Section 2.7. e summ,lry of iti. p_ug.upt,
which.ar.e appticable for ihe various,.reqrl;il
around the world is given in Appendix
;'r#J # ,ti .o0., ur.o
A.

REFERENCES

f. ASME Boiler and pressure Uo*]

,:".,,:n. Unr, Division
ANSVASME BpV-Vm_1, Americar l, pressure Vessets,
"aT.:
2. "R""",*";;;'R';:"i."iiirT"firi,"ffilffi;TiJi:i,*Li.;,
Apr srandard 620,

.;: j::::"[iJ:** tanks," ANsr,/Apr srd. 620,;.;;;";-;;;;;;

i,i.tr"iot", wu,r,ing_
l. ASME Boiler and pressure Vesset Code, Section_|, power
nlll*,*n Sociery of Mechanicat Engrneers. New york, Boileru, ANSTASME BPV_I,
_ 1983.
" lilHy3,::ff '.{iX::#l#f#*y:::k-!y Liq.uids and Gases, 5th ed.,
gmeers and American
^Pa'r:teu!petroleum Institute, New york,
1951.
S, ASME Code for hessure pipinq BJl.
ol Mechanicar Engineers, Niw-york, 73l;;"'0"'ANSL/ASME
B31 l' American societv
6. ASME Code for hessure pioins B3l,
g!t:m:cal. ptant and petroleunt Refinery piping,
83t.3. American Siciety of Mechanical ;;C;;,
-
7' ^NSvASME
A_SME Boije-r and hessure vesser
;u;;"lo.k,r,,*0.
code, cases, Boirers antr pre,rrrre y€$dh,
Socicty of lvlechanicaj En8incers, Ncw york,
-cod? American
19g3.
 CHAPTE R 2
SELECTION OF VESSEL,
SPECI FICATIONS, REPORTS,
AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES

l3
 l4 SttECTlON OF VESSIL, SPECIFICAIl()N". rtlr",lrr'., nND ALLOWABLE STRESSES
2.1 SELECTION OF VTSSI I 2.3
Although nrlrrly lttr l t. ,,'rrlrl,rt, 1,, llr( \( lL'clion of pressure vessels, the two
basic r.r;rrirr.rrfrrt,, tlr,rt ,rll,, t tlr, ,( [.r lion are safety and economics. Many
it(.Drs i||r. r rr,,rrI r,,l rr,tr,r', rrrrrtcrials' availability, corrosion resistance,
lrltllrrl,, rrr, rrl,tlr r11, . .rr,l rrrrrgnitudes of loadings, location of installation
rr, lr,lprl, ( rnl I,r.r,l'rt' ,"r,t r.rrr'(lrquake loading, location of fabrication_(shoD
"r 1., l,lr t", rrr,,r ,,t \i.,,s(.1 installation, and availability of labor supply at the
\l rrt, rrr, r, ,r'.rrr1' rrsc of special pressure vessel in the petrochemical and other
rrr,lrr rl, , rtr. ;rvrilability of the proper materials is fast becomrng a maJor
1,r,,t,1,,,' I lr(. nrost usual material for vessels is carbon steel. Many other special_
r,,, l r r,rr{ rlls iLre also being used for corrosion resistance or the abilily ro conmln
.r tlrrrr Iwrthout degradation of the material's properties. Substitution of materials
r'. I x (.vl
lent and cladding and coatings are used extensively. The design engineer
rrrrrst lrc in communication with the process engineer in order that all materials
rrsctl will contribute to the overall integrity of the vessel. For those vessels that
rctluire field assentbly in contrast to those that can be built in the shop, proper
(luality assurancc must be established for acceptable welding regardless;f ihe
adverse condilions under which the vessel is made_ provisions must be estab_
lished for ftrrliography, stress relieving, and other operations required in the
field.
For thost. vcssels that will operate in climates where low temperatures are
encounlcr((l r)f contain fluids operating irt low temperatures, special care must
be takc rr Ir crrsure impact resistance of the materials at low timperatures. To
ohlirirr tlrs l,r()l)crty, the vessel may require a special high-alloy steel, nonferrous
rrrirlcrirrl, rrr some special heat treatment.
2.? WHICH PRESSURE VESSEL CODE IS USED?
'l lrc lrrst consideration
must be whether or not there is a pressute vessel law at
llrc lo( irt ion of the installation. If there is, the applicable iodes are stated in the
l:rw. ll thc jurisdiction has adopted the ASME Code, Section VIII, the decision
rrrly bc narowed down to selecting whether Division I or Division 2 is used.
I'here are many opinions regarding the use of Division I versus Division 2,
.but the "bottom line" is economics. In the article ,.ASME pressure_Vessel Code:
Which Division to Choose?",r the authors have listed a number of factors for
I
consideration. Division uses approximate formulas, charts, and graphs in
simple calculations. Division 2, on the other hand, uses a complex methocl of
fbrmulas, charts, and design-by-analysis which must be describcd in ir stress
report. Sometimes so many additional requirements are addcd lo tltc rriuirnum
specifications of a Division I vessel that it might bc rnorc ccorrorrrir.rrl to supply
lu I)ivision 2 vcssel and lake advantage of thc highcr itlL)rvrl)l(. strrsscs.
2.4 SPECIAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS l5
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS AND PURCHASE ORDERS
Currently, the only pressure vessel code, exclusive of the ASME Code, III-l-
NB, Nuclear Vessels, which specifically requires formal design specifications as
part of the code requirements is the ASME Code, VIII-2, Alternative Rules for
Pressure Vessels. This code requires a User's Design Specification to be pre-
pared and certified by a registered professional engineer experienced in pressure
vessel design. This certification by the professional engineer is given on the
ASME Manufacturer's Data Report, Form A- 1. The manufacturer is responsible
for retaining the User's Design Specification for five years.
For other codes and standards, design specifications and design requirements
are not well defined. For the ASME Code, VIII-1, there is no specific statement
that any design specifications are required. The only indication of some sort of
design specifications is the list of minimum loadings in UG-22 that is considered
for all construction . Sectron l, Power Eoilers, is less definitive on what loadings
are necessary to consider and what shall be included in a design specification or
purchase order. PG-22 of Section I states that loadings that cause stresses to go
higher than 107o above those stresses caused by internal design pressure shall be
considered. The Manufacturer's Data Report, Form U-1 for the ASME Code,
V I-1, requires many items to be listed, which means that most of the basic
design information must be given in a design specification or purchase order.
Although some codes help the purchaser regarding what data are needed for
inclusion in the design specifications, this is usually done by mutual agreement
between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
"For those process vessels that do not have a "suggested" list of items in design
requirements and specifications as part of code requirements, it is necessary to
establish them in the purchase order or contract agreement. The contract infor-
mation is supplied by the purchaser or user with the manufacturer's help as to
what is needed and what shall be considered. Some design standards help the
user and manufacturer by offering fill-in forms that specifically list the require-
ments for designing a process vessel. Design specification forms for a heat
exchanger built to the standards of the Tubular Manufacturers Associationz are
given in Appendix B and lor an API Srandard 650 Storage Tanki are given in
Appendix C. It is always necessary to maintain a document containing design
speciflcations so that a permanent record is kept for reference. Often on a large
process vessel, some loadings from attached or supported equipment are not
known until after the job has started.
2.4 SPECIAL DESIGN REOUIREMENTS
In addition to the standard information required on all units, such as design
pressure, design temperature, geometry, and size, many other items of infbrma-
tion are necessary and must be recorded. The (xrrrosion and erosion amounts arc
 16 sfl,tcTtoN Ot Vtssll, st,tctt tcaTtoNs, RfpoRTs, AND AU-OWABLE
STRTSSES
2.9 ATLOWABLE TENSITE STRESSES IN THE ASMI CODE 17
l, lx' *,u,.,, rrrrrl rr srrrtirlrlt.r'irlcri.l uld method of protection are to be noted. The
lyl)c (,l lllrirl tlrrrl will lrc t,0|llainctl, such as lethal, must be noted because may be recertified to an SA or SB specification for an ASME certified vessel.
rcqltitc(l slx\.ili(.rk.sigrr tlctaiis. Supported position, vertical
ofthe Depending upon the contract specifications, permissible materials for construc-
or honzontat, and
s[pl)oll lor.rrtiorrs rlusl bc listed as well as any iocal loads tion are given in lists such as that shown in Appendix E.
from supported
crltip,rc,t rrrrtl piping. Site locatiorr is given so that wind, *o*,
una
lcquircntcots ctrn lre determined. Impact loads and cyclic "u.tnquut"
requirements are also
2.7 DESIGN DATA FOR NEW MATERIALS
inclurlcd.
lirrthc ASME Code, VIII-2, a statement as to whether
or not a tatigue When design data, such as allowable stresses, are requested for a new material,
according.to AD_160 is given. rf u rutilu" analysis that is, one not presently in the code, extensive information must be supplied to
:::'.r,:::'.-"111r'llo
rc(lurrc(t. lhe specitlc cycles and loadings will be given.
is
the Code Committee for evaluation. The ASME Code Committee lists this
In addiiion, the design
spccilications state whether or not certain loadings information to develop allowable stresses, strength data, and other required
ire sustained or transrent. The
allowable stresses vary with the type of loadinls. properties for accepting a new material into the code. Each section of the code
contains an appendix listing these requirements such as the one for the ASME
2.5 DESIGN REPORTS AND CATCULATIONS Code, VIII-I, in Appendix F. The code also provides data to establish extemal
pressure charts for new materials; this is given to those who want to establish
requires a formal design report with rhe assumptions new external pressure charts. The required information is given in Appendix G.
T:,1YE
rn.the ,C"1.. .VII.2.
User's Design Specification incorporated in the stress analysis calcu_ It is the person's responsibility requesting the addirion to supply all the data
lations. These calculaiions are prepared and certified by a registered professional needed to establish those properties required in the code.
engrneer experienced in pressure vessel design. As with the
Usir,s Design
Specification, the Manufacturer's Design Report is mandatory
and the 2.8 FACTORS OF SAFETY
certification reported on the Manufactu.".i Datu Repo.t. This is kept
on file by
the manufacturer for five years. In order to provide a margin of safety between exact formulas, which are based
- For vessels not requidng design reports, the manufacturer has available for
the- Authorized Inspector's review those necessary calculations
on complex theories and various modes of failure , and the actual design formulas
for satisfying used for setting the minimum required thicknesses and the stress levels, a factor
U-2(g) or other design formulas. The pressure vessel design sheets of safety (FS) is applied to various materials' properties that are used to set the
should
contain basic design and materials data and at least the basic calculations allowable stress values. The factors of safety are directly related to the theories
of
pressure parts as given in the design formulas and procedures and modes of failure, the specific design criteria of each code, and the extent to
in the applicable
onT.nd1d_fg. a simple vessel, an example of calculation sheets rs given x.hich various levels of actual stresses are determined and evaluated.
:_od^.
D. This example depicts only those calculations that are required
llforilp"yiT
the Authorized Inspector and for construction. Other vessels
rnuch more extensive calculations depending upon the complexity
may requre 2.9 ALLOWABTE TENSILE STRESSES IN THE ASME CODE
and con_
(raclutl greements.
As previously discussed, the basis for setting the allowable stress values or the
design stress intensity values is directly related to many different factors de-
2.6 MATTRIALS' SPECIFICATIONS pending upon the section of the code used. The criteria for setting allowable
tensile stresses for each section of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
All crxles itnd standards have materials, specifications and requirements are as follows:
de_ For Section I, Power Boilers, the ASME Code, YIll-l , Pressure Vessels, and
sclibirrg whirl rrralcrials are permissible. Those
material, tirut *"i"r_rtt"O *itt Section III, Division 1, Subsections NC, ND, and NE, except for bolting whose
ir sp(.( rli( ((xlc arc cither listed or limited
to the ones that have aliowable stress strength has been enhanced by heat treatment, the factors used to set the allow-
vrrlrrts liivcrr. l)upcnding upon the code or standard,
permitted rnatenas tor a able tensile stresses are summarized below.
pirrtit rrliu plxt.ss vcsscl are limited. For instan".,
o;i.;";;,
ljll (lcsif nirrior crr bc uscd in ASME Boiler and piersir" V"rr"i-Cot Jin an se or At temperatures in the tensile strength and yield strength range, the least of:

:]:lil...Y:::,:t l:,lf SI) specifications are the same u';;;, B"rnr,_"_

specifi- 1. j of the specified minimum tensile strength.
flltlotl rr lltc ASIM ::l',t Stirrrtlirltls a On specific instances, certain materiais
Itttvc lrt'rr rr.rlrril( r'r'r(r to sonrc other spccification,
that
such as the DIN standard..
2. j of the tensile strength at remperarure.
3. ! of the specified minimum yield strength.
 I8 SEI.TCTION OI VESSEL, SPECITICATIONS, REPORTS, AND AttOWABtE STRESSES 2.IO ALLOWABLE EXTERNAI PRESSURE STRESS AND AXIAI. STRESS I9

4. r{ ol thc yicld strength at temperature (except as noted below where 90Zo following: (1) | of the specified minimum yield strength and (2) j of the yield
is uscd). strength at temperature.
For Section IV, Heating Boilers, the criterion for setting the allowable
At temperatures ip the creep and rupture strength range, the least of: stresses is much more simple: (1) I /5 of the specified minimum tensile strength.
l, l00qa of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.0l per l000 hours
(l7o in 105 hour).
2. 67Ea of the average stress to produce rupture at the end of 100,000 hours.
2.IO ALTOWABLE EXTERNAL PRESSURE STRESS AND AXIAL
COMPRESSIVE STRESS IN THE ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE
3. 80Vo of the rninimum stress to produce rupture at the end of 100,000
VESSEL CODE
hours.

In the temperature range in which tensile strength or yield shength sets the Within the ASME Boiler Code, simplified methods are given to determine the
,_
allowable stresses, higher allowable stresses are permitted for austenitic stainless maximum allowable external pressure and the maximum allowable axial com-
steels and nickel-alloy materi-als where gleater deformation is not objectionable. pressive stress on a cylindrical shell without having to resort to complex ana-
criterion of I yield strength at lemperature lytical solutions. Various geometric values are contained in the geometry chart,
!9h:l*,the
9oVo,yield strength
may be increased to
whereas materials' properties are used to develop the materials charts.
at temperature. However, the factor
spicified minimum
!
yield strength is still maintained. Allowable stresses in the materials charts are based on the followine criteria
For the ASME Code, VIII-I, bolting material whose slrength has been en_ For cylindrical shells under external pressure, the least of:
hanced by heat treatment or strain hardening have the addition; criteria of (l) j
of the specified minimum tensile strength and (2) t of the specified minimum l. 33Vo of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 807o for tolerance.
yield strength. 2, 33Va of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at tem-
For the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, Subsection NB and perature.
NC-3200 of Subsection NC, the factor used to set the design stress intensity 3. 67Vo of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 hours
values for all materials except bolting is the least of: (17ol 100,000 hours).
4. IOOVo of the allowable stress in tension.
1. i of the specified minimum tensile strength. For spheres and spherical portions of heads under extemal pressure, the least
2. ] of the tensile strength at remperarure. -
OI:
3. of the specified minimum yield strength.
.2

4. J of the yielded strength at temperature except as noted in the tbllowing l. 25Eo of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 607o for tolerance.
paragraph. 2. 25Va of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at tem-
perature.
Higher design stress intensity values are permitted for austenitic stainless 3. 507o of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.017o/1000 hours
steels and nickel-alloy materi€ls where greater deformation is not objectionable. (17ol100,000 hours).
In this_ case, the criterion of J yield strength at temperature may be increased to
as high as 90Vo yield strength at temperature or any value beiween and gOVo
4. IOOVo of the allowable stress in tension.
!
yield strength at temperatue depending upon the acceptable amount of defor-
mation. However, the factor of j specified minimum yield strength is still
For cylindrical shells under axial compression, the least ol
maintained.
There are two criteria for setting bolting design stress intensity values in the
l. 259o of the critical buckling stress with a factor of 5OVo for tolerance.
ASME Code, VIII-2. For design by Appendix 3, the criteria are the same as for 2. 50Vo of the specified minimum yield strength and yield strength at tem-
the ASME Code, VI -1, because these values are used for the tlcsign of bolts perature.
for flangjs. Ior
design by Appendix 4 of the ASMII (ixlc. VIII_2, and by 3. 1007o of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.017o/1000 hrs
Sectirrn Division -l , Slbsdition NB ancl NC-32(X) ot' Sutiscc.riirn IrtC. the
III, ( l7ol 100,000 hours).
crilcria lirr setting bolting design stress intcnsity vitlucs urc thc lesscr of the 4. ljQVo of the allowable stress in tension.
 o
t)
rrtt|tl ;6 ;5 ;6
-iA-i-l
Ed
tItl
; 0rt5
ta
a- cr
.9 \o \o t-. F- a- tr
oo ltltitll \o \o \o \o
-i -i .l ^' tt||l
o
@

g
-g eq rl||tl
q,
.i "i -; .-' ttltl
F
g

=' 6€E <q

tF c!o
F:
s3ss5ss r sgss .oP.ocoto
'\-j'\'\'\
NONa{:
x

= .o..).o.i66+
(-)

o
.:9 ii>;h\> I
z
o
o
o :
.-o *s
.E6 -{
3Eq .\..\-\.\ Z. *9.
!ao a d':
ov.
(/)F |

,. i
-> .:Y
5d
:
.9-
ir
E E=
a
3.!
az * aEe
.g .;T .9ir^l$-
. o6; tE ;c===-
.\.\.\.\ ?!: Eg €Et5;;'
oo
.=9 |
;€i
>'<
6 ri\:'
O.
:EH3;E6EE
:E!l-.r'!55::-
E-= O o o o 6.
P-+tstE333E,
=g+ ;.:!do0EEEE
.Eo,;
:, .o
'H; i.g i-oi.lR4
4t4il Eoo+ !,

i;
=<
t-.
z
..'\fra\ot\ooo1

ao
: I.g PF H i.=.=.r
eEeEg,:EiEEfEEEE
E(aG6.6*d-EG?q<<<.
a

E; d---o

oo
120 -9 d* g?
"
c3 la€
go :is
I ."4 .0
5oN

F -;
bo '-i-
=P
E
F3trF ctrEEEE2CCCq
inEG*rj

.0.q.i E I CCE E E CJ
n=
do
E €.i
gv
E u) e g qO
d ;d '
20 F> v) ,5 ,5 =r5===S=55-E=g=3
21
22 STI.TCIION Ot VTSSTI-, SPTCIFICATIONS, REPORTS, AND ALLOWABIE STRESSES 2.12 ATLOWABTE STREss IN OTHER CODES OF THE WORI.D 23

2.I I ALLOWABLE STRESSTS IN THE ASME CODE FOR PRESSURE Australia

PIPING 83I
The rules used for the design of boilers ald pressure vessels set by the Standards
'I'hc ullowrrblc sircsscs given in various sections of the ASME
831 Code for Association of Australia are called the SAA Standards Series AS 1200. The
l\'csnulc I'ipirrg urc sinrilar to the corresponding sections of the ASME Boiler factors of safety used to set the allowable stresses for the various sections are:
nrtl l\'cssurc Vcssel Code; however, in some sections, the basis is different. In
thc (lxlc lirf Power Piping B31.l, the allowable tensile stresses are set by the
srrrrrc crilcria as used for ASME Code, Section I. In the Code for Chemical plant
UTS rs R
rn(l llctrolcum Refinery Piping B31.3, the allowable tensile stresses for other
th n bolting are set on a similar basis as used for ASME Section VIII, Division AS 1210_1977
l, sxcept a factor of i is substituted for j on the tensile strength. The factor of Pressure Vessels 4 1.6* 1.6 n
i on yield strength is used in both codes. This makes 831.3 in the tensile and Class lH-1979 2.4 1.5 na n
yield strength range is similar to Division 2 and in the creep and rupture strength AS 1228-1980
range similar to Division 1. Boilers 2.7 1.5 1.5

Belgium
2.12 ALLOWABLE STRESS IN OTHER CODES OF THE WORLD

The Belgian rules issued by The Belgian Standards Institute (IBN) permir a
Throughout the world, various factors of safety are applied to materials' data to mixture of code rules from various other countries. The allowable stresses
establish allowable shesses for the design of boilers, pressure vessels, and depend usually upon the codes used. However, the basic allowable smesses are
piping. For the temperature range to that temperature where creep or rupture sets
set as follows:
the allowable stresses, the universal factor for setting allowable stresses is based
on yield strength. In some countries, a factor is applied to sets of data that have
been established from many tests; in others, the data are determined by the low ys
UTS
yield point or the high yield point. In still other countries, the actual data for the
component being designed have its yield strength determined by tests . The actual ' Boilers 3.2 1.6 1.5 n
data of the part are then factored into the design formulas. Not all countries Liquid gas 2.7 1.6 n n
choose to use the ultimate tensile strength as a criterion for setting allowable
stresses. When they do, the factor of safety between various countries rs some-
Air receivers n 1.8 n n
times very different. In order to show these differences, a discussion follows Pressure vessels Various factors at designer's choice
regarding the allowable stress basis of several different countries.
The ierms, symbols, and definitions used are as follows:
Czechoslavakia
UTS : ultimate tensile strength (either specified minimum or data at design
temperature)
y5 = yield strength (either specified minimum or data at design tem- Czechoslovakian rules are extensively detailed for all types of vessels with
different allowable stresses used for intemal pressure as compared with extemal
perature)
pressure. For the design of boilers and pressure vessels, the allowable stresses
R= stress to cause rupture in 100,000 hours are established by the least of:
C: stress to cause total creep or creep rate in 100,000 hours
na : not applicable
n: none or not used *l.5 at temDerature.
24 SELECTION OF VESSEt, SPECITICATIONS. REPORTS, AND ATIOWABTE STRESSES
2.I2 ALTOWABLE STRESS IN OTHER CODES OF THE WORID

UTS
UTS ys R L
Intemal pressure----cylinders
Cast Steel
wall
Heated n 1.6 1.6 1.0
3
wall
Unheated n 1.6 l.) 1.0
DIN n 2.0 l 5 n
Castings n 2.0 2.0 1.25
DIN2or1 n 2.5 1.5 n
Extemal pressure-cylinders without stiffening rings
Tested n l.) 1.5 n
Aluminum and seamless copper
All walls n 2.0 2.0 1.35
DIN 3 J.f
Castings n 2.5 2.5 1.7
DIN2orI
n
n 4.0
1.5
1.5
n
n
Tested n 2.5 1.5 n
F rance
Italy
The French rules for pressure vessel design establish the allowable shesses
depending upon the inspection and the compliance with the SNCT (Syndicat The Italian rules for boilers and pressure vessels establish the allowable stresses
National de la Chaudronnerie et de la Tuyauterie Industrielle) rules. The allow- by the least of the following:
able stresses are established by the least of:
UTS
v,5
Boilers 2.7 1.6 1.6 1.0
SNCT w/insp. 1.6 1.6 1.0 vessels
Pressure n 1.5* 1.5 1.0
SNCT w/insp. 1.6
and analysis 2.7 1.6 1.6 1.0
Not SNCT
w/insp. 2.4 1.5 1.6 1.0
Not SNCT Japan
w/o insp. 1.9 1.6 1.0
The Japanese government does not have one group to develop their design
codes. Rather have several different rules for designing boilerJ and pressure
Gennany vessels. Although they are published by different groups and generally written
by the different groups, all codes are under the control of the Japanese govern-
The three types of pressure vessels recognized by the regulatory agencies in ment. The basis for setting allowable stresses is the least of:
Germany are fixed pressure vessels, mobile pressure vessels, and boilers. The
allowable stresses are established according to a specific DIN (German Industrial
Standard) certificate or by testing. The allowable stresses are set by various
UTS rs
factors of safety on the yield strength with a constant factor of safety on rupture Boilers 1.6 1.67 av. 1.0
as follows: l 25 min.

ys
Pressure vessels 2/(1.6 - jI 1.5 av. 1.0
UTS I .25 min.
Altemative
Steel (not cast)
DIN 3 n I .:) 1.5 n
pressure vessels 3 1.5
DIN2orl n 1.8 1.5 n *1.5 used when YS/IS > 0.85.
Tested n Ll 1.5 n
'whcrcT: YS/TS < O.7.
26 SETECTION OF VTSSEI, SPTCIFICATIONS, REPORTS, AND ATTOWABI.E STRESSES REFERENCES 27

Sweden ANSUAPI Standard 650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, 7th ed., American Petroleum
Institute, Washington, D.C., 1980.
1982 AnnuaL Book of ASTM Standards, Afieican Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel-
The Swedish rules for the design of boilers and pressure vessels set the allowable phia, Pa., 1982.
stresses using only the yield strength and the rupture strength as follows: DIN Standa (Deutsche Normen Dll,lr, Herausgegeben vom Deutschen Normeruusschu
(D,VA), Berlin, Gemany.

UTS ys C

All 1.5 1.5

Unilctl Kingdom

The British rules for the design of boilers and pressure vessels are collectively
called British Standards. The basis for settine the allowable stresses is the least
of:

UTS ys R

Boilers-
BS 1113 2.7 1.5 I _.'
Pressure vessels
BS 5500
Carbon steel 2.35 1.5 I _J
Stainless steel 2.5* 1.5 l.J

RTTTR.ENCES

l. Srrrrlcn, A. M., and J. R. Mase, "ASME Pressure-Vessel Code: Which Division to Choose?",
('hrt\k\tl lit|ineering, January ll,
1982.
lnrthorlt oJ luhular Exchanger Manufacturers.Asroc., 6th ed., Tubular Exchanger Manu-
lrrllrrrr As$oci0lbn, White Plains, N.Y., 1978.

rl,JJ [l lcnr|t(rrlrtrr.
 - -
'Fxy
2f l+u)
CHAPTER 3
STRENGTH THEORIES,
DESIGN CRITERIA, AND
DESIGN EQUATIONS

i,=#n(* .,&*)
r1 = -q.C-/afu*razn1
" i 2 (l -p'J \ayz ,,'I
L. t" a_w
^J i 211*u; a*aY

Th6ori6s, €riter;o, ond bosic equorions.

29
30 sTRINGTH THEORIES, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DISIGN TQUATIONS
3.I STRENGTH THEORIES
ln the design of process vessels and pressure equipment, two basic modes of
failure may be assumed: elastic failure based on the theory of elasticity and
plastic failure based on the theory of plasticity. Except for thick-walled vessels,
elastic failure is usually assumed for the design of pressure vessels. It is consid-
ered to occur when the elastic limit of the material is reached. Beyond this limit,
excessive deformation or rupture is expected. These limits are usually measured
in terms of tensile strength, yield strength, and, to some degree, rupture
strength.
Of the many theories developed to predict elastic failure, the three most
commonly used are the maximum principal stress theory, the maximum shear
stress theory, and the distortion energy theory. The maximum (principal) stress
theory considers failure to occur when any one of the three principal stresses has
reached a stress equal to the elastic limit as determined from a uniaxial tension
or compression test. The maximum shear stress theory (also called the Tresca
criterion) considers failure to occur when the maximum shear stress equals the
shear stress at the elastic limit as determined from a pure shear test. The
maximum shear stress is defined as one-halfthe algebraic difference between the
largest and smallest of the three principal stresses. The distortion energy theory
(also called the maximum strain energy theory, the octahedral shear theory, and
the von Mises criterion) considers failure to have occurred when the distortion
energy accumulated in the pad under stress reaches the elastic limit as deter-
mined by the distortion energy in a uniaxial tension or compression test.
Engineers have known for some time that the maximum shear stress theory
and the distortion energy theory predict yielding and fatigue failure in ductile
materials better than does the maximum stress theory.r However. the maximum
stress theory is easier to apply, and with an adequate safety factor it gives
satisfactory designs. But where a more exact analysis is desired, the maximum
shear stress theory is used.
Two basic theories of strength are used in the ASME Boiler and hessure
Vessel Code. Section I,2 Section IV,3 the ASME Code, VI[-1, and Section III,
Division 1, Subsections NC,4 ND,5 and NE6 use the maximum stress theory.
Section III, Division l, Subsection NB7 and the optional part of NC, and the
ASME Code, VtrI-2, use the maximum shear stress theory.
In the two sections of the ASME/ANSI Code for Pressure Piping 83l that are
used primarily with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, both ANSI
83 l. l6 and 83 1. 3e use the maximum stress theory. 83 1.3 is unique in that it uses
the maximum stress theory but permits allowable stresses to be established on
the same basis as the ASME Code, VIII-2, which requires use of the maximum
shear stress theory. The other sections of 831 also use the maximum stress
theory. They require that in addition to the stresses caused by intemal and
cxternal pressures, tiose stresses caused by thermal expansion of the piping are
to he considered.
3.2 DESIGN CRITERIA 3I
3.2 DESIGN CRITERIA
The design criteria for both Sections I and IV basically call for determining the
minimum wall thickness that will keep the basic circumferential stress below an
allowable stress level. Additional rules and charts are included for determining
the minimum thickness of various components. However, in general, a detailed
stress analysis is required only for special designs. Sections I and IV recognize
that local and secondary stresses may exist in some areas of pressure vessels;
design details, however, have been established to keep these stresses at a safe
level with a minimum of stress analysis investigation.
The design criteria of the ASME Code, VI -1, and Section III, Division l,
Subsections NC except NC-3200, ND, and NE, are similar to those for Sections
I and IV except that the ASME Code, VI[-I, and Section III, Division l,
Subsections NC, ND, and NE require cylindrical shell thickness calculations
based on both the circumferential and the longitudinal directions. The minimum
required thickness may be set by stresses in either direction. In addition, the
ASME Code, VIII-1, permits the combination of primary membrane stress and
primary bending stress to go as high as 1.5 S at temperatures where tensile and
yield strength control and 1.25 S at temperatures where creep and rupture
control, where S is the allowable tensile stress values.
The design criteria for the ASME Code, VIII-2, provide formulas and rules
for thd?nore common configurations of shells and formed heads for temperatures
when the allowable stress criteria do not exceed the yield strength and tensile
strength range. Requirements include detailed evaluations of actual stresses in
complex geometries and with unusual loadings, especially if a cyclic loading
condition exists. These calculated stresses are assigned various categories and
subcategories that have different allowable stress values as multipliers of the
basic allowable stress intensity value. The various categories and subcategories
are:
Primary stresses, including general primary membrane stress, local primary
membrane stress, and primary bending stress
Secondary stresses
Peak stresses
Primary stress is caused by loadings that are necessary to satisfy the laws of
equilibrium between applied forces and moments. Primary stesses are not
self-limiting .
Secondary stress is developed by self-constraint of the structure. Its basic
chamcteristic is that it is selfJimiting. That is, rotation and deformation or
deflection take place until the forces and moments are balanced even though
some pennanent geometric changes may have taken place.
Lastly, peak stress is the highest stress condition in a structure and is usually
32 STRTNGTH THEORIIS, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS 3.4 STRESS-STMIN REIATIONSHIPS

due to a stress concentration caused by an abrupt change in geometry. This stress
is important in considering a fatigue failure because of cyclic load application.
In general, thermal stresses are considered only in the secondary and peak
categories. Thermal stresses that cause a distortion of the structure are catego-
rized as secondary stresses; thermal stresses caused by suppression of thermal
expansion, but may not cause distortion, are categorized as peak stresses.
Potential failure modes and the various stress limits categories are related.
Limits on primary stresses are set to prevent deformation and ductile burst. The
primary plus secondary limits are set to prevent plastic deformation leading to
incremental collapse and to validate using an elastic analysis to make a fatigue
analysis. Finally, peak stress limits are set to prevent fatigue failure due to cyclic
loadings.
The basic stress iniensity limits for various categories relating to an analysis
according to the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, Subsection
NB, and optional Part NC-3200 of Subsection NC are:
3.3 DESIGN EQUATIONS
Once the allowable stresses are set, the basic design equations must be devef
oped. The design of process equipment is based on the assumption that the
material generally behaves elastically at the design pressure and design tem-
perature. Accordingly, most of the equations are derived from the theory of
elasticity and shength of materials basis.
3.4 STRESS-STRAIN RETATIONSHIPS
The stress-strain relationship at any point within a homogeneous, isotropic, and
linearly elastic body that is subjected to a system of forces is obtained from the
theory of elasticity. Referring to Fig. 3.1, the stress-strain relationship is given
by

Factor Factor 1.
Based on Based on
e,: ELo,-
p(oy + ozl)
Allowable Yield Tensile
Stress Intensity Category Value Strength* Strength* t. ploz 'r
er = ELor-
o^)J
General primary membrane
(P,) ks, 3s, -!c e,-
I
: ;lo,- tt(o,- I o)l (3.1)
Local primary membrane I1-
(P")
himary membrane plus
UKS^ s) +s" rs
,DGE
2(1 + 1t)

primary bending (PM + Pd liks. s, +s, 2(l +

Primary plus secondary ^lv = ---V- 1t) rn
(PM+PB+Q) 1( 25, S-

.t/,- =
2(1 + 1t)
i--
In the ASME Code, VIII-2, and Section III, Division 1, optional Part NC- L
3200 of Subsection NC, a factor of ft is applied to various loading combinations
somewhat related to whether or not the loading is sustained or transient. The
Or, in a different form.
laotors are k = 1.0 for sustained loads including dead loads and pressure; -
k - 1.2 for sustained load plus wind or earthquake loads; t = 1.25 for hydro-
$tiltic tcsts; and k - 1.15 for pneumatic tests. [e,(l - pc) + p,(e, + e,)]
'I'hc dcsign criteria for Section III, Division l, Subsection NB, are very (r+ tt)(1 -zp.)
sinrillr lo thoso for the ASME Code, VIII-2, except there is less use of design
p) + +
-2tt) [e,(1 -
lirrrrrrrlrrs, culvcs, tnd tables, and greater use of design by analysis in Section IIL p.(e" e")l
(1,+p.)(1
'l'h(. cfllcgorics ol slrcsses and stress intensity limits are the same in both sec-
liorrs.
(l + p)(1 - LIL)
[€,(1 - pr,)+p(e.+er)] (3.2)
+AiiurriflI lhrt I ,\,,, (lcsiSn strcss intensity valuc fbr Section III, Division l, Subsection
-
| .O. Ii^,
Nll, n[(l thc | i',nrl pIr I {rl S hsr(.li()n NC, and thc ASMts Codc, VIII-2 (psi), S" = yicld strength T, : " ltl
(plri). url ,\,'t{ ultirrxrtc k nsil(. slfrJrgth (psi) 2(l + 1.t)
34 STRENGTH THIORIES, DTSIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS 3.5 STRAIN-DEFTECTION EQUATIONS 35

t2 equations reduce to
I
' f1--->

@ I
t4
t"l
<-f3
e,:
t.
q= i\ar-
1.
E\ox - psr)

Po')
(3.3)
€,: Elo' + stl
2(1 + tt)
f"y = --E- r"t

Or, in a different form,

o, = ---!
L-p- ,1u" * *rs

I o,:;\1e,
t-
+ p'es
I lL- (3.4)

, c,:0
(b) v
E
3.1 Slrcls rerulianr ot o point wirhin o
Figure homogeneous, isotropi<, ond lin€orly eldsri. body.
',=76+ iil*
F.,
r, = zG; 3.5 STRAIN-DEFLECTION EQUATIONS
tL)
Ev- Figure 3.2 is cross section of a pressure vessel wall. It undergoes an extension
Tn : ;:;---,----.._
L\r t trL) in the niddle surface of €o due to stretching plus extension due to bending. The
original length lr at a distance z from the middle surface is given by
where eb ey e,: axial strain in the.r, y, and z-directions, respectively
oo o, =oz axial stress in the .r, y, and z-directions, respeptively t,=adr-1\
"y,!, yr,, y- = shearing strain in the -r, y, and z-directions, respectively
: The final length l2 after extension is
re, T
rz, rp shearing stress in the.r, y, and z -directions, respectively
E = modulus of elasticity of material (psi)
tz: dstt + .*r(r - 4)
G = shear modulus of material (psi) \ r./
1,c
: poisson's ratio whereas strain is given by

In most pressure vessel applications, the values of o,, rr,, and r,, are relatively lr- lt
small compared with o, and or. Hence, they are normally ignored and the ,":
l,
36 STRENGTH THEORIES, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN TQUATIONS
3.5 STRAIN.DEFTECTION EQUATIONS 37

However, because the quantity dw fdx is smal! compared with unity, the expres-
sion above becomes

d2w . d2w
X': 77 a;to Xt = 7F
(3.6)

Hence, Eq. 3.5 may be written as

*=T+1^+ peo,-,(#. - *fu)l

(3.7)
ot: T7E I + Pew - '\dy,
ldzw, drr\'l
- It dr') l
*.leb
The shearing strain-displacement relationship can be obtained from Fig. 3 3.
The quantity 7," is shown in Fig. 3'34 and can be expressed as

Fisure 3.2 Cross s€ction of o sh€ll woll subie€ted to str€rchine ond bendins lodds'
"l'Y:"loq+a+P

Substituting the values of lr and lz into the above and deleting all small terms
where is the shearing stress due to in-place forces and d and B are due to
7qry
results in
twisting moments. Also, from the figure,
(t l\ : e0,_
€.: €or _ ,\,:_ z. x\
i) . (d/ d\'ldv du
d-srna -__6-: dy
where 1, is change in curvature. Similarly, (dD/?x)dx 0a
IJ-srnP- d, =A
€n : €ou
/ r l\
-,\4- i) = es - z' xt
and
Substitution of the above two equations into Eq. 3.4 gives
du 0a
(3.8)
F
+ f,t: Ioq, dy- a,
o,: ,-:--Lr" + peo! - z(y" trt'yt)
t-lt-
(3.5) From Fig. 3.30, which represents the middle surface, the rotation is given by
ti
q- ,--l€vt + l"r*- z(Xr+ PX') -@w I Ai. The minus sign indicates counterclockwise rotation. As a result of
t- lL- this rotation, any point at a distance z from the middle surface will have a
deflection of
Nolr llrirl llr(' cx|)tcssirttt f, is related to the deflection by the expression

dzw dx2 dw
/
x'=tt+kt"4'hffn dx
 39
38 STRENGTH THEORIES, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS 3.6 FORCE-STRESS EXPRESSIONS

$y :^'^ rvt - )2-:----:-

^, -- dx b

And Eq. 3.4 becomes

",=c("* -*#) (3.9)

3.6 FORCLSTRESSEXPRESSIONS

The force-stress relationship for the cross section shown in Fig' 3 4a can be
exDressed as

*,= f',,",(r - z\a,

-\ N,=
[n( - )a"
t _----,-
u..-..
-z
t,--'-,..'7
,/./,?-
|
t
n"=[,"(t-i)a"
|_-,
l-_ u,=1,,,\t-z)a'
(3. 10)

u.= z)a"
z tD, [".'lt -
Figura 3.3 Sh€or dolormdliom of o unit cro$ .ection.
- u,= J",'lr - i)a,
,, = -[ ,,'lt - 1)a"
Similarly, u*= [,,",(t-4;,
dte
D = -Z--dy
In the majority of cases, the quantity z/r is small with respect to unity and can
Hence Eq. 3.8 becomes thus be dlsregarded. Also, substituting Eqs. 3.7 and 3.9 into 8q 3 10 gives
40 STRENGTH THEORITS, DESIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS
3.6 FORCE.STRESSEXPRESSIONS 4l

,.:&(#.#) (3.1 r)

u,=ffi\(*tu. ,*tu)
,. Eilt - tL) drw
l2ll - lt2t ax dy

Example 3.1 Stresses are to be determined at the inside comer of an opening

in a cylindrical shell by applying strain gages at the location. The cylindrical
: 29.9 x 106 psi and p : 0.3. The strain readings
shell is carbon steel with E
from the three gages are €,: +360 x 10-6; €): +180 x l0 and e' =
o

-230 x 10-6. What are the stresses in the three principal directions at the
opening?

Solutian. Using the equations given under Eq. 3.2, the stresses are determined
AS

,/
,oq :
o,: ;#1Q60X0.7)
( r.Jrw.+.,
+ 0.3(180 - 230)l 13'630 psi

,qq
'
",: -*l(180)(0.7)
t r.JJ(u.+,
+ 0.3(360 - 230t1 = 9499 O.;

?qo
o = (1.3x0.4)" --""' + 0.3(360 + 180)l :
"'' tr-?10rr0.7) 60 psi I

Exanple 3.2. What are the stresses in the two principal directions of the
cylindrical shell with the o, = gt

Solution. Using the simplified equations given under Eq. 3.4, the stresses are
determined as
Et
N. = r /,€q,
r-lJ' r(€0r+
Ft + 0.3 x
', =ffioso =
180) 13,6oo psi
N, : .--------t (€0) + p€0r.)
l- lL'

N,}
1'u,Et o, =ffi{rto + 0.3 x 360) : 9460 psi r
2(l + 1t)
 42 SIRTNOTH THEORI€S, DTSIGN CRITERIA, AND DESIGN EQUATIONS
BIELIOGRAPHY 43
Problems
BIBTIOGRAPHY
3.1 Strain gages are attached to the surface of a tube subiected to internal
Brownell, L. E., and E. H. Yoi{Irlg, Process Equipment Design, John Wiley, New york, 1959.
pressure. The gages lie along the circumferential and l,ongitudinal axes.
FattWI, J, H., Engineering Design, John Wiley, New York, l9&.
The tube is carbon steel with t x :
= 29.9 106psi, 1.r, 0.3, and the stress Ha0ey, J. F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure Vessels,2nd ed., Van Nostrand-Reinhold,
at the surface in the circumferential direction is 17,500 psi. What are the
Princeton, N.J.
strain gage readings in the two directions?
Seely, F. B. and J. O. Smith, Advanced Mecfuinics of Makriak,2nded., John Wiley, New york,
1952.
Answer: e,: *498 x 10-6
€i: +117 x 10-6
3.2 In the tube of Problem 3.1, what is the strain in the z -direction? Usins that
answer and the other answers in Problem 3.1, what are the calcrilated
stresses in the three directions?

Anst'er: a" = 17,500 psi

o" = 8,750 psi

o"=o

REFERENCES

Criteria of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for Design by At],',ltsis in Sections III
and VIII, Division 2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 1969.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, Power Boilers, ANSVASME BPV-I,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 1983.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sectionly, Heating BoiIeB, ANSVASME BPV-IV,
American Society of Mechanical Enginers, New York, 1983.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division l, Subsection NC, Class 2
Components, ANSUASME BPV-m-I-NC, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, 1983.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section l,
III, Division Subsection ND, Crllrr.i
Components, ANSL?ASME BPV-III-1-ND, American Society ofMechanical Engineers, New
York. 1983.
ASMII Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division l, Subsection NE, Class MC
(i)tnpt,nt',ttr, ANSTASME BPV- I-l-NE, American Society ofMechanical Engineers,
New
Y,nk, 1983.
7. ASMIj lllrilcr and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III, Division 1, Subsecrion NB, CIaJJ 1
( t'ntt\'tl' t.t, ANSI/ASME BPV- I-l-NB, American Society ofMechanical Engineers,
New
Y(n (. l()8l
ASMf i ( \nk. li,r I'rcssurc PipingB3l, Power Prping, ANSLIASME83l.1, Amedcan Society
ol Mrrhfiri(nl li[8inccrs, New York, 1980.
ASMf (irtfc lix Prcssure Piping B3l, Chemical plant and petroleum Rertnery pipin|,
ANSI/AliMll ll I I L Amcr'can Soc'ety of Mechanical Engineers, New york, 19g0.
 CHAPTE R 4
MATERIALS OF
CONSTRUCTION

Top: Metologroph of titanium wetd. Boltom:

Tonrolum_ctdd veset (Courtesy of rhe Nooter
Corp., Sr. l"ouis,

44
46 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

4.I MATERIAL SETECTION

The vast majoriry of vessels are constructed of ferrous and nonferrous alloys'
Ferrous alloys are defined as those having more than 50Vo iron They are
used
in the eSME Code, VI[-l and 2, and include carbon and low-alloy steels'
steels'
stainless steels, cast iron, wrought iron, and quenched and tempered
copper, nickel, titanium, and zirconium
Nonfenous alloys include aluminum,
The ASTM designates all ferrous alloys by the letter A and all nonferrous alloys
the ASME
by B. ASME uses the prefixes SA and SB, respectively ln most cases
built to the ASME
unO eSfV specifications are identical. However, vessels
Code usually refer to the ASME specifications'
Nonmetilic pressure vessels may also be constructed to the ASME Code'
plas-
Recently, ASME Section X was published to include fiberglass-reinforced
tic (FRij vessels. Details of construction are given in Section 46' Concrete
rules are
vessels are also being considered by the ASME However, no specific
available at this time.
and
Selecting materials that are adequate for a given process is complicated
depends on many factors such as corrosion, strength, and cost'

4.1.1 Corrosion
Fisure 4.1 Cotroded corbon sleel lubesheet. (Courl$y of the Nooter Corp., St. touis, Mo.)
Corrosion,whichisdefinedasthedeteriorationofmetalsbychemicalaction'
is probably the single most important consideration in selecting materials
A
stigtrt ctrange in the chemical composition of a given -environment can sig-
in
nifi'cantly cilange the corrosive behavior of a given metal This is illustrated
epp""Oi* H, i,trich lists various environments and their effect on different
ferrous and nonferrous alloYs.
In a new chemical process, it is prudent to determine the factors that affect
the most
the corrosion and then run tests on various materials in order to select
"city
suitable one. Figure 4.1 shows an example of a heat exchanger.used in
water" service. The corroded tubesheet is made of carbon steel and the un-
corroded tubes are made of copper' Another example shown in Fig 4'2 is a

titanium lubesheet after exhibiling crevice corroslon'

fn nighty corrosive environments, every phase of the pressure. vessel fabri-
.ution pio""r, rnurt be evaluated for corrosion' Items such as buming' forming'
weldini, stress relieving, and polishing must be.considered Figure 4 3 illus-
were left on
trates a"Hastelloy C chu-te with corrosion in which marking Points
of high along the break
rnu,"tlut Ou.ing h"ut treatment. Conosion at points stress
lines can also 6e seen. In Figure 4.4, a Carpenter 20 tube shows knifeline attack
at a plug weld (shown by arrow) in a bayonet tube used in hydrofluoric acid
service.
its
The cleanliness and finish of the inside surface of a pressure vessel before
opcrltion ilrc vsry imPortant in preventing subsequent in service'
.c.onoslon
to lts
Many uscrs tcquirc spccial clcaning proccdutcs ol'the insitlc surlace Prior Frrruro 4.2 Corroded rirqnaum tubesheet. (Courlesy ol the Nooler CorP, Sr' touis, Mo )
insl;rllaliott.
 4.I MATERIAT SITECTION 49

4.1.2 Strenglh

The strength level of a material has a significant influence on its selection for a
given application. This is especially true at elevated temperatures where the
yield and ultimate strength are relatively low and the creep and rupture behavior
may control the allowable stress values. In the ASME Code, VIII-l, the criteria
for allowable stress at elevated temperatures take into account both the creep and
rupture behavior as discussed in Section 2.4. In applying the ASME criteria for
allowable stress as given there, the following procedures are used.

Specified Minimum Yield Stress

In obtaining the minimum yield shess of a given material, test data are plotted
at vadous temperatures as shown in Fig . 4 . 5 . A smooth trend curve is then drawn
though the averages of the data for individual test temperatures. The specified
minimum yield stress curve is obtained by applying to the yield trend curve the
ratio of the specified minimum value, as given in the material specification, to
the trend value of 80"F.

Fisure 4.3 Hosrelloy C chure. (Courtesy o{ the Nooter Corp., Sr. rouk, Mo.)

o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

temperature,"F
Fisure 4.4 Crock in o Corpenter 20 lube weld. (Court6y of Nooier Corp., Sr. toui., Mo )
Figure 4.5 Tensile ond yield 3irengrh.

48
!0 MATERIATS OI CONSTRUCTION 4.I MATTRIAI. SETECTION 5l

Sptcllled Mlnlnum 'l'ensile Siress Rupture Slrength

'fhe tensilc trend curve is determined by the same Test data are normally plotted as shown in Fig. 4.7. In some cases the data need
method as the yield trend curve
including_ th-e,.ratio factor. The specified minimum tensile striss is arbitrarily to be extended to 100,000 hours and must be done with extreme care to extraD-
taken as I l07o of the tensile trend curve, as illustrated in Example 4. 1 olate accurately.

Creep Rate
In order to establish the creep rate of lVo /lffi,O}} hours, data are plotted as
shown in Fig. 4.6. Interpolation and extrapolation may be needed to establish
the creep rate for various temperature levels.
Example 4.1. A user is requesting code approval for a new material that has
a minimum specified tensile stress of 120 ksi and a minimum specified yield
stress of 60 ksi at room temperature. Tensile and yield values for various heats
and temperatures are shown in Fig. 4.5. Creep and rupture data are given in Figs.
4.6 and 4.7, respectively. What are the allowable stress values at 300 and 1200'F
based on criteria siven in Section 2.4?

.0001 1,000

Llle llrs.
Figur€ ,{.6 Cre€p strengrh. Figur€ 4.7 Rupture strengrh.
52 MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION 4.2 NONFERROUS ATLOYS

Solution TqblE 4.1 Approximote Cost of

Mqteriqls Used in Pressure Vesser
Allowable Stress at 300'F Conslruction

Cost in
l. From Fig. 4.5, average tensile stress = 130 ksi. Type Dollars/lb
Tensile stress reduced to minimum : l3O x 120/140: 111 ksi.
Specified minimum tensile stress : 111 x 1.10 : 122 kst. Carbon steel 0.30
Maximum stress to be used cannot exceed 120 ksi. Low-alloy steel 0.7 5
Allowable stress based on tensile stress : 120/4 = 30 ksi. Stainless steel 0.90-2.50
2. From Fig. 4.5, average yield sffess : 60 ksi. Aluminum 1.50
Yield stress reduced to minimum : 60 x 60/75: 48 ksi. Copper, bronze t.'7 5
Allowable stress based on yield stress : 48 x 6 = 32 ksi. Incoloy 4.00
3. From Figs. 4.6 and 4.7 it is apparent that creep and rupture are not a Monel 5.00
consideration at 300'F. Inconel 6.00
4. Therefore, maximum allowable stress at 300"F = 30 ksi Hastelloys 15.00
Titanium 15.00
Zirconium 20.00
Allowable Stess at 1200"F
Tantalum 250.00
1. From Fig. 4.5, average tensile saess : 112 ksi. 'As of January 1983.
Tensile stress reduced to minimum : lI2 x 120/1,4O: 96 ksi.
Specified minimum tensile stress = 96 x 1.1 : 106 ksi, which is less 4.2 NONFERROUS ATLOYS
than maximum allowed of 120 ksi.
Allowable stress based on tensile stress = 106/4 : 26.5 ksr. The 1983 ASME Section VIII Code, VI[-1, lists five nonfenous alloys for code
2. From Fig. 4.5, average yield shess = 54 ksi. construction: aluminum, copper, nickel, titanium, and zirconium. These alloys
Yield stress reduced to minimum = 52 x 6O/7t: 42 ksi. are normally used in corrosive environment or elevated temperatures where
Allowable stress based on yield stress = 42 x 6 = 28 ksi. ferrous alloys are unsuitable. Nonferrous alloys are nonmagnetic except for
3. From Fig. 4.6, creep stress for 0.O1Vo rn 1000 hours = 15 ksi. commercially pure nickel which is slightly magnetic.
Allowable stress based on creep = 15 ksi.
4. From Fig. 4.7. stress to cause rupture at 105 hours = 22 ksi. 4.2.1 Aluminum Alloys
Allowable stress based on rupture = 0.67 x 22: 14.7 ksi.
5. Therefore, maximum allowable stress at 1200"F = 14.7 ksi. I Aluminurn alloys have a unique combination of properties that make them usable
in process equipment applications. They are nonmagnetic, light in weight, have
good formability, and have an excellent weight-strength ratio. Aluminum sur-
faces exposed to the atmosphere form an invisible oxide skin that protects the
4. I .3 Moteriol Cost rnetal from further oxidation. This characteristic gives aluminum a high resis-
lance lo corroslon.
llt'r'rrrrsc costs of materials vary significantly, the designer must evaluate mate- Aluminum alloys have a systematic numbering system as shown in Table 4.2.
riirl (osl vcrsus other facton such as corrosion, expected life of equipment, 'l he specification number also designates the various product forms. For exam-
Ivrrilirl'ility ol material, replacement cost, and code restrictions on fabrication plc, SB 209 applies to plate products, and SB 210 applies to drawn seamless tube
rrrrl rr'1ririrs. n summary of the cost of some frequently used materials is given lxrtlucts. The first digit of the alloy designation number indicates its major
rn l irlrlt ,l. | . With the large difference in cost, the designer should consider the rllloying element as shown in Table 4.2.
lrx l(xs ltfior' 11r sclccting a given material. All aluminum alloys are categorized by ASME specification number, alloy
 NONIERROUS ATTOYS Jf
54 MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION

Tqble 4.2 Aluminum Alloy Designotion

Toble 4.3 Temper Clossificotion For Aluminum Alloys

EXAMPLE+
C ST'TG
FLITES
(n^|?{ sElra-Ess
NE DEGREE G C@,ITF|OL OF
fr-Ttta TE]FER OR TO IENTIFY
A STECIAL s,ET G MECH-
F4t5, A4AS
a $aPEli
cEr€E €EF a |€,/17
E(U{A'GF ltE
ffiffi6-
nE
DIE I TUTO
Fffi'T€S

,.ffi"ffi#*EffidF- 2- nLUT
At'tt.€ALm
Jfit<,6lLlfY. 3- TO.J HT TI]EN

"'ffi,#P.*,fffr4ffi..ffisffi* "-
#?,'ffif fi? ,HEN NATLTRALLY
AGED TO sTAfuE COI'IDIT ION
5- ARTIFICIALLY AGED o/v-Y
t' ffi.,,ffi*.ffi.ffi";^318H:" ,oPt-tcar td€ 6- SLUT lc',l HT TIIEN
ART]FICIALLY AGED

'' H&.,ffi'#^E lH,ffia'.nn a.ffiiig,rri;p:::ffi!*r

5. 9- SOLUT IO'I HT, ARTIFICIALLY
fFEATAa-E ILLOY. AoEO. T'/FN COLD IItrT<ED
O- ARTIFICTALLY AGED TTEN
5. tAtN ADV$J'AA IS fl,.l tT ls t€^I-lnElr a-E. COLD V@KEO
7, TLTRA HIgl S'FE €7H FFCENTTE!'' M)' USED
IN ffi.

designation, and temper designation as shown in Tables 4.2 and 4.3. Some of
the terms in the tables are defined as follows:
Annealing.
Consists of heating the material to a given temperature and then slowly
cooling it down. The purpose is to soften the material in order to remove cold
working stress.
Norm.alizing.
Consists of heating rnaterial to a temperature slightly higher than the an-
nealing temperatue and then cooling at a rate that is faster than annealing.
S o lution H eat Tr eatin g.
Heat heating at a temperature high enough for the alloys to be randomly
dispersed.
Stahilizing.
A low temperature heating to stabilize the property of an alkry
Stain Hardening.
Modification of metal structure by cold working resulting in an increase in
strength with a loss in ductility.
Thermal Treating.
Temperature treatment of an alloy to produce a stable temper.
4.2.2 Copper ond Copper Alloys
Most copper alloys are used because of their good corrosion resistance and
machinability. They are also homogeneous as compared with steel or aluminum
and thus not susceptible to heat treatment' Their strength, generally speaking,
may be altered only by cold working. The alioy designation system serves to
identify the type of material as shown in Table 4.4. Alloys 101-199 are normally
a high grade copper with very few alloys added. Alloys 201-299 normally refer
b brass products that are mainly copper and zinc. Alloys 501-665 are bronze
products composed of copper and elements other than zinc. Other properties of
copper alkrys are also sbown in the Table.
56 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
E E
ra ra
Eo
di
\o
-co a':
of
a
d\o-
T 5
co cD rq
\D
\o
\O \O
@
oO
o
T
ca
A A U) \J U) tan U) u) a a I
I

Tqble 4.4 Copper AlloYs

Alloy Designation of CoPPers

HFr"
EoS E g,.E$
\o
l0l-199 Coppers 5
20tJ99 Copper-zinc alloys (brass)
.3;o
.t2 ax dicc ca rq...j Ecco e
a\)a a u1 v u) rh a
301-399 Copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brass)
401-499 Copper-zinc-tin alloy (tin brass)
501-599 Copper-tin alloy (phosphor bronze) E
601-645 Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronze) z \o \o \o \or
64s-665 Copper-silicon (silicon brcnze) II rI IQCQ I
U' .J1 U) |
666-699 Miscellaneous copper alloys
701J30 Copper-nickel alloys
rr + a- C-+
Cold-Worked TemPer Designations \o \o \o \oi
ir) +
+ @
: O-
<f r)
B;=
a. ,B t: ta) tt) A I aa a t4 av)
Approximate 9o Reduction I

bY Cold Working

0.9
Qua(er Hard r
\o sf \o
Half hard 20.7
Three-quarte$ hard 29.4 vt(hu)l lv)aa
Hard 31 .l
Extra hard 50.0
Spring 60.5
68.7 >doF IIi
Extra spring €
<AE a ao !v Q
'r,
v v> 6 nG R
6 88
Most copper alloys are distinguishable by their color except for Cu-Ni alloys
that tend to lose their color as the amount of Ni is increased

4.2.3 Nickel ond High-Nickel Alloys

Nickel and high-nickel alloys have excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance q
that makes thJm ideal for high temperature applications with corrosive environ-
ments. Products are normally called by their commercial names rather than their
Y <
6=aa-.i,:,i,9
flSd - -
ASME designation number as shown in Table 4 5'
JVCq9vY-ii
2222222222
4.2,4 Titonium ond Zirconium Alloys
Titanium and zirconium alloys are used in process equipment subjected to severe
environment. In the ASME Code, VIII-1, unalloyed titanium is listed for grades ccg,,-56
I , 2, and 3, and alloyed titanium is listed for grade 7. Two zirconium
alloy 705'
grades also 9-B
-zF n^:i^ I ; r'i XEE i
l= I da 2e 2a2^::;. F
given in the Code are unalloyed alloy 702 and alloyed
v6 Vo zz z 23888A838:E;8t
The modulus of elasticity for both titanium and zirconium is about half that o
ol stccl. Also the coefficient of thermal expansion of both is about half that of
F Z\J ZY >v z€ zcz44aa3z4
stccl. I'hc dcnsity o1'zirconium is slightly less than stcel' whereas the density of
=e
lilrr|lirrrr is irlrottt 0.5ti lirttcs thltt ol stccl.
 $na*$qfi qq Yq
ra33383nltsa rarartl
u)all

s? a
$na$$qqqqq H5 g
al ao
6
-aEP
3-EE
& (./t
t3,38nA3nn3F^ AA n | 3 |

z q s€$3$€$€$$$€ € qq
sAAEn'-n3333a3383 I'i |:SX F-
E)
t83 tr
-ii
ocq
ttt ca u) || |
|

o- q $ $3e 3 g ? qlnlqq| q ra) a-

=- *A AAenE3a 3 -tY
l(ha
v-' \o

s$$nHfiH$$+q
q-
EEU*
nAaeBSaaSSa ; g nE H E

El

e&"€ .J r.) c.r <l i\ to nl

iisiotidooozx ^r CJ

al R= ><> )<x i{
5
C)
t
gg
a^r'i=-=
EEEEtt
U
O O

O giss!ig$gqB
622t2322222
II.
z
U
t!
26
n*i
.i+t- ,9, ,9

1 o z zzz
!
U
I
g
;i .rrrr{a /\/tx
X XE AH O:'
ln ;Qo;FQ;Fe36g.S
i EuEt sc ig ig I5 ic kc ic Ig Ig d)i dliH C:F
3g5Eg6s€9lsd€
JJ.o i6\

59
 MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION 4.4 HEAI TREATING OF STEETS 6I

4.3 FERROUS ALTOYS
Iron alloys with carbon content of less than 2qo arc known as steels and those
with more than 27o are known as cast iron. Steels are further divided into those
with carbon content of more than 0.87o, called hypereutectoid steels, and those
with carbon content of less than 0.87o, known as hypoeutectoid steels. Most
steels used in pressure vessel applications have a carbon content of less than
0.47o. Steels with carbon content of over O.4Eo are very brittle and hard to weld.
Cast iron used in pressure vessels dates back to the nineteenth century.
However, because cast iron is very brittle and because it cannot be rolled,
drawn, or welded, its use in pressure vessels presently is limited to complicated
components and configurations. The ASME Code, VIII-I, also imposes lim-
itations on the pressure and temperature ranges and the repair methods.
Steel alloys can be produced with a wide variety of alloying elements. Some
of the common elements and their effect on steel products are shown in Table
4.6. The ASME Code, VIII-1, divides steel alloys into the following categories:
steels. lhese elements enhance the steel for high temperature applications and
in hydrrigen service.
High-Alloy Steels.
These are commonly refened to as stainless steels. They have mainly chro-
mium (over lOVo), nickel, and molybdendm alloys. The basically three types
of stainless steel used in process equipment are as follows:
M artensitic Stainless Steels.
This group includes type 410, which has a low chromium content of slightly
above lTEo. They behave like steel, are magnetic, heat heatable, and difficult
to fabricate.
Feffitic Stainless Steels.
This group includes types 405 and 430. They are magnetic but not heat
treatable.

Carbon Steels. Aust enitic Staink s s Ste e ls.

These are widely used in pressure vessels. They have mainly silicon and This group includes all 200 and 300 series and are chromium-nickel and
manganese as the main alloying elements and are limited in temperature chromium-nickel-manganese steels. They arc nonmagnetic and not heat
applications to about 1000'F. heatable.

Low-Allny Steels.
These are essentially cbromium (up to l07o), Molybdenum, and nickel-alloy 4.4 HEAT TREATING OF STEELS

Tqble 4.6 Effecl of Alloying Elements in Sfeel
Element Advantases Element
Aluminum Restricts grain growth
Chromium Incrcases resistalca to
corrosion and oxidation
Increases hardenability
Adds strength at high
temperature
MirrUlocsc Counteracts sulfur
brittleness
I ncrcases hardenability
Molylrk rrrrrrr l{ iscs grain-coarsening
l('l|ll)crilturc
( illrrlcrircls tcndency
t(,wirr(l lcnrpcr brittleness
Iinllnrl(cs corrosion
l( sislirtlec
The lattice structure of steel varies from one form to another as the temperature
changes. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.8. Between room temperature and 1333"F,
the steel consists of what is known as "ferrite and pearlite." Ferrite is a solid
Advantages
solution of a small amount of carbon dissolved in iron. Pearlite, which is shown
in Fig. 4.9, is a mixture of ferrite and iron carbide. The carbide is very hard and
Strengtheqs annealed
steels britde.
Toughens steels In Fig. 4.8 between lines A1 Qower critical ternperature) and A3 (upper critical
Improves oxidation temperature) the carbide dissolves more readily into the lattice that is now called
reslstance "ferrite and austenite." Austenite is a solid solution of carbon and iron that is
Increases hardenability denser than ferrite.
Strengthens steel Above line 43 the lattice is uniform in property, with the austenite the main
Titanium Prevents formation of structure. The actual temperature for this austenite range is a function of the
austenite in high carbon content of the steel as shown in Fig. 4.8.
chromium steels With this brief description, we can now discuss various heat treatments of
Prevents localized carbon steel.
depletion of chomium
in stainless steel during Normalizing.
long heating This consists of heating the steel to about 100"F above the upper critical line
Vanadium Increases hardenability Ai and tben cooling in still air. The purpose is to homogenize the steel
Rcsists tcmpcring
structurc and oroduce a harder steel than the annealed condition
 63
62
MATERIATS Of CONSTRUCTION 4.5 BRITTTE FMCTURE

Posweld Heat Treating-

critical temperature
consists of heating to a temperature below the lower
-rJil-
It
f- rft" purp;se of reducing the fabrication welding stress and
and
softening the weld heat-affected zones'

'ri Quenching.
The rate of cooling of steel after heat treating is very
important in e-stablishing
SA-517 obtain most of their high
ifr" ft.an"t. of st"eel Some steels such as
on manY.factors such as
= ,t Uy qt"*fting. The rate of cooling.depends
"ttgtft tlmperature of quenching medium' and size and mass of
qu"nittlng -iAiu.,
the part.

Tempering.
they are heat
Ouenched steels are very brittle. In order to increase toughness'
;;;; il"* ;.;d then cooled to produce the desired propertv of high
strength and good toughness.

PERCENT CARAON OF WEIGHT

Fisure 4.8 lron-iron corbide equilibrium didsrom' 4.5 BRITTTE FRACTURE

Pressure vessel componenllconstructed of ferrous alloys

occasionalllfail:ht-
i*tir;at"d,=A;".-"p:.-Iormalopqr3tingtdlFPeratureatalnressurewell
illiiffi=0.;-;ftJG d*-i i"ir'* $"Jutt! o'"u'' ut to* !;'i-{'n"'1r ioo
ffilrir;d uy incorporati4g.ufg1e fracture -coriiiderations at the d€sgn
ffi ffirf .;Oiiticaiion requlreO vaiies from the simplest state-of-
il::* ;;d;dTi;,rt""t"iii.o.pri*tei mathematical analvses Both extremes
;; ;i;ii;,h;;i;isure uessel'designer, and their application ^depends on the
amountofinformationavailableandtherequiredreliabiljtyolaglvencom-
ponent.

Charpy V-Notch Test (Cv)

NORI'ALIZED
ANNEALED The Cv test is the simplest and most popular method of qualitatively determining
PEARLITE
Figure 4.9
PEARLITE
P€arlile 3tructure. ffi'rrl."--i-Grl^cF*-T
of
ASTM- A-370_-and consistf impact teslrn_g
9-n:sl:dJp.j"r_Tglllg: lljS
taken from a spbcifib location of a product lorm. l he speclmen ls srucK wlln a
falling weighi(Fig.4.l}b) and the energy required to fracture it at various
tempJratures is recorded. Figure 4.11 shows two typical plots of the temperature
llrrr r'orrrisls ol lreating the steel to about 50'F above the upper critical line versus absorbed energy. The magnitude of measured energy, shape of energy
,4, lrrrl tlrlrr ltttttittt cortling slowly. The purpose is to refine the grain and curve, and appearance of the cross section of tested specimens are all significant
rtrlttr'r srtllttr'ss in evaluating material toughness.
 4.5 BRITTTE FRACTURE

The magnitude of energy level at a given temperature varies with different

steels, as shown in ASTM 4-593. An energy level of 15 ft-lb is considered
adequate for 4-283 steel at room temperature. However, such a level is exceed-

ffil
| | '-*nn
fn',n
ingly low for .4-387 steels. Recognizing this fact is imperative in specifying
energy requirements for various steels at different temperatures.
The slope of the energy curve in Fig. 4.11 gives the rate of change of steel
toughness with increasing temperature. At the bottom shelf of the curve, the
(a) srnolno specruel steel is very brittle as indicated by the cleavage appearance of the tested speci
(b) resr ann*rormeu
men. Failure is normally abrupt. At the upper shelf, material fails in shear and
- the cross section has a dull area. Failure bicurs after excessive yielding. [ow]
W,q sharp increase in toughness as the temperaiure increases,
--.r-o"ttgm;f"@Slt
as sho_wnin_Curve,4 qf Fig. 4 1 l. @
-. as-sharu!_!J_ rfrrvx g-rn-\E:-.4.1t. This slight increase in toughness makes the
Cv test impractical to use in high strength steels.
The of dull and areas in the cross section of tested
(Fig. 4.10c).
(c) pencert or sxeln rnlctune
AFTEB TESTII'IG.
Fig'rre ,1.10 Chorpy V-notch sp€c'men.
nil ductility temperature.
The nil ductility transition (NDT) temperature shown in Fig. 4.11 is of
significant importance when considering low strength steels. This temperature is
below which the fracture appearance of steel changes from part shear to com-
plete cleavage. Thus, this temperature is below which vessels with low strength
steel must not operate without a detailed fracture evaluation.
The Cv tests give a good qualitative indication of fracture hends. TlpylQlot,
however. eive anv coffelation between enersv and stress levels. Such informa-
tion G-neeh wriirJ i-strisianaiviii is ftooila. roitrti.-iJ*n. other methods
were devised such as the drop weight test {DWT) established by the U.S. Naval
=
s Research. Laboratory .
I
Drup We@ht Test (DWT)
z
The DWT procedure is given in ASTM E-208 and consists of welding a brittle
bead on a test specimen. The bead is then notched and the specimen impact
I l$ted at various temperatures. The NDT temperature is obtained when the
specimen does not break upon impact.
In testing the specimens, deflection can be limited such that the stress at
failure does not exceed the yield value. Thus, a direct correlation is established
between the NDT temperature and yield stress. Such information is used in
constructing the fracture analysis diagram (FAD).
cuRvi(A) CURVE(s)

Fisure 4.ll Cv En€rgy tronlilion €urye.. Fracture Analysis Diagratn (FAD)

The FAD is one of the earliest applications of brittle fracture rules to fail-safe
designs. The results obtained from the curve are very conservative but require
64
 -/

66 MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION 4.5 BRITTIT FRACTURE 67

the minimum in engineering analysis. A simplified version of the diagram for
low strength steels is shown in Fig. 4.12 and indicates the types of tests required
to construct the diagram.
Point A is obtained from the DWT and it establishes the location of the NDT
temperature with respect to yield stress. The crack arrest temperature (CAT)
curve, developed by the Naval Research Laboratory is obtained by running
explosive tests on sample plates at various temperatures and observing the crack
pattem. From such tests the fracture tear elastic (FTE) point is determined at the
temperature at which the crack pattem changes from bulge and fracture to bulge
and partial fracture, as shown in Fig. 4.12. The fracture tear plastic (FTP) point
is obtained when the crack pattem changes from bulge and partial fracture to
bulge and shear tears. The FTE point also locates the yield stress with respect
to temperature, whereas the FTP point locates the ultimate stress.
Below point A in Fig. 4.12, fracture does not propagate regardless of the
temperatue as long as the stress is below 5-8 ksi. Between points A and other
stress lines are drawn to correlate various stress levels. These lines are obtained
from the Roberson test, which consists of impact testing a specimen that is
stressed to a certain level and heated from one side to create a temperature
gradient as shown in Fig. 4.13.
Figure 4.14 shows the complete fracture analysis diagram. The range of flow
sizes at various stress levels has been obtained from experiments as well as
experience. The experiments consisted of using large spheres of good impact
material and replacing portions of them with a notched brittle material. The
spheres were then pressurized to a given stress level at the NDT temperature of
the brittle material. The size of the notch was varied with different stress levels
to obtain the range in the figure.
I
mpAcT

ERiP
Figure 4.13 Diosrom of specimen urd in Roberrson crock-drrBr bsr.

0{DT+60"F) ( DT+120'F)

YIELD
TEMP+ srnEss

ls
lz
T
lKl
M lft\ ll

"
tet
L_________J
,BULGE'
tL) I
I
FLAT" BULGE "BuLGE"
FRACTIJRE & & &
FRACTURE PARTIAL SHEAR =
FRACTURE TEABS riloT (NI'I+3o'F) (NDT+60'F) (NDT+r20'F)
TEMe-.-
Figurc 4.12 Frocluro onolFis diogrom. Fisuro 4.14 Generdliz€d frocture onolysis d,osrom.
 MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION 4,5 BRITTLE FRACTURE 69

ln using Fig. 4-14, the following limitations must be considered:

1. It applies only to low carbon steels.

2. It is valid for thicknesses of less than 2 in. Larger thicknesses require
special evaluation and it has been proposed that the FTE temperature for
thicknesses over 6 in. should be taken as NDT + 120"F rather than 60

NDT + 60'F. The FfP temperature should be NDT * 210"F instead of 50

NDT + 120'F. This indicates that for thick sections, Fig. 4.14 is on the ,4O
unconservative side and the safe operating temperature should be greater ":l 30
Cl 20
than those indicated by the figure. El 10
El
4l o
Example 4.2. A low-carbon steel material with NDT temperature of 15"F is -l
ul -1o
used in a pressure vessel. What is the rninimum safe operating temperature for Ft -20
-30
such material?
_40
-50
Solution. Because no stress level is given, the minimum stress is assumed at -60
yield. Entering Fig. 4.14 at yield stress, the CAT curve is intersected at the FTE or11+22+3
point. Moving vertically, a temperature of NDT + 60"F is obtained. Thus, the THICKNESS
minimum safe opemting temperature is 75'F.
If stress concentrations are assumed in the vessel and the stress level is beyond GRoUP A: Nonnallzed SA-442 over 1,0 ln.
orinrl ized 5A-516 And sA-662
yield at some areas, then a conservative design is at the FTP point. In this case,
the safe operating temperature is NDT + 120'F, or 135'F. I GRoUP 8: SA-442 over 1.0 In. I'lhen l{ot Nonnallzed
5A-516 Up To 1,5 In. Thick

GRoUP C: SA-442 Up To 1.0 In, Thlck

Example 4.3. A low-carbon steel vessel with an NDT temperature of -20oF
GRoUP D: All Carbon And Loll Alloy Steels Not Listed Above.
is to have a start-up temperature of 0'F and a stress level of one-half yield. Is
the start-up iemperature safe? Figure,l.l5 lmpdci test exemption curvos for some corbon sreels. (Co'rrte.y of the Americon Society of
M€€honicol Ensineers.)

Solution. From the CAT curve in Fig. 4. 14 the minimum safe temperature is
at NDT + 30" or 1ffF for a stress of one-half yield. Thus, start-up temperature
is on the unsafe side because it is less than 10'F. If start-up temperature is
critical, the shess will have to be decreased or a better impact material se-
lected. I
4.5.1 ASME Pressure Vessel Criterio
The ASME Code, VIII, uses a different approach for preventing brittle fracture
in pressure vessels with carbon steel construction. Division 1 prohibits the use
of some carbon steels below -20'F and requires impact testing of all others that
are subjected to temperatures below -20"F, with some minor exceptions. Di-
vision 2 uses a more refined approach that takes into account the effect of
material type, thickness, and temperature. Figure 4.15 is a simplified version of
the code approach. It exempts some tough materials of a given thickness from
impact testing when the service temperature is above a specific value given in
the filure.
The above approach, although different from the FAD concept, is a practical
tool for preventing brittle fracture without requiring elaborate analysis; it is
based on test data.
The FAD and ASME criteria are applicable to low-carbon steels where the
effect of temperature is prominent. Toughness of higher strength steels or mate-
rials such as stainless steels, aluminum, or titanium is independent of tem-
perature. Thus, a different approach based on the mathematical theory of frac-
ture toughness is used in establishing adequate toughness.
Example 4.4. A 3.O-in.-thick pressure vessel is made of SA-533 Gr. B mate-
rial with an NDT temperature of 0'F. The design temperature is 50"F and the
design membrane sffess is three-fourths of yield. What are the code fracture
requirements of this vessel if it is constructed in accordance with (a) Division I
of Section VIII, (b) Division 2 of Section VIIL
 MATTRIALS Of CONSTRUCTION
4.5 BRITTTE TRACTURE 7l
Solulian. (a) Because the temperature is over -20"F, Division I does not
configuration of the body and crack. Thus K1 can be expressed by
require any analysis.
(b) From curveD ofFig. 4.15, the minimum temperature that exempts impact
requirements for a 3.0-in.thick vessel is 120'F. Thus a Cy test is manda- &=oF (4.l)
tory. I where F : crack shape factor.
4.5.2 Theory of Brittle Frocture
Unstable crack propagation occurs when the value of K1 reaches a critical
value K1c, which is a function of the properties of the material. Temperature
Basically the brittle fracture theory assumes that stress at the vicinity of a crack
variation could have a drastic effect on the value of K1c. as is the case with low
(Fig. 4. 16) due to a load applied perpendicular to the direction of crack is given
strength carbon steels.
by the following expressions:
Some published K/c values are given in Table 4.7. Experimental deter-
mination of the Krc factors is described in ASMT E-399 and is rather costly to
. 0 30\
".:#(*":)(' - '... . -... ,, I
-stn-stn-l
-/
establish.
Values for the crack shape factor F are normally obtained from the theory of

.: #(*":)(' -i,a30\
srn;
"
srn ,-/ ,
elasticity. Because of the complexity of such analysis, only a few cases are
suited for practical use. Some of them are shown in Table 4.8.
Materials in general lose their toughness as the yield strength increases. One
T4= ./^ |1.0
K,
Sln; cos; cos r,
0 3a\ measure of toughness is the ratio K16 f or. Ratios larger than I .5 indicate tough
vzTIT\ z z z/ materials, whereas lower ratios indicate more brittle materials. A study ofK16/o,
and Eq. 4.1 reveals that the defect factor F has to be very small when o" is high
where a,, o], 7ry = stress components at a point (ksi) and K1q is low. In other words, very small defects in high strength materials can
lead to catastrophic failures.
r, 0 = polar coordinates from tip of crack
Fracture theory is one the most accurate methods presently available for
Kt : fracine toughness factor (ksiV-in) evaluating maximum tolerable defect size. The main drawback is the difficult
task of obtaining I</c factors for different materials. Economics might dictate a
The fracture toughness factor K1 is a function of applied load as well as the simplified approach like FAD or the ASME criteria with a small permissible
defect size rather than a fracture theory approach that might allow a larger
tolerable defect.
tft Relatiaiship Between K1g and Cy

Determination of K1c values is tedious and expensive especially for low strength

Toble 4.7 Some Approximofe K7a Volues

JK/c (ksi\-inJ
Material - 300"F -200'F - 100"F

A302-Gr. B 25 34 48
,A.5l7-Gr. F 34 44 7'7
A203 Gr. A norm. 38 50
A203 Gr. A Q and T 83
A.533 Gr. B 35 40 46 78
Figure 4.16 Elostic srres, distribulion neor rhe tip of
HV-80 55
 Tqble 4.8 Shope Foclors for Common Configurolions
Tqble 4.8 Shope Foctors for Comrnon Configurolions (Coniinued)

case l: Flovl in a sheet of inf inlte vrldth. Case 4: Internal elliptic flow jn a thlck plate

l"
3t . If .a2
(
6 E-
E-'g_ E_ Rer'
F=V ra l,ihere u2a' is the ni nor axiiss and "2c"
" is the maior axl s

La se 5 : Singl e edge notcn.

o
I
( Ref. 2, p. 49 )
I

Case 2: I n terna l ci rcul ar flow in a sheet of finite wi dth F=CVir.a

to
Itl
lll c=1i1'iF+o227+ roa(i)'-zasz(if
/ \4
r l1'2 +4272 t+l
F=Fr.L# tan @wl \r /
( XET 328 )

case 6: Elliptlcal surface flow.

o ( Ref. 2, P s0 )

Clse 3: Internal clrcular flow in a thick pl ate.

F=
- o.ztzo2f or2
F=zVT where"2c" is cra ck length' "a" is crack depth, o ls actual
( Ref. 3, P. 39 ) materlal stress, and oy ls yleld stress. ( Ref. 5
where "a" is radlus'of crack 31 )

73
74 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 4.5 BRITTTE FRACTURE 75

steels. Various methods relating the,K/c factor to the relatively inexpensive Cy 4.5.4 Foctors lnfluencing Britlle Froclure
test have been suggested. One empirical method proposed by Rolfer and Barsom
consisted of preparing two equations for correlation purposes. One equation Many factors such as torch cutting, arc strikes, and cold forming affect the britde
relates the Cy and K1s values at the transition temperature region, whereas the fracture behavior of metals and should be considered in fabricating pressure
other equation is applicable at the upper shelf region. Thus, for the hansition vessels. Torch cutting or beveling of the plate edges may lead to hard and brittle
region,6 areas. In cases where this condition is underdesirable the plate should be heated
to minimize this effect. Grinding the edges eliminates the hard surfaces.
Krc:155Cvtl2 (4.2) Arc strikes can create failure by brittle fracture especially if the strike is made
over a repaired area. It is desirable to grind and repair all arc strikes before
whereas for the upper shelf range, hydrotesting, especially at low temperatures.
Cold forming of thick plates may lead to fracture in areas with stress raisers
or plate scratches. All stress raisers should be ground off to minimize their
f&Y:4ofQ-o.r)
\ov./ \sr /
(4.3)
effect. Hot-forming substantially improves the situation because it increases the
NDT temperature and thus prevents brittle fracture.
where Cv is in ft-lb, o" in ksi, and K1g in ksivG. Equations 4.2 and 4.3 are for
medium strength steels such as 4.517 Gr. F and 4302 Gr. B.
Example 4.5, A titanium pipe (ASTM 8265 Gr. 5) with a 2.375-in. outer
4.5.3 Hydroslotic Testing diameter and a 0.154-in. wall thickness has an actual stress of 30 ksi. a vield
stress of 120 ksi, and K1q :
40 ksiVin at a given temperature. The pipe
Hydrostatic testing of a pressure vessel is the best available method for deter- contains a flow of depth 0.05 in. and length 0.25 in., which is similar to case
mining maximum tolerable defect size. Thus, if a thick pressure vessel is 6 of Table 4.8. What is the maximum internal pressure the pipe can hold?
hydrotested at a pressure that is 50% greater than the design pressure, the critical
K1 is given by Eq. 4.1 as
Solutian. From a conventional strength of material analysis, the pressure
required to yield the pipe is given by Fig. 5.4 as
K1g = oF
a\Rl - Rl) -
'^
Assuming an intemal defect represented by case 3 of Table 4.8, the maximum 120(1.88'z 1.034':)
K16 immediately after hydrotesting is Rl - Ri r.88r - r.034,

Krc: t.5
/ I;\
r.(r\/;J Using fracture toughness approach, maximum stress is

Krc
Maximum defect size r at the design pressure is given by F

: (, From case 6 in Table 4.8,

"',('fu) " -l1f/

1.12\4;Xo.o5)
= 0.359
or

- - t t<^ Hence, o : 40/0.359 - 111.4 ksi

Hence, a crack that is discovered after hydrotesting can grow 2.25 times its ^ tll.4(t.88)2- t.0341 :
maxr: 14Jl(sl
original size before causing failure. This fact illustrates the importance ofhydro- ll8' r l034':
testing and is based on a hydrostatic temperature that is the same as the lowest
operating temperature of the vessel. 'l'hcrclirre liacture toughness criteria control the design. I
 NONMETATTIC VESSEIS 77
MATERIAIS OF CONSTRUCTION
76
to be used
Examnle 4'6. An A302-B material with a yield stress of 50 ksiofisthe percent
irl The Cv value is 15 ftlb and an examination
".!*"* "".r"1.
#"i^il;; .rott ...,i* of tested specimens indicate a temperature in the
plarc uncovered an elliptical
transition range. Ultrasomc examination of the
il;;;;d. fit" surface that is 0.375 in long and 0 25 in deep How safe is
the vessel if the operating stress is I yield?

5
Solution. From Eq 4'2' K1g = 15(15)0 = t9 ksiVin-
From Table 4.8, case 4, 1C;-Yr Mo Stccl

\/;ajzr
F=
;ts+l;ts,,oI25/orus" - "-"
Hence, from Eq' 4'1, o-: 19/0'46: 41 ksi Actual stress : x So = r:
Therefore' operation'lof the vessel
i.fl*fit"rt it l_es's,rtan the critical brittle stress
is safe unless the defect grows in size l

4.6 HYDROGENEMBRITTLEMENT

can embrittle steels

Essentially, the two different methods by which hydrogen
are:

penetrates the steel

l. Hydrogen decarburization' In this case hydrogen
and combines with the carbides in the structure
(Fig' 4 8) to form meth-
of the original carbide and
ane gas. This gas accumulates in the space
acceler-
;;il;t ;p p;";t" that leads to cracking' This process normally
ates with an increase rn temperature ind in operating One
-pressure' Here
method of minimizing hydrogen attack is by using Cr-Mo steels'
do not readily combine
the carbides are in solution wiih ttre cr or Mo and Hydrogen ,orliol pretlu?c, P.r. i
to in a giv€n combination
*ittt th" hyd.og"n. The type of steel be used Fisure 4.17 (Courtesy of the Americon Pelroleum lBrirute.)
of te-perutu."hd p,"ttot" it normally determined by the Nelson chart
in Fig. 4.17.

2. Hydrogen attock. Researchers have observed that hydrogen attacks

-' of a pressure vessel at temperatures below 200'F when
"Jatuin"r"gions Brinelland higher' The
4.7 iIONMETALLIC VESSETS
they have-high hardniss zones in the range o1200
exactly, but it is believed that the hydro-
exact mechanism is not known Rules for fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) pressure vessels are covered in
with higher stressed zones. Accordingly,
een is attracted to hard regions Section X of the ASME pressure vessel code. Construction of FPR vessels is
with Brinell hardness below
;;;;;;;q-t" soft h;-affected zones a
divided into four classes: the contact molding, bag molding, centrifugal casting,
200 to avoid hydrogen attacks at low temperatures'
 MATERIATS OF CONSTRUCTION BIBTIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY
and fi lament-winding Processes.
In the contact-mol,cling process reinforcements and resins are placed in a cast
Aluminum Standards aM Data, Alrmin'um Association, Washington, D.C., 19'19.
mold and cured at room temperature. Vessels constructed by this process are
Alner, S. H.,Introduction to Phlsical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1964.
limited to a design pressure of 150 psi.
Nichols, R. W -, Pressule Vessel Engineering TechnologJ, Applied Science Publisherc, England,
In the bag-molding process a pressurized bag is used to compress Prerolled t91l
and heads preforms against an outer heated mold The
.
fiberglass Thielsch, H., Defects and Failures in Pressure Vessels akd PipinS, R. E. Krieger, New York,
"!hnd".t
uessels conjtructed by this process are also limited to 150 psi pressure' 1965.
In the centrifugal casting process, the cylindrical sections are formed from
chopped fiberglasi strands and a resin system in a mandrel, which is spun to
oroduce a suitible laminate and heated to cure the resin system Pressure vessels
constructed by this method are also limited to 150 psi design pressure'
In the filamenrwinding process, filaments of glass and resin are wound in a
systematic manner to form various components. The ASME code limits the
pressure range to 1500 psi for filament-wound vessels with cut filaments and to
i000 psi for filament-wound vessels with uncut filaments'
FRi' vessels normally operate at low temperatres. The ASME Code, Section
X, limits the temperature iange between a minimum of -65oF and a maximum
of 150'F. Also, because the modulus of elasticity is about 1 103 ksi, special x
care must be exercised in designing various components Because of this and
because different fabrication processes produce different strength vessels, the
ASME Code states that in order for a given vessel to be adequate, a prototype
must be cycled 100,000 times between zero and design pressure and then burst
at a Dressure not less than six times the design pressure'

REFERENCES

Pellini, W. S., "Principles of Fracture Safe Design-Part l" ln Pressure Vessels and Piping:
Design and A'',,lysis, Vol. l, American Society of Mechanical Engineers'
New York' 1972

Tetelman. A. S., and A. J. McEvily, Jr' Fracture of Structural Materidlt, John Wiley ' New
York, 1967.

Rolfe. S. T., and J. M Ba$om F/(r cture anal Fatig e Control in Structures' Prentice-Hall'
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1977.
Water Reactor
Riccardella, P. C., and T. R. Mager, "Farigue Crack Growth in hessunzed
Vessels" in Pressare ye ssels and Piping: Disigtl and Analysis, Vol l, American
Society of
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1972.

Wessel, E. T., andT.R Magel, "Fracture Mechanics Technology as Applied toThick-Walled

ttu"t"- pa".*," Vessels" in Pressure vessels and PipitlS: DesiSn and Analysis' vol l'
American Society of Mechanical Engineers' New York, 1972

Roberts, R., and Newton, "lnterpretive Repoft on Small-Scale-Test Conelations with f''
C
DaA," Welling Rcs\rch Council' Bulletin 265, New York' | 981'
 PART2
ANALYSIS OF
COMPONENTS

8l
 CHAPTER 5
STRESS IN CYLINDRICAL
SHELLS

Atr'0|t|h,t|.otcy|lndr|co|lh!|hinochomicolP|on|'(cour|g,yofE.|.dUPontdaNomoursondco.)

83
 11 3TR!IS IN CYTINDRICAI gHErrS 3,I STRI3E DUE TO INTTRNAT PRESSURE
85

5.I STRESS DUE TO INTERNAL PRESSURE

Thc classic equation for determining stress in a thin cylindrical shell subjected
to pressur€-is obtained from Fig. 5.1. Summation of forces perpendicular to
plane ABCD gives

PL.2r:ZoeLt
Figur€ 5,2

ot= Pr (s.1)
Also,
T
dw
where p = g€ssure (s.3)
ar
Z = length of cylinder deflection of a cylindncal shell subjected to internal pressure
the.radj4 is
o, = hoop stress obtained by subsdrudng rhe quantity e6: osf E in6 Eq.
5.i. ilnce for thin
cvllnoers
r = radius
I = thickness
(s.4)
The stain ee is defined as
where
final length - original length E = modulus of elasticity
original length

and from Fig. 5.2, Equations 5.1 and 5.4 give accurate results when r/r >
10. As r// decreases,
however, a more accurate expression is needed because the stress distribution
2t(rIw)-2rr through the thickness is not uniform. Recourse is then made to the,.thick
shell,,
€0= theory' first developed by Lame. The derived equations are based on the
z1fr forces
and stresses shown in Fig. 5.3. The theory assumes that all shearing
---;- stresses are
zero due to symmetry and thal a plane section that is normal
to thjongitudinal
axls pressure is applied remains plane after pressurization. In other
-betore
w words, e1 is constant at any cross section.
(s.2) A relationship between oi and_o1 can be obtained by taking a free_body
_.
diagram of ring dr as shown in Fig. 5.30. Summing ior"", ii the vertical
direction and neglecting higher-order tdrms, we then h-ave

do,
ae- o, = dr (5.5)

A second relationship is obtained from Eqs. 3.2, which is written as

o,
(l + rr)(1 - 2*rl+(t - + + e)l
\.
Flgor.5.l Fr€c-body diogrom ol d rylindricol $ell lubi.ctod to intarnol prerlure. 1t) p,(e, I
I
86 5.I STRESS DUE TO INTERNAT PRISSURE 87

w = -t . *n--t=A
.€1

lr'(t - t, - ztt\(Er? - p,r|) + r?r1{o + D(n - p")l (5.8)

Once w is obtained, the values of o6 and d; are determined from Eqs. 5.2, and
5.3, and 5.6 and expressed for thick cylinders as

pr? - p,r? + (pt p")(r7r3/r2)

_
aa _
= -
----- 4:i- (5.9)
4rZ - nrl + (n - n)blrl/rz)
,-" - ,l
la' tb)
Fisuro 5.3 Cro5s i€.rion of o tfiick cylindricol :hell. where o; = radial stress
od : hoop stress

o! [er(l-p)+pr(e,+e)] (s.6) p, = intemal pressure

(l + p)(1 :
p, extemal pressure
E
(1 +pXl- .r.^ [€r(l - ;r) + g.(e, + e)l 4: inside radius
r, = outside radius
Substituting Eqs. 5.2 and 5.3 into the first two expressions of Eq. 5.6 and r= radius at any point
substituting the result into Eq. 5.5 results in
The distribution given by Eq. 5.9 of the shesses through the thickness of a
dzw-r ldw
--'-t
w v-
--- - -- cylinder due to iniernal and extemal pressues is shown in Figs. 5.4 and 5.5,
ar rar r- =
- respectively.
A comparison between Eqs. 5.1 and 5.9 is shown in Fig. 5.6. The figure
A solution of this equation is illustrates the adequacy of Eq. 5. I for r,/4 ratios of less than or equal to 1.1 (or,
conversely, rt/t > lO).
.B (s.7)
The longitudinal stress in a thick cylinder is obtained by substituting Eqs. 5.2,
5.3, and 5.8 into tle last expression of Eqs. 5.6 to give

whcre A and B are constants of integration and are determined by first substi- oI= EeI+2p(\? - !"31
tuting Eq. 5.7 into the first one of Eq. 5.6 and then applying the boundary r;- ri
conditkrns
This equation indicates thato1 is constant throughout a cross section because €r
o,: -Pi at r= ri is constant and r does not appear in the second term. Thus, from Fig. 5.7 the
expression ot can be obtained ftom statics as
rnd
4r? - P"r'z.
(5.10)
o, = _p, ,2_.?

ljxorrulon 5.7 then becomes With or known, Eq. 5.8 for the deflection of a cylinder can be expressed as
 6=tr,..t!id-
- f;-Ji \ J' I)

"'=-++r(#)

surr.ce
Ar Inne.
+=t+
)=-t
surraco
.Ai
Ourer
+="#
ft=o
Figurc 5.4 Slrca! dishibdion in o rfiick cytirder du. to inrornol prcrlur€.

Fi9ur6 5.6 Comporison ot tornulor for hoop sire33 in o cylindricol 5hcll.

,,=#e#)

At fnnersurtace
"r=ffi
ft=o
aroorersurfaca
"r-#ifl
9=_r.o
P"-
Figuro 5,5 Str€ls dithibt ion in o thick cylin&r due l,o enornol pr.3sur€.

88
90 STRESS tN CYr"tNDRtCAt SHtrrs 5.I STRESS DUE TO INTTRNAI PRESSURT 9l

l(Ptri - P,,r!,)lt - + (h - t',,)rlrl,(l

zr.t) + rt) (5. 1 1)
From Lame's equation (see Fig. 5.4)
Lr\r; - ri)
_rl+
ot r?
The deflection pattem for external and intemal pressures is shown in Fig. 5.8. P rl- r!

Example 5.1. The inside radius of a hydraulic cylinder is 12.0 in. What is the
required thickness if P :
7500 psi and a6 = 20,000 psi? loe +p
, = /l "\ /--------= -
Solulinn. From membrane Eq. 5.1
: 5.80 in.

t=-:
Pr 7500 x 12
22Eo. I
Hence, the error of using Eq. 5.1 in this case is
oo 20,000

= 4.50 in. Example 5.2. A cylinder has an inside radius of 72.0 in. and an internal
pressure of 50 psi . What is the required thickness if the allowable stress is 1 5 ,000
psi, 1.r
: 0.3, and E = 30 x 10o Psi?

lnternal Pressur€ Solution. From membrane Eq. 5.1,

-
50x72 : 0.24 rn.
*=!"il+##tdl 15,000

From Eq. 5.4,

Max.!t At Inner Surlace x 722

50 : 0.0360 in.
30x106x0.24
w.=E:tfl2:lll Using the thick shell theory, we obtain the required thickness from Fig. 5.4 as
'E(ro"-r;")

')
: O.24 in.
External Pressure
and from Fig. 5.8,

*=-& . t 'tr'(r - zr) * r,"(r *,., )I (5q?2f | 2-0.3 \

e.r (r;- r,')
': 30 x rgu \tf* - rV1

Max.q At Inner Surrace w,=-B:dJiJ2:t) = 0.0305 in.

EGTil rlft
Examples 5.1 and 5.2 indicate that Eq. 5.1 is adequate when the ratio is
Figure 5.8 Rodiol deflftrion du€ lo inlernol ond exrernol prelsore. sreater than 10. I
 3TRI3S IN CYIINDRICAI SHETIS 5.2 OISCONTINUITYANAIYSIS 93

Problcms

5,1 A cylinder with an inside diameter of 24 in. is subjected to an intemal

dx
pressure of 10,000 psi. Using an allowable stress of 25,000 psi, determine
the required thickness. + 4!!.|i ax
dox
-?t dx
Answer: t:6.33 in.

5.2 A cylinder has an inside diameter of 12 in. and an outside diameter of 18

in. Determine the maximum intemal pressure that can be applied if the
maxirnum allowable stress is 20.000 psi.

Answer: p1 = 7690 psi

5.3 A cylinder is subjected to an external pressure of 5000 psi and an internal

pressure of 2000 psi. If 11 = 15 in. and rz = 19 in., what is the maximum
circumferential, longitudinal, and radial stresses? At what location do they
occur? l{o dx

Answer: o6: -17,900 psi at inner surface

o, = -5000 psi at outside surface

at = -9960 psi uniform tkough thickness (b)

Figore 5.9
5.2 DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS

All the previous equations were based on the assumption that the cylinder is free which indicates that N, must be a constant.
to deform under pressure. In practical applications, the cylinder is attached to Let
end closures that reshain its deformation. Other items such as stiffenirg rings
and internal bulkheads affect the cylinder deformation and introduce local N,:0
stesses. These local shesses can be evaluated by a dicontinuity-type analysis
using the general bending theory of thin cylindrical shells. The theory assumes Also,
that the loads are symmetric around the circumference and that the thickness of
the shell is small compared with its radius. It is also assumed that the in-plane
shearing forces and moments are zero. The problem then reduces to that of >4=0
solving the forces shown in Fig. 5.9. The relationship between these forces can
be obtained from statics. Hence, from Fig. 5.9,

d?'+at=r
>4:0 dxr
(s.12)

Similarly,

ff*,ar=o 2M,=o
94 3TRE5S IN CYIINDRICAT SHETIS 5.2 DISCONTINUITYANAIYSIS 95

and the hoop strain as

or

*-a.=o
ax
(s.l3) ee= -i
w
(5.18b)

Deleting Q, from F4s. 5.12 and 5.13 gives Substituting expressions 5.18a and 5.18b into Eq. 3.11 gives

N, + d2M,
---:--l : r (5.14) y,=.Et ;1r,r p,e6)=o
-r ta- t' - lt-

This equation has two unknowns, N6 and M,' Both unknowns can be
expressed
by Eq'
in t".-, of,h" O"flection w. The relationship between M' and w is
given
3.1I as du: /w\
dx lLl-
= \r/
|

",: -r(r,tt. - *t") Also,

Mo= -'(#..?) Et
Ns:7r-p- ,\es+ Pe)

Et' (s'15)
D,= rro=E
the a-direction is zero due to (5.19)
Because the rate of change of deflection in
symmetry, the above two equations reduce to
Substituting Eqs. 5.16 and 5.19 into Eq. 5.14 yields
-r(**) (s. 16)
".= u4*r(*\:-,
and
r' \dx+ /

_*(#) Defining
",: no: Lt ".il
- lL-)
-Jlt (s.20)
4r2D r2t2

Me = FM, (s.17)
the differential equation becomes
'l'hc cxprcssion for No is derived from the axial and hoop strains' In refening to
liil, 5.9, thc uxitl strain is given by (5.21)
ffi*oon*=-+
du (5.l8a)
ax where p is a function of .r.
)
96 tTRlSt tN CYUNDRTCAT SHlrtg 5,2 DISCONTINUIIY ANAIYSIS i7

5.2.1 Long Cyllndorr and

One of the most practical applications of Bq. 5.21 is for long cylinders subjected
io end shears and moments as shown in Fig. 5.10. The force and deformation
a.l._,= n"= -,(#)1."
distribution at any point r along the cylinder due to O0 and M0 can be obtained
from Eq. 5.21 with P = 0. Hence, Hence,

aw .'.'*-"".--",
;i+4p.w:o _ -l
^ct=;;7i(Qo + Bmsli
LP tl
;

A solution of this equation can be expressed 'Ms

as
\L*---
a=,
?E:p" - '""
l
' '"-
= ::lg
l -:1. **!.gz;it
-
p*t +
- y-tc-'-e$
€L-L. 9r-t* -ff)- _J-.gD
Equation 5.22 then becomes
By observation we can conclude that the deffection due to and Me approaches
@6
zero as .r aplnoaches infinity. Thus the constants C1 and C2 must be set to zero
and the solution becomes w=
]6rl?tvtobin Bx - cos F.r) - O cos Fx].

;i = e-tu(q cos B, a Ca sin (s.22)

By defining
The constants C: and Ct can be evaluated from the boundary conditions
{* = e-e(cos Br + sin Br)
M.
.=o=
Mo= -'e;1.=" !* = e-&(cos Br - sin pr)
(s.23)
Cs = s-$t
"o"
P
Ds = e-tu P
"in
the deflection and its derivatives can be expressed as

, :;fu<oro"* + escp)

#= *1roU""ctu+ S.AP)
(s.24)
t:=$aor"os+zeoD,,)

# = jour,De'- enBB,)

Values of Ap,, BB,, CB,, ar]d Dg, are given in Table 5.1.
Using the terminology of Eqs . 5 .23 and 5 .24 , the expressions for M, arfi Q,
Figur.5.l0 are represented by
98 sTRtss tN CYUNDRtCAt SHEttS 5,2 DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS 99

Tqblr 5.f Vqfurr of functiqng Ap* Bp- Cp. Dp, Toble 5.2 Vqrious Disconlinuity Funclions

B, Bu, Cp" DB,

0 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.0000

0.05 0.9976 o.9025 0.9500 0.0475
0.10 0.9907 0.8100 0.9003 0.0903 ilo
0.15 0.9'19'7 0.7224 0.8510 0.1286 ,F; -
2
Qq
B3A
0

0.20 0.9651 0.6398 0.8024 o.1627

e tlo
---F 0 0
0.30 0.926'7 0.4888 0.707'7 0.2189 2Bz,D
0.40 0.8784 0.3564 0.6174 0.2610
t4^ 0 zB2.o.to 28. D. eo
0.50 0.8231 o.2415 0.5323 0.2908
0.55 0.7934 0.1903 o.4919 0.3016 Ne -2 oB2.t 26. r. Qo E.t.Ao 0
0.60 0.7628 0.1431 0.4530 0.3099
0.80 0.6354 -0.0093 0.3131 o.3223 qo 0 46 3. 0, A0 282 .D.e o
Qo
l_00 0.5083 -0.1108 0.1988 0.3096
1.20 0.3899 -0. 1716 0.1091 0.2807
-llo 0o
? ttu'-tu''
8o" C- Ao(2Cax-8Bx)
1.40 0.2849 0.0419 0.2430 ""
-0.201l ,F.o 28'D
1.60 0.1959 -o.2077 -0.0059 0.2018
1.80 0.1234 0.1610 0 t4o C^b" -0o z8do ( ABx - cBr) eo {ABr( - 2CBx)

2.00 0.0667
-0.1985 -0.0376
0.1231
E;r'- iPo ^p,
-0.r794 -0.0563
q9 . zB2.o,t4lrr -cr, ?$ D'ed DB, -aB")
2.50 -0.0166 -0.1149 -0.0658 0.0491 D-
B FX
3.00 -0.0423 -0.0563 -0.0493 0.0070
3.5 -0.0389 -o.0177 -0.0283 -0.0106 Ne zlioB2.r.Br, 28. r. Qo. CBx !1. ao ( 2ce
" -8." :.t.00(c^
F-3- p'
-8" )

4.0 -0.0258 0.0019 -0.0120 -0.0139

5.0 0.0084 0.0019 Qx -26. tito , DBx Q6. Bgx 4B3D,aJ B6x- DBx) tB2. D. oo ( 2DBr+B
-0.0045 -0.0065 B)(

6.0 0.0017 0.0031 0.0024 -0.0007 'clockwise moments and lotation arc positive at point 0. Outward forces and deflections arc
't.o 0.0013 0.0001 0.0007 0.0006 positive at point 0. Me = tir|..

M"= _r(+\ = + 2eoDB,)

Fig. 5.11. From Table 5.1 the values of Bx at which M, is equal to
\ax- / fi<zou,ea (5.25)
7Vo of Mp
are about 2.00.
Q,=QBMnDy-QoB*)
M" Bx = 2.00
The relationship between M,, Q, N, w, and d for various boundary condi-
tions is shown in Table 5.2. or
2
Exarnple 5.3. A long cylindrical shell is subjected to end moment M0. Plot the
value of M, from F, : 0 to p, : 4.0. Also, determine the distance .r at which
e
thc moment is abort 7Vo of the original applied moment M0. and

.r: 1.56\G (l)

Solution. From Eq. 5.25, M,: MoAs.
The values of Ak are obtained from Table 5. 1 and a plot of M, is shown in The significance of the quantity 1.56Vr . l is apparent from Fig. 5. I 1. It shows
r00 3TR!35 lN CYllNORlCAL Sl{llts 5.2 DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS 't0l

that 0 momcnt epplicd at thc cnd dissipatewery rapidly and reduces as much as To find the maximum moment M,, the above equation can be differentiated
94% ofthe original momcnt atr = l.56Vrt. This indicates that any other force with respect to r and equated to zero. Hence,
applied ot that distance x can be analyzed without regard to the applied moment
Mo' I
Example 5.4. A long cylinder is subjected to end shear ps. Plot the value of *, = sinA
M, as a function of C0 from Fx : 0 to Fx = 4.0 and derive the location of the 3.e-&
maximum value of M,.
ff =o= sin Bx * Be-tu cos Bx)
ftr-Ou*
Solutinn, From Eq. 5.25,

,'=*o^
Referring to Table 5. 1 for values of D p,, a plot of M,/ (Qo/B) can be constructed
as shown in Fis. 5.11.
and maximum moment is given by

, _ o.34Qo I

Example 5.5. Determine the expression for the deflection of a long cylinder
with end closures due to intemal pressure p.

Solutinn. For intemal pressrre p, the axial force it 7'1, = pr/Z and the hoop
force is Ne = pr. Also from Eqs. 3.11 and 5.18,

PrEtlw\
z r-F-\"lexr lr-l
==:- r/
and

pr=,E' ,(Y* ur,\

r - rr'\r /
Solving for e, and w gives

Pr (l - 2tt)
q ''Et2
'ry and

Figura 5.1I '#('- t) (l) I

t02

trlxomple 5.6. A
STNESS IN CYTINDRICAT SHELTS

still'cning ring is pllced anrund u cylinder at a distance

rcmoved from the ends us shown in Fig. 5. 12. The cylinder has a radius of 50.0
in., a thickness of 0.25 in., and is subjected to an intemal pressure of 100 psi.
5.2
-+rrtr
DISCONTINUITYANATYSIS r03

Assuming E : 30 x 106 psi and & = 0.3, find

"I oo {odo

(a) The discontinuity stress in the shell with the ring assumed to have
Figuro 5.13 Sign conv6ntion oi poini 0, clockwiss 0 ond i4" ore + , outword w dnd Q. oro -
infinite rigidity .
(b) The discontinuity stress in the shell and ring if the ring has a thickness
of 0.375 in. and a depth of 4.0 in. From Eq. 5.15,

Solution. D= 0.00143 E

(a) and from Eq. 5.20,

A free-body diagram of the shell-to-ring junction is shown in Fig. 5.13.
Because the ring is assumed to have infinite rigidity, the deflection due to
pressure must be brought back to zero by a force pq. Also, because the slope at B=03636
the shell-to-ring junction is zero (due to symmetry), a moment M0 must be
applied at the junction to reduce the slope created by force Qs to zero . From Fig .
Hence the deflection compatibility equation becomes
5. 13,
Mo- 2'75OQo= -321'39 (1)

deflection due to P - deflection due to Qe * deflection due to Mo = g

The second compatibility equation gives

The deflection due to P is obtained from Eq. I in Example 5.5, whereas the
deflections due to M0 and Qs are obtained from Eq. 5.24. Hence rotation due to O0 - rotation due to Me = 0

tl(r-E\ -4 +!!=:o
E.r \' 21 2B3D zB'D
Qo-ZBUo:g e)

4" x 3/8" ri ng Solving Eqs. I and 2 gives

Mo : 321'4 in.Jb/in'

The maximum longitudinal stress is given by

.=N.ry
= 40,900 psi

The maximum hoop moment is given by Eq. 5.17 as

tigure 5.12
Me = 96.4 in.-lb/in.
 tTRttt tN cruNDRrcat sHttls !.2 DISCONTINUITY AI,IATYSIE t0t
l0.l

Tho hoop force Nc is glvcn by Eq. 5.19 as Due to 00,

2Qor(r + 2)
-,
"r
Etw
'= - bdE
0=0
But because w = 0, N6 is equal to zero and the maximum hooP stress is
Due to Mo,

*:T*,", w=0
d=0
The deflection comPatibilitY is
O) The shell deformations are expressed as follows:
Due to R
-1-', wp - wQo* ,*]"' - ,o + *roof^"
, - p,-'-
",
- ='#l'- i) {
,i( - t) -
#. #=,*#!".'3e#2
L'=o *-*-- I

?Y'oo'
Mo - 4.0@o: -296'8 (3)

Sirnilarly,

f0, + ilao- 9al"t. = lflp + ilMo - 0oJn*

Due to Mo,

Mn
':t9o
-Mo
@ and

2BMs-20=g (4)
The ring deformations are expressed as follows:
Due to p,
Solving Eqs. 3 and 4 yields
pr(r + d/2\
n=- dE Mo = 152'0 in-lb/in.

0=0 Oo : 110.6 lb/in.

t06 STRESS tN CYUNDRTCAT. SHfttS 5.2 DISCONTINUITYANATYsIS t07

lloop stress in ring is whereas away tiom discontinuity

pr
O,: -- r, ---:---
2Qor Pr
aDa
oe:::20'000Psi
= 1250 + 7370
Problams
= 8620 psi
5.4 A long cylindrical shell is welded at one end to a rigid bulkhead such that
Maximum longitudinal stress in cylinder is the deflection and rotation due to applied pressure are zero. If r = 36 in.,
I = 0.5 in., p : 240 psi. lt: 0.3, and E = 29 x 10" psi, what is the
Pr . ---A-
6Mn
maximum lonsitudinal stress?
O'=
- -
zt I-
_ 100x50 x6x t5?
. Pr -:E- 3Pr
Answet: a= zt
n'T tv3\t _ p2)
2x 0.25
(0.25).
: 24,600 psi
: 40,015 psi

Hoop force at discontinuity is f,.f, The shell in Problem 5.4 is welded to a thin bulkhead such that only the
deflection is zero due to applied pressure. What is the maximum
discontinuity stress?

. o= Pr 0.966Pr
z *;'Fyt - u31
where Answeri
w=lt,p-wgo*wyo
= 18,740 psi
=P"(,-E\- Q, * uo
E \' 21 2B3D 2B2D
5.2.2 Short Cylinders
_ M7,500
E
It was shown in Eq. 1 of Example 5.3 that the applied edge forces in a long
cylinder dissipate to a small value within a distance of l.56Vrr. This basic
behavior enables the designer to discard the interaction between applied loads
.. = E (0.25)(447 ,sOO/ E) when they are far apart. As the cylinder gets shorter, the assumption of long
'", -- 50 cylinders does not apply and constants C1 and C2 in Eq. 5.8 must be considered.
= 2238 lb/in. Consequently, Eqs. 5.23 and 5.24 have to be modified to include the effect of
all four constants. Equation 5.8 may be rewritten in a different form as
and hoop stress at discontinuitv is
w = Ar sin Bx sinh Bx * 42 sin Pt cosh Bx
No . 6Me *A3 cos Bx sinh pt + A4 cos Br cosh B-r 6.26)
oe=----1----r-
T T-

x and a solution obtained for various boundary conditions.

2238, 6(0.3 rsz)
The most ftequent application of this solution is in the case of edge forces and
0.25 0.252
deformations as shown in Table 5.3. Many practical problems can be solved
= 13,300 psi with the aid of Table 5.3 by itself or in conjunction with Table 5.2
 1.2 otscot{TtNutTY ANALYS|S t09

Example 5.7. Derive Np for the case of applied bending moment M6 at edge
5
s ,Tlri
-:- r = 0 for a short cylinder of length l.
:s dld,-------, -- Solution:
,-----..-- dl6
The four boundary conditions are:
Jr ulu v:{v At.r:0
UIU :9 dle | +
r $16 +F ".A.E.E
66aa
5d :E $16 T k k,al ,5 _,(*\ =,"
dld +
-i=._, : d \ax-,/
i<'F
t>.
:s,1, €1. s
+<'
< (a,
l+ri
d.d.&&d.d{d -,(*\
\dx' /
= o

e.eAP)'eAAe atx:
S .--- '=-
.ir ,:
s.d.&6.{&ds. I
--:- --r d|U } - ":"* iiifriEEE
E5r!666a
f- -i-.ir
f-"i-clo
dl6<ilr-, *.. sr tilri
f ltltllllllllllll -,(*\: o
, 5ss>":lss:s \ax- /
r s ",-
>' '-i- dlu
dl6 + _,(*\:o
riltiril6 + f,
i -i- ..i..
* >- dld
ru,
>,' _ ,u
\ax'/
s;' >"
)J --.:
L-J dlu
(JlU €
dlddlu F f - S
Ec:i
€lcq R $l* i
From Eq. 5.26, the second derivative is given by

's":ss)s jj : Z|tte, cos Bx cosh Bx * 42 cos p"r sinh Bx - A3 sin pr cosh pr

dl6 dl6 dl6 dl6
+ + | -:-
|ys:gvr u'16 - Aa sin Bx sinh pr) (l)
dl6 sl6 dl6 dl6 ;s whereas the third derivative is expressed as
| + | | dl6
:ss)9;S+
o dlu dlu d'lu dlu
L--;-,!t,: s,
ca ac, ,1J
#
u,
Z!3lAr(cos px sinh pr pt
! , = - sin cosh Bx)
P
= o,l$ l-l$ 'dl.q R '"'",
-l-F.ils
d aa
I + A2(cos Bx cosh Bx -sin pr sinh pr) (2)
0 r-li- r"-r ca cc- + |
- A(sin pr sinh pr + cos pt cosh pr)
.= .E aa cq
o =
S r--=-'1 | .-=- ,,99 . - .A+(sin pr cosh Bx * cos F-r sinh pv)l
t>-r-rS+
s I s 6le --i ail I = a
o
----T dlu if | + -Hlu-- €€€€.'€ Substituting Eq. I into the first boundary condition gives
c tI +9lri>-s-
s "i rJlr.r 51s
'da6daa
ltlillllllll
,rl
| r---'J,v
I

. : _M^
3 t_,Y dl.: s
t l-. tTlri :g
| ."T..v,
dt6, E s'
.: .l ,i .1 ,1 rt q,
2D B,

(t
"--l =;+
sls slS-E- ht Substituting Eq. 2 into the second boundary condition gives

Az: At
-9
.o
q and from the third and fourth boundary conditions the relationships
F €

108
il0 3TRT33 IN CYIINDRICAI 9HEITS I.2 DISCONTINUITY ANAI.YSIS ltl
Mo lsin Pl cos Pl + sinhB/coshB/
A3 = Dtr \--GF7t:;tnT--
and

-M" / sin2 61 + sinh'? B/

e^ =
zaB, \.l"[tB, -]t"t}
are obtained.
From Eq. 5.19,

: Et*
N,
r
Ft (
= 1(Ar sin ft sinh ft * Az sin Fx cosh Fr
+ A3 cos Br sinh Bx + A+ cos Fr cosh Fr) (3)

Using the values of A1, A2, A3, Aa obtained above and the terminology of Table l_*
t-
,,
5.3, Eq. 3 reduces to
"r I
(b)
Figure 5.1,1
c, t'r f C"
N, = "' ;i*; | -sin pr sinh p1 + ::1sin Bx cosh Bx + cos Pv sinh Fx)
r U)15'| Lt
Cr = O.2028 Cz = 1.1164
C,
- Fx cosh Pr Ct = 1.5444 Cr : 0.5481
frcos I
C5 0.4568 Ce = 0.6596
=
or U=o.272r yl=0.4006
Vq = 1.4984 V: 0 8707
n, = ZrMoF'( -v,
\
* !v,
ct - !v,\
Lt ,/
r %=0.5986 V=0.949s
Example 5.8. Determine the maximum shess at point A of the thin cylinder Thus the expression for wo due to P is given by
in Fig. 5.lzla. I*t p' = 9.3.

Solution. A free-body diagram of junction a is shown in Fig. 5.140. The w: toolrn

deflection at point A in the thick cylinder due to P is obtained from Table 5.3
by letting Br equal to Bl. Hence,
The deflection compatibility equation at point A is
-r lgtu _- Qu. - Qu\
*o: ifrEV-,"' c,u c,"u) =6,
For B' = 0.7421, Dt = 0.01145 E, znd Bx = Bl' the following terms are
obtained: or from Tables 5.2 and 5.3 with r: 0,
tt2 STRESS IN CYI.INDRICAT SHEII.S 5.2 DISCONTINUITY ANALYSIS I t3

Hence, maximum axial stess is

and with B2 : 1.0495 nd D2 = 0.00145 E, the equation becomes " =ry =6Q-'?77:\ = 2s.e P psi
0.252

144'O2P - 288'S2Qo + 436'59M0 = 2983OQo - 313 'O7Mo Thb circumferential bending moment is given by

or Mo = drI" = 0.08 P

(1)
5 '2O6Mo - 4'M7Qo: -P The circumferential force N6 is given by Eq. 5.19 as

The rotation at point A alue to P is obtained ftom Table 5.3 as

-- Etw
_T
we=
^=
A
p //-
_l:!U r' a. \
+;Vl
"P ' +
2q1Dt\ct L1 Lt /
=u4 = 4 {wo^
'to - wroy
r
or Et2l-o.og P -o.27 P\
R \ zBiDz 2giDz /
t, =*n';t'
= lezt.tu
u' -' + 84.53) = 2.53 P

The rotation compatibility equation at point A is No.6Mo

OO-t: --:' -r ----;-
t')=o = t' 2.53 P
_ ., 6(0.08_P)
0.25 0.25'
Hence,
= 17.80 P

, Mo lrct\| -- Qo (cs *co\ = -Mo , v6,

429.33P -{-
-
Qo
Probbms
E zp,o,\c,
- )' zB?o'\cr' cr,/
-9244
-l 5.6 Find the discontinuity stess in the figure shown due to an inlemal pressure
or :
of 375 psi. I*t E 29 x lff psi and p = 9.3.
a1a aa P
+ 896.45M0 + 436.5980 = -657.r3Mo + 3l3.wQo
T
which reduces to

l2'58M0 + Qo = -3J '48 P (2)

Solvlng Eqs. I and 2 yields

Mo = -0.27 P
0o = -0.08 P Probbm 5.6
I l4 STRESS IN CYTINDRICAT SHEtts 5,3 BUCKIING Of CYI.INDRICAL SHELTS 5

5.3 BUCKTING OT CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

as dead
Most cylindrical shells are subjected to various compressive forces such
The behavior of cylindrical shells
weight, wind loads, earthquakis, and vacuum.
intemal pressure'
undlr ih"se compressive iorces is different from those under
In most instancei, the difference is due to the buckling phenomena that render rvr6" + aSoe
cylindrical shells weaker in compression than in tension'
Sturm3 used the system of fbrces in Fig. 5.15 to establish the buckling r"re +affoo
characteristics of cylindrical shells subjected to extemal comp-ressive
forces'
From the figure he derived a relationship between strains and deflections Using re+affae
this relatioiship and Eq. 3. 1 l, he obtained a of
system equations relates
.that
forces and moments to deflections. These equations together with the equi-
*$oe
librium equations determined from Fig. 5.15 result in the four basic differential r.r"=+ So' rvp" +$ae
equations for the buckling of cylindrical shells' a @o"
5.3. I Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides Only lrx +
Sox
For this case, the hoop force is

Ne=-Pr+f(x'0)
where/(x, g) is a function of and 0, which expresses the variation ofN0 from
.x
tt" an".uge uutue. Wtten the deflection w of the shell is very small,/(x, d) is also
u.ry ,-u- . Similarly, the axial and shear stresses are expressed by
N,:0+g(ir'0) Fisuro 5.15

Ne':O+h(x'0)
N'p=0+i(x'0) ..2 :=:;---------;1r"'z[N2,\2 - prti - lt - l]
n.- 3r \t - lt-)
Substituting these expressions into the four basic differential equations for the
buckling oi cylindrical shells, and using boundary conditions for simply sup- a * l.+ trlNz[l + (i t)(z-
oorted J.rds. tire solution for the elastic buckling of a simply supported cylindri- - AA
- tt)]- l}]
cal shell due to uniform pressure applied to sides only is given by
.,2:
L2 --n=
c.: rB(!\ 6.27a) d-r1

where N : number of lobes as defined in Fig. 5.16

where P., = buckling Pressure
: n'r' , ,
E modulus of elasticitY N2 L2
/ = thickness N2L2 ,
D" = outside diameter E-r-

K=KtI
: poisson's ratio
"'(?)
I l6 STRISS IN CYLINDRICAT SHETLS 5.3 EUCKUNG OF CYUNDR|CA| SHttrS tt7

/nl
fi"T
$d
\J/ ,1,

0r4 0.6 I 2 4610 20 40 60 100 m0

Fisure 5.r7 corop,e c..n"""" * -*o.il'Ji'i; r,.",,,.".",,r.,.nry, edses 3impry supporred;

Cdgor Sitnph Suppod€d c Eds6 rird
Symm.rd.ol Ahour C Symn€rri.ol Aboul
Figur. 5.16
buckling of cylindrical shells, and using boundary conditions for simply sup-
ported ends, the solution for the elastic buckling of a simply supported cylindri-
F=N2-r*l-t-----L
d- Aa rlt - 1tzlt)ta
cal shell due to uniform pressure applied to sides and ends is given by

P
{N'?[l + -r)(2- p)]- 1]
(^ n = ln, for side pressure only)
E *1;r"u.tr r\
(l P,r\ t | \u, tLL t
'{(t - $}tctt - pl + (1 + ri\ + a + 1 + p}I
t\ Ltl )

: 4
1 = moment of inertia
12 *(;l (s.27b)

A plot of the ( value in Eq. 5.27a based on the first two terms of expression F
"=
is shown in Fig. 5.17.
where &(Dj)
5.3.2 Uniform Pressure Applied to Sides ond Ends ": ",.
The values of No, N,e, and N6 are the same as those for pressure applied to sides ^:: ^tF ll7rl2L\
only. The value of N, is given bY F
A4 : A?;---------;;--
' -F + (n'r'/2Lt)
*^=+rge.ol
A plot of the K value in Eq. 5.27b using the first two terms of expression F
Substituting those expressions into the four basic differential equations for the is shown in Fig. 5.18.
r l8 STRESS IN CYLINDRICAT SHEtts 5.4 THERMAT STRESS I l9

From Fig. 5.18, K- 16 and from Eq. 5.28,

P". : ( r6)(2e,ooo,r*,(q#)
P". = ll3 psi I

5.4 THERMAL STRESS

If a cylinder is subjected to a uniform change in temperature and is allowed to

deform freely, no thermal stress is produced. Any restraint that prevents free
r l-r ttr deformation produces thermal stress. The amount of restraint affects the stress
ttl
0* 06 I 4610 20 ,10 60 r00 200
level. Figure 5.19 illustrates bar restrained in one and then in two directions. In
vatues of I Fig. 5.19a the bar is fixed in the.r-direction only and is subjected to an increase
Fisure 5.lS Collopse coefficienls of round cylinders wirh pr$3ur€s on sides ond ends, edges 3implv in temperature. To determine thermal stress, the restraint is first removed and the
supporred; p, : 0.3.1 bar allowed to deform due to change in temperature. A force F is then applied
to produce the same but opposite deformation. The thermal stress in the bar can
be calculated from the compatibility equation
5.3.3 Pressure on Ends OnlY

For this case,

&:5o
Ne=0+f(x'0)
N" = -t' + g(x' 0) where 6r : deformation due to temperature
No'=O+ h(x' 0) 6r : deformation due to force F
N'o = 0 +i(x' 0)
values
and the four differential equations are solved for the value of P", For small Substituting the values of $ and E7 in the compatibility equation gives
of tfr, the critical compressive longitudinal stress or can be expressed as

o,:n':
't\r/ o.6oE(t) (5.28) o= -q LTE for a uniaxial case (5.29a)

f,xample 5.9. A cylindrical shell with r : 30 in is simply supported at the where o = stress (positive values indicate tension)
cntl.. il L : l0 ft and t : A315 in., find the critical buckling pressure for a d:
runilirlrr applictl pressure to sides and ends. Let E
: 29 x 10" psi' coefficient of thermal expansion
AI : change of temperature (an increase is taken as positive)
Solttlirtlt
E = modulus of elasticity
t- : q.o
r If the same bar is restrained in two directions as shown in Fig. 5.19, the
2:
t
roo
(lcli)nnations due to 4 and 4, are calculated in the same manner as the uniaxial
tlolirrmation. The two compatibility equations then become
t20 sTRESs IN CYTINDRICAT SHEttS 5.4 THERMAT STRESS l2l

= -l (o"-
H +&r
aLT
\
Lro)
.lN
il----------'1--1

ti ]--t i "
\F
{ li-' _,|
a LT = -; (tr, -
\N
fI
p,rr,)
l--| \____J.i
l.,l 'l*-'-l L-,, L,. from which the expression
6t o.llE
(")
Ut : o' : --tl LTE
' t- p
T----l is obtained.
T l---lr In triaxial case, the thermal stress can be determined easily from the theory
a

I L
I
lll-
rl+ L- of elasticity. Substituting
results in
e: a LT in the first three expressions of Eq. 3.1
'r t N llt _J l*1,*'
= -a
o;- - o,: ct =
ATE
for a triaxial case (5.29c)
d = coeff. ol .rp.hsjon (b) ", | _ Zl"
dr- ch.nse 1n tenp. (positlve Hhen tenp. lncre.s.s)
T = Polssot's rrtlo
Figur.5.r9 Example 5.10. An intemal stainless steel rod is welded to the inside of a
carbon steel vessel as shown in Fig. 5.20. If the coefficient of thermal expansion
x x
is9.5 10 6 in./in.'F for the rod and 6.7 10-6 in.iin."F for the vessel, what
&-6r'+/'6"r=0 is the stress in weldA due to a temperature increase of400'F? Use E = 28 x
106
psr.
&+p8r,-6"r=0
Solution. Weld A is essentially subjected to a uniaxial stress. Hence,
where g, = proisson's ratio
6i", = deformation due to force 4 max 0: E La AT
6p, : deformation due to force F, = (28 x 109(9.s - 6.7)(10 9(400)
: 31,400 psi I
Solving the above two simultaneous equations gives

a LTE
for a biaxial case (5.29b)
1- tL

A comparison between Eqs. 5 -29a nd

5.29b indicates that a higher stress
level is obtained when the number of restraints are increased Hence, for a bar
with r.r. - 0.3. a stress increase of 437o results when the number of restraints
incrcasus lirrrn one to two. Another interesting feature of Eqs' 5 '29a and
5 29b
is tlrrl thc thormal stress is independent of thickness and length'
lirlualion 5.29b oan also be obtained from the theory of elasticity Hence, if
c rv AT is substituted into the first two expressions ofEq (3'3), the fo owing
Fisure 5.20
tcsttlls:
122 STRESS IN CYLINDRICAT SHELLS 5,4 THERMAL STRESS

l.)xumple5.ll.Anintcrnu|stuinlcsstrayiswcltlctllrrthcinsitlctr|.acarbtln dellection of tray due to temperature + Fl

stccl vcssel as shown in l'ig 5 2la. ll'the coeflicicnt ol'thermal exprnsion is : deflection of shell due to temperature -l 4 - Mo
g.5 x l0 6 in./in."F for the tray and 6.7 x l0 r' in./in.'F fbr the vessel,
:
what
is the stress in the weld due to temperatunj increase of 400"F? Use E 28 x F,r
+'#tt F, M
psi and pr : 0.3.
106
(a,,)(AD(r) - p): (a,,)(An(r) - rrn- tifi {t)

Equations (b), (c), and (d) can be written as

Solution. A conservative answer can be obtained by assuming the tray attach-
ment to be rigid. Because the weld is subjected to both hoop and axial stresses' Ft Mo
it can be treited as a biaxial condition Hence, from Eq' 5 29b (2)

-(28 x 106)(9.5 -
o=@ 6.7X10-1(400)
-I Mo-nu
2PrD - BD:
(3)

: _44.800 psi Ii+F +4:0 (4)

Ifa more accurate result is desired, then a discontinuity-type analysis can be From Eq. 2, \:2FMo
performed. In referring nFig.5.2lb, and due to symmetry, the equations of From Eq. 3, n: 2BMo
compatibility and equilibrium can be written as From Eq. 4, 4: -4FMo
and Eq. 1 becomes
(a) ft=6r
(b) 0r=0
(c) 0z=0
#] = 1a", - a,,)(Af(r) (5)
(d) )F=0
From the above four equations, the four unknowns 4, Fz, Ft' and Mo can be
^l#.
obtained. Assuming the thickness of the cylinder is I= 0.1875 in. and using other given
Equation (a) can be written as values, the value of { from Eq. 5 is

E - -618 lb/in. or o: 618 psi compression in weld

The value of618 psi is significantly lower than the conservative value of44,800
psi obtained from Eq. 5.29b because of the ffexibility of the cylinder. If the
thickness of the cylinder is r :
3.0 in., then Eq. (5) gives

n = Zl,20O lb/in. or o:21,2O0 psi compression in weld

ollMo
This value indicates that as the cylinder gets thicker, the stress approaches that
fn
\_-/ 'l/-fr
.*F3
of Eq. 5.29b. In fact, if the cylinder is taken as infinitely rigid, then Eq. (1)
becomes
,h--Fz
I
i,o (a,,XAO(r) * H<t - p.) : (a-XA?.)(r)

@l
(b) and the equation yields 4: -44,800 lbiin. or o = 44,800 psi compression in
Fisure 5.21 the weld, which is the same as that obtained from Eq. 5.29b. I
t24 STRESS IN CYIINDRICAI. SHELTS 5.4 THTRMAI. STRESS t25

5.4.1 Uniform Chonge in Temperolure M0 can be obtained tiom the second compatibility equation whereby the skrpc
in F\g. 5.22a at the interface is equal to the slope in (b). Or

A unitbrm change of temPerature in a component usually results in a thermal Mo _Mo,

stress both at and adjacent to the component. The magnitude of the stress is a
__!, Hs

function of many factors such as geometry, degree of restriction and temperature

BD 296: pD- 2B'D
variation. The stress can normally be determined from a free-body diagram of :
and Mo 0.
the various components. The following examples illustrates this point
The circumferential force in the pipe due to I1o is obtained from Eqs. 5. 19 and
5.24:
Example 5.12. A pipe at 10'F is partly filled with liquid at 40"F and gas at
250"F as shown in Fig. 5.22a. What is the maximum thermal stress if a =
t't':4' H:
6.5 x 10 6in./in.'F, E = 30 x 106psi, and p = 0.3? r 2BtD c"
"w

Maximum value of Cp. is obtained from Table 5.1 as 1.0. Hence,

Solution. A solution can be obtained by taking a free-body diagram at the
gas-liquid boundary as shown in Fig. 5.22b. Compatibility at the interface N.: 2565 lb/in. at interface
requires that the deflection in (a) equals the deflection in (D). Hence' from Eq.
\)L
Also

H" M^ HN Mo M": O
(axA7i)(r) - t")tAl'ttn *
ffi* ffi= rp'o* ,Bo
and
from which
t\6<
Hn = @)(Lr1- AAX/)@)(D)
Max o: o.rrr-
= 20.500 psi

: -
(6.s x 10-6)(240 30)(6X1.4843f(5366)
The maximum bending moment due to I{0 was derived in Example 5.4 as
= 144 lb./in.

"":Y " B'=x

Stress due to bending moment at Bx = r/4 is
lri
| fieas 6M (o'34H0\ = l2,ooo
o':v:vx 6

I' "--{';"' p/
lt psi

= n/4 is obtained
--14t"
,--. { ' li "o
Deflection due to flq zt Bx from Eqs. 5.23 and 5.24 as

'|

i-li
( 2 )Liquid ll o.322Ho
,=$ 2B"D

Hence,
(b)
Figwe 5.22
Ne = 827 lblin.
t26 sTxEss lN cYllNDRlcAt SHELl"S 5.4 THERAAAT STRESS 127

ln the
second compatibility equation the deflection due to temperature plus
end circumfcrcntial $trcss is
moment plus shear is equal to zero. Or

oo=
827 ^
0.3 x 12.000 : 10,200Psi
#+ o.$s +
#_#:o
Thus maxrmum stress occurs al rnterface with magnitude of 20,500 psi. I
and

Example 5.13. Determine the bending stress in a cylinder fixed at one edge Mo: (0.039)Qp2D)
(Fig. 5.23a) due to a uniform rise in temperature of 200"F.
: (0.039)(2X0.46941 (42.e30)
c = 6.5 x 10-6 in./in..F = 738 in.-lb/in.
E:30xl06psi :+
6M
o= = 70,800 psi I
p=o'3
5.4.2 Grsdient in Axiol Direction
Solution. Radial deflection of cylinder if ends are free is
The stress in a cylinder due to a thermal gradient f, in the axial direption can be
w : (a)(Afl(r) obtained by first subdividing the cylinder into infinitesimal rings of length dr.
: 0.039 in. Hence, the radial thermal expansion due to 4 in each ring is given by (c)(4)(r).
This expansion can be eliminated by applying an external force { such that
From Fig. 5.23a the rotation at the end is zero because the cylinder is fixed.
Hence deflection due to P, = deflection due to I
M" O^
BD zB,D
E= ",r,
= 2PMo Hence
Qo

p, = Etan
r
and

/1\-
lMo
Hs
-Pr :
ae: -l -taT. (5.30a)

Because the cylinder does not have any applied loads on it, the extemal force
P, usedto reduce the deflection to zero must be eliminated by applying an equal
and opposite force in the cylinder. Hence, Eq. 5.21 becomes

(b)
{!
tlx-
* aB'*:EJ$
fl,)
(5.30b)
Fisur€ 5.23
Itt STRTSS rN CYIINDRICAL SHEttS 5.4 THIR
'tAt
STRISS 129

Thc total strcss in thc cylindcr is dctcrmincd from Eqs. 5.30a and 5.30b. n-T
r =rx
Example 5.14. A vessel that operates at 800oF is supported by an insulated
skirt. The thermal distribution in the skirt is shown in Fig.5.24a.Ifthe top and and the circumferential stress due to ring action obtained from Eq. 5.30a is
bottom of the skirt are assumed fixed with respect to rotation, what is the
maximum stress due to temperature gradient? d = 7 x 10-o in./in.'F, p =
0.3,8= 30 x 106psi. ,,= -u"(T), (l)
Solutian, The equation for linear temperature gradient is E4uation 5.30b gives

T,:4+4 iT* * o.o* =";;(*),

onfu

The temperature change can be expressed as A particular solution takes the form

.="u$(Lf),*",
t- which upon substituting into the differential equation gives
aodF

t,=# and cr=9

and w reduces to

Tb= 2odF
w=rq.
e").
From Eq. 5.19
{a)

",=+:*(T) (2)

A
T x
'lr
t\
t
rv=(EJ,
)x=-sx
Adding Eqs. I and 2 results in

oe= 0
t\ which means that for a linear distribution the thermal stress along the skirt is
zeto.
The slope due to axial gradient is given by
J_/
(d
u
- = dw
--:- = rallT" - T,\
-----=;
Fhut. 5.21 dx\r/ I
 gHEtts I.4 THIRMAT 3TRI33 |lr
rt0 3TRr93 lN CYI'INDRlCAt

be applied at the ends

Substituting Eqs. 5.31 and 5.32 into 5.34 gives
Bccausc thc cnds arc fixcd against rotation, a momcnt mu$t
to reduce 0 to zero. From Eq. 5 24 / do.\ p do,
o,: {rs* r\*)- t_*to,trdr-oo)
lr, - r^ -Mo
'"\ , )= B, . (r--J",' . (s.35)
^,(#)
In Section 5. I it was shown that the equilibrium of an element in a cylinder (Fig'
5.3) can be expressed by the equation
u,= -oolff)<n- n
(5.36)
Since B = 0.2142, D= 2.74'1 x 106
'
",- ''='(*\
Mo = 742 in'-lblin' Solving Eqs. 5.35 and 5.36 for a gives

dlt d , .f -E ,, *, ..,-(41\
T.;;"tr rt,\i)
and

I
,kl;ftt,'",t|: (s'37)
o= ,1450 psi

Solving the above differential equation and applying the boundary conditions
5.4.3 Grodient in Rodiol Direciion

Thermal stress in a cylinder due to a temperature gradierrt in-the

radial direction o. l = 0
Hence, Eq' 3 can be written as
can be obtaned from ttre theory of elasticity'
i="
4l=0
,,=!f",- tL(oo+ c)f + ar (5.31)

gives
*: jl", - P(at + o)f + uT 6 32)
Ea-l_-+ P(r'z - r?
['" rra, [' rrar\
- J,,
-' = -:-------'--
o.
| - tt' r' \16 - ri J., /
u=|b,- p(a,+ os)l+ ar (5.33)

Frorn Eq. 5.36

where aT is the suain due to temPerature change' If the
temperature is sym-
*i,tt respect to 0, all shearing stresses are zero and the radial and hoop E<x r + u' (rl! :j ['. r,a, - rra, - rr\/ (s.38)
^"iii"
$truins can be exPressed as
oa= t
- ttz I \rj- r? J,, ""' ['
J,,"
dww and from Eq. 5.31 for a cylinder umestrained in the:-direction,
',=6 "=i Ea / 2 r,-,trar_ -\
_-_l_-;__ tl
or
ot- =
L- p\ri-rih, ,l /
I de9\
e,: ee + r\a, (5.34) From these equations, some cases can be derived.
)
t32 STRTSS IN CYTINDRICAL SHTLLS 5.4 THERMAI STRESS t33

Cav L Llnear'l'hcnnul l)islrihulion 2r,, + r, l

ov= o,- -EaT,f
| - pLJtr. -f. ritl
l, .l for inside surface
[,irr thin vcssels, a stcady-state condition produces linear thermal dishibution (s.40)
through the thickness that can be expressed as EaT f r"+ 2rt1
ue=u,=.
| - p l-l
for outside surface
LJtro -f riJ l
r- r'L-J For thin wall vessels, Eq. 5.40 reduces to

where d : inside wall temperature relative to outside wall temperature. - EaTt for inside surface
Cfe = C, = ,r,l _
!\r tL)
Substituting f into Eqs. 5.38 gives
EaT
(5.41)
ce: o,: Ltt
^- - lL) for outside surface
EaT, f (r2 r\zrt + r.) 2(r3-rl)-3r"(r2-r!)
' r'(l - 1t\ | -6(ri'r r")
rt-:
6(ri - r")
Case 2. Logarithmic Thermal Distribution
EeT f (r2 + r?)(2rt + r") 2\r3 - rl) - 3r"(r'z - r!)l
nr- -l
r-\t - pl L otrr r ro, o\r,
^
- ro) I
| \J.J')
In thick vessels, a steady-state thermal condition gives rise to a logarithmic
temperature distribution that can be expressed as
LAIi I zrt+ ro r"-rl
' (l - pll3(r1 + r,) r"- r,l
t: "/lu l"')
Figure 5.25 is a typical plot of o,, ae, and cz. The plot indicates that o, is \ln r" - ln r,/
relatively small compared with o6 and o,. For all practical purposes, o6 and o.
are equal.
and upon substitution of this expression in Eqs. 5.38 results in
The maximum values of op and ol occur at the inner and outer surfaces. From
8c.5.39.
'(;)l
2(l #cr.l'-'^?
u?T:,,
- *('. #)'(;)] (s.42)

r1, - 2Lnk-,t'i,,n/tr)l
"/ffi z(r - p,ntro/nL r ri-r; \/,/l
Again disregarding or as being small compared with o6 and o", Eqs. 5.42
have a maximum value of

ErxT f,r 2rl lnt ,lr"\f for inside surface

- --------- -ll
2(r - pJ tntro/ rJ L - ri
16 \r, / l (s.43)
EaT I. /a\l 2,1 .
z(r - t"t
-tt"lJ,)L' ;:'l' 'n\-/l for outside surface

And for thin wall cylinders. Eq. 5.43 reduces to

t34 STRESS tN CYUNDRTCAL SHfl"t"S 5.4 THERMAI. STRTSS t35

I')tt'li From Eq. 5.38 it can be seen that cr, can also be expressed by Eq. 5.46.
tft: (r: - ,zt<l _ tl lirr insidc surlace
Example 5.15, A thin cylindrical vessel is heated by ajacket from the outside
oe: o, = Z\l _
EqT
lor outslde sunace such that the temperature distribution is as shown in Fig. 5.26.1f E 27 :
106 x
lD psi, a : x :
9.5 10-b in./in.'F, and p, 0.28, determine (a) maximum thermal
stress using Eq. 5.40 and (b) maximum thermal stress using Eq. 5.41.
which are the same as those for the linear case.
Solution. (a) 4: - 700 = -300'F. Hence at inside surface
400
Case 3. Complex Thermal Distribution
-(27 x t01(9.5 x tO-ox-300)/2(lJ) - t0\
ln many instances such as transient and upset conditions the temperature distri- - (t - 0.28) \3(13 - tO)i
bution through the wall of a vessel cannot be represented by a mathematical
expression. In this case a graphical solution can be obtained from the thermal = 55,800 psi
stress. From Eq. 5.38
and at outside surface

--
oe:
eq lt-rr,lf.'t'z[,.rrar-!f ,ror-r]
l- *l-rz,- r, 1, r- J,, (27 x 106)(9.5 x 10 6)(-300) lt3 + 2 x 10
I u= (l-028,
-- ,1 _ 92s1 \ :tr: _ rot
\3(13-lo)
For a cylinder where the thickness is small compared to the radius, the first = -51,000 psi
expression in the brackets can be expressed as
(b) For inside surface
I r trilrt2 p IrAr : 2r
-----';-'------- | --,- :
Ji: Trdr
r; - ri J,, ntr; - ril (-27 x 109(9.5 x l0 6)(-300)
= mean value of the temperature (5.44) '': 2(r - or2s)
distribution through the wall : 53,400 psi

and for outside surface a = -53,400 psi. I

'l'he second expression can be expressed as
Example 5.16. A pressure vessel operating at 300'F is subjected to a short
I trc-,
rror: 2n fiTrdr
---':
excursion temperature of 600'F. At a given time, the temperature distribution in
-l
r' J,, 27Tr -,
/5 45\
: one half the mean value of the temperature
distribution from the axis of the vessel to r

However, because the temperature distribution from the axis to | 15 Z€rO,

cxpression 5.45 for all practical purposes can be neglected. Hence, oo can be
cxoressed as

oo: --\1n
.^ I) Ea (5.46)
-
I- IL

wncrc :
4n mean value of temperature distribution through the wall

f: bmDerature at desired location Fisure 5.26

 3TR!!t NOMIIiICTATURI t37
It6 tN CYUNORICAI sHEtLs

thc wall is shown ln Fic..3.27 . Find thc msximum thcrmal stress at that instance.
Lct rr = 0.3, E = 3dx 106 psi, and a = 6.0 x 10-6 in./in."F

Solutlon. This problem can be visualized as a biaxial case where the inner
surfacs heats quickly while the rest of the wall remains at 300'F' Using Eq.
5.29b results in

(6 x l0-6x600 - 300x30 x
o:ffi 106)

= -77,100 psi

which is extremely high and is based on very limiting assumptions. A more

realistic approach is that based on Eq. 5.46. The mean temperature is obtained
from Fie. 5.27 and tabulated as follows:

Locations as Temperature
Ratios of Thickness T Area

0 600
0.1 460 53.0
0.2 400 43.0 tisur' 5.27
0.3 370 38.5
0.4 340 35.5 sness occurs at the surface only. Thus at
It is of interest to note that the high
0.5 320 33.0 one-tenth of the thickness inside the surface, the stress is
0.6 310 31.5
0.7 305 30.8 __ (30 x 10ux9I_!o-1res6 _ 460)
t= r-o!3 \JJu 'uu''
0.8 300 JU.J
0.9 300 30.0 = -26,700 psi
1.0 300 30.0
>355.6 The high stress at the inner surface indicates that local yielding will occur. I
And I'
= 356"F.
From Eq. 5.46, at inner surface, NOMENCTATURE

_ (30 x 106)(6.0 x 10-6)/?56

- - 600)
"l'l
Fl3
= -----=:-
l2(1 - tt2)
= -62.700 psi D, = outside diameter of cylinder

ond Bt outcr surface

E = modulus of elasticity
K = constant
_ (30 x 196x6:0_x 10-6)(356 _
.,
" l-0.3
3oo) L : length of cylinder
M, = axial bending moment
= 14,2100 psi
rtt ETRI'I IN CYTINDRICAT SHTTT! IIIIIOORAPHY t39

2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler ond Prcssure vessel Code, Sdct/.rn yrrl-
Mp ' hoop bcnding momcnt
Rules for Constructiotr of Pressure Vessels, Division 1, ANSI/ASME BVP-VI -l,NewYork,
p = pressure 1980 Edition.
3. Strum, R. G., "A Study of lhe Collapsing Pressue of Thin-Walled Cylinde$," University of
P", = buckling pressure Illinois Bulletin, Vol. XXXIX, No. 12, 1941.
P/ = internal pressure
Po = extemal pressure BIBI-IOGRAPHY
O, = shearing force
The Amedcan Society of Mechanical Engineers, Ptessure Vessel and PipinS DesiSn-Colkcted
r : radius of cylinder Papers 197-1959, New York, 1960.

4 : inside radius
Baker, E. H., L. Kovalevsky, F. L. Rich, Stn ctarulAnalysis ofShells, Mccraw-Hill, New York,
1912.
ro = outside radius Flugge, W., Stesses in Shells, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1960.
Gibron, J. E., Linear Elasrtc Theory oJ Thin SherrJ, Pergamon hess, New York, 1965.
, = thickness of cylinder Hefey,I. F -, Theory and Design of Moder PresJrt? y?JtetJ, Van Nostrand-Reinhold, Princ€ton,
T = temperature N.J., 1974.
Timosheoko, S., S. woitrowskey-Krieger, frreory of Plates 4r1d Shelrs, Mccraw-Hitl, New York,
AT = iemperature change 1959.

p = deflection
c = coefficient of thermal expansion

6 = deflection due !o temperature change

€t = longitudinal strain
€t : radial strain
e0 = hoop strain
0 = rotauon
lL = proisson's ratio
o : stress

Ot = longitudinal stess
or = radial shess
Oe : hoop sftess

REFERENCES

l. Murphy, G., A 'anced

Mechanics of Materials, McGEw-Hill, New York, 1946, pp.
ll4-t2t.
 CHAPTER 6
ANALYSIS OF FORMED
HEADS AND TRANSITION
sEcTtoNs

Con|co|hrodconsistingof|woeccgn|liccones.(co',rtesyoftheNool€rcorPorgtion,sr.LoUi!,Mlo.)

t4l
r40
142 ANAI.YSIS OT TORMTD HEADS ANO TRANSITION SICTIONS 6.I HEMISPHERICATHIADS t43

6,I HEMISPHERICALHEADS 1...

t-
eo: ELt
lL)1o4, - pa,) (6.3)
The required thickness of hemispherical heads is determined from a free-body
diagram as shown in Fig. 6.1. Hence The strain displacement relationship is the same as that derived from cylindri-
cal shells:
Pm2 = Zmo
w
'f

', Pri (6.1)

-2t and
dw
where a= membrane stress

P: pressure
Hence, expressions 6.2 and 6.3 become
r= radius

t= thickness (t - QfrQo6) - vfiWS - o, * 21t'o6 -- o (6.4)

This equation which assumes uniform stress distribution through the thick-
Figure 6.2 shows an inflnitesimal segment of a spherical head Summation of
ness, is adequate for relatively thin heads. As the thickness increases with
respect to the radius, this assumption becomes invalid. Hence, a more accurate forces in the radial direction gives
formulation is needed, which is obtained from the "thick head" equations.
From symmetry, it can be demonstrated that at any point in a hemihead ,",= -l(fi)<,'"t (6.s)
subjected to uniform pressure,

Solving Eqs. 6.4 and 6.5, we obtain

ld\l' , 'r :
From Eqs. 3.1, rl; ll+ +(rro,) |
\dr / Lr- qr I
0

I.
e, = E\ot - zlto,) (t6.2)
Its solution is expressed as

i12
(6.6)
5r-
The boundary conditions are given by

o,= -n al r: ri

and
a,: -n at r:ro
Solving the boundary conditions forA and B and substituting into Eqs. 6.5 and
FisiJr€ 6.1 6.6, we obtain
l.l{ Al'lAtYlll Ol lOR illD H!AD3 AND TnANSl?lON SICTIONS 6.I HIMISPHERICATI{TAD3

[6.-dor
'
\
\ ' d. /

Figure 6.2
Jo/f
I

fisurs 6,3

",:f+('-*)-*('-*
rl\ / (6.7a\ A comparison between Eqs. 6.1 and 6.7 is shown in Fig. 6.3.
06: r?P'
oo= -:ll
/ r3P 't\
+:+l
r; - ri \
+
-lzr'/ - -;l=lt
r; - /i \ 2r./ Example 6.1. A hemispherical head with r = 15.0 in is subjected to an
internal pressure of 4000 psi. If the allowable stress is 23,000 psi, find the
Equation 6.7a can be simplified for the following cases: required thickness from Eqs. 6.1 and 6.7.

Case 1. Internal Pressure Only Soltttion. From Eq. 6.1,

max o.= _e atr=ri

(6.7b)
,:+
max oo = or: | :?.'?r* ')r,]n at r = ri (4000x1s)
Lzlr; - ri)l - 2(23,000)
Case 2, Exlernal Pressure Only = 1.30 in.

maxot= -P. at r:r From Eq. 6.7,

rnrxa6= ot= - 3 rlk atr=ri (6.7c)

rln l. ,11
o.: _-i_-1 | I _r : I
ZE:;, ri,- riL zril "
 6.I I{EMISPHERICAIHEADS 147
ANAIYSIS OT TORMED HTADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS

f :re SrN0
cls:f1 d0
dr - ds .Cos P
2(15t(4000) + 2(23.000X l5 )3
2(23,000) - 4000
= 16.31

t : 1.31 in. I

6.1.1 Vorious Looding Conditions

Occasionally, hemispherical heads are subjected to a variety of loadings such as

wind forces, snow and dead loads, and agitator and equipment reactions. The
membrane stresses induced by such loads usually are obtained from "thin shell"
membrane theory that assumes that the loads are carried by membrane action
rather than bending moments.
r'r6e+
ffi dQ

When referring to Fig. 6.4a, the middle surface of a shell is taken as a surface N@+tl do
of revolution. This is generated by the rotation of a plane curve about an axis
in its plane. This generating curve is called a meridian. An arbitrary point on the
Noo + de
middle surface of the shell is specified by the particular meridian on which it is *F
found and by giving the value of a second coordinate that varies along the
meridian and is constant on a circle around the shell's axis. Because these circles ++ do
are parallel to one another, they are called the "paralled circles."
The definition of r, n, 12, and @ are shown in Fig. 6 4a. The radius 11 is Figure 6.4

mcasuretl from point 0, which is the center of curvature of the meridian; 12 is

mcasurctl fiom the z-axis and is normal to the meridian. The parallel circle is Summation of forces in the direction of parallel circles gives
dolincd by r.
lirrrrr lrig. 6.4a, j6<,N*l -,,(#* rlNep cos 6 * r,',) :0 (6.9)

r= 12 sin $
For the majority of pressure vessel applications, the loads are symmetric with
ds = r, d.6
respect to the axis of revolution. Hence, all derivatives with respect to 0 in
expression 6.8 and 6.9 can be deleted. Shearing stresses due to torsion are small
lrigruc (r.4/r is a free-body diagram of a section of a surface of revolution. comDared with other stresses. Thus expression 6.9 can be deleted completely'
Srrrrrrrrirrg lirrces parallel to the tangent at the meridian and simplifying by
Tire last equation of equilibrium is obtained by summing the forces in Fig'
th.lctirg lt:rrns of higher order, we obtain 6.4b perpendicular to the middle surface:

- r,(q# -r,Npcos d + 16',) = g (6.8)

,i\12rt a:*Ut=n (6.10)
-!, gN,pt
t4l, \ do /
I4g ANAI.YSIS OT TORMTD HTADS AND TRANSITION SICTIONS 6,I HEMISPHERICAT HEADS I49

Substituting oxprcssi()n 6. l0 into 6.tl givcs 'fhc change in r,, is given by

I fr 1
Ar' = -:=srn @
No: 12. sln- I r, r2(P, cos {-
-,,, @, ILJ Pasin Q)s\nQdQ + Cl (6.11) Dcos A
I
The right-hand side of Eq. 6.11 is equal to the sum of all the N6 forces around and the strain is expressed as
a circle of angle d. Therefore we can solve Nd at any given location { by
summing all forces in the {-direction. Once N6 is obtained, Nd can be deter- ,r=!1ucos@-wsin@) (6.14)
mined from expression 6. 10.
For a spherical shell, 11 = 12 = r. Hence, expressions 6.10 and 6.11 can be
simplified as follows: Substituting ro = 12 sin { and Eqs. 3.3 into expressions 6.13 and 6.14 gives

N5 I N6= P,r
(6 12)
No : " .l t.ltP, cos @ - P6 sin @) sln $ d$ + C I
I (6.15)
^,-,
sln - @ LJ I . h.__
lt:ucotO- EtlNe f"Na)
The displacement for various loading conditions is derived from Fig . 6 .5 . The
total change in length AB is
Equations 6.15 can be solved for the deflections once N, and Nc are estab-
lished from Eqs. 6. 12. Table 6.1 shows the solution of Eqs. 6. 12 and 6. 15 for
u:4ra6
aQ
- w d6t various loading conditions.

The strain is therefore Example 6.2. Determine the forces in a spherical shell due to snow load.

1/do
ea=-l-;--l w\
(6.13)
\ \aQ rr./ Solutian. From Fig. 6.6,

P, -- -P" cos2 Q

P:P,cosdsind
From Eq. 6.12

rl
N^' =+-l
sln- q)LJ
f(-p, "os' S - P" sin2@ cos @) sin A dQ + Cl
I
-p"rf r I
)(- =,.'i' ;l l(cos' d + sin'z d) sin 6 cos 0 dO + C
qlJ
sm-
I
I
-a
lt. ",1 ^l
:rtt}Lts'n-@l+c.l
-P",

.- :
/vr -P.r- 4rC
2 sin 0
i-
d0
- -
As 4 approaches zero, the second expression of Nd approaches infinity unless
Fisurs 6.5 C is set to zero.
 !l !l
a oo-l dl I

;.t'
e r-;-1
o -l
'1
o. !l
-l+
'.t .
*il .lN

+
!'6
!l
!te
.tr rl
o
.t f---l
q. r^r
c
le
o .f;|* <f ! ,9,/
o + --,{
..l+
o -
+ + +k!
o! -i, |= | -lc
o + +

I \j/
{t
.trrr
I NI

I
o
o @e
-o

l5l
r50
 6.1 HtMllpHlRlcAt l'llAol ltl
152 ANAI.YSI! OI TO|.MTD H!ADs AND TRANSITION SICTIONS
complicated numb€r
the comDatibility equations are taken into consideration, a
Oifierential equations result' The solution of these equations is
"i.i*oii-*ut
imoracticat. however, withouisome simplifications. By assuming
symmetric P.
forces only, the differential equations for a spherical shell reduce to

#r.#*rQ- o(cotz O+ tD= -# (6.16)

and

rt)=Eto (6.17)
#**Affi-o<""eQ-

Figor€ 6.6

Thus, for C = 0

-P.;

From Eq. 6.12,

rle: -r.r q+ EilBRAI{E FORCES

cos'
\

L)
Yr= -P.r(cos2 Q -
= -4cosz|

6, L2 DiscontinuitY AnolYsis

'l'hc rnctnbrane analysis discussed in the previous section fails to Sive adequate
is attached
rcrult$ whon the loais are localized or when the hemispherical section
to lnothcr shell that acts differently under certain loads' In these cases the
In Figure 6'7 it is seen that
hcnding moments must be considered in the analysis' 8 EIIDI NG FORCES
lix u givcn krading condition, the membrane and the bending moments can be
Fig'.rre 6.7
con$id;rcd us shoin. Proceeding as before where both the free-body forces and
lla Af{Al,Ygl ot fotMrD HIADI AND TRANIITION SlCrlONS 6.t HEITATSPHERICAI HIADI ll!
whcrc 0 is thc anglc of rotation and is given by 0 = slope

| /d'zo\
^ a ldw (6.18) EVG)
r raQ
w : radial deflection
By a rigorous analysis Gibsont has shown that in Eqs. 6' 16 and 6.17 only the
higher-order terms are significant in most usual pressure vessel applications. I r ..,
F;lt\ e - luYA)
Accordingly, the equations reduce to
The solution of Eq. 6.23 for various common loading conditions is given in
d2 o _ -Qrz Table 6.2.
(6.1e)
do' D
Example 6.3, Calculate the head discontinuity forces of the head-to-shell
junction shown in Fig. 6.8a. Let p : 3gg psi and /, = 0.3.

(e:
dE'
(6.20)
Solutian. From Fig. 6.8b and Table 6.1 the
pressure rs
deflection in the head due to

",,
P12
Eliminating 0 from Eqs. 6.19 and 6.20 gives 6o : - ,r) sin
=(l
(300x50)'?rl
(6.2r) _ _o?l
ffi++*o=o E(0.50) '-
where _ 1,050,000
E
/ ,\2
,\a=3(l-r1l;/ (6.22) Tqble 6.2 Approximote Force qnd Deflection funcfions for Sphericol Segments

,//-r-\ I

The solution of Eq. 6.21 can be expressed as Hoftflff)--xo

'<l"L/
g: g^o(c1cos A0 + c, sin,\@ + e-^o(ct cos,\d + c4 sin ld)
a -f e-rYsln4ocos ( rr+"/+)no ?I
"-rtrtn(rr)ru
Once the value of O is determined for a given loading and boundary condi- lO 2re-r1sln{o(cosr.r)tio z16.f. ( rr*nrl)no
"-^t"o,
tbns, the other quantities can be obtained from
Vi*e-rYst nqrotocos { ry+nllltto -?1 e-11cotosi n ( ry)ro

Nr- -Qcot0
y6-"- r'r" i n1r1*nll
= --9
lr L-rYsi n0osi n (ry ) Ho lto
N"-do ry
tT(f""-rt"t
6 to no" [zr"t no"o"rv ,ao lzre- I-,6- rs tiocos{ ry+r/a)
-+ucos0sinrYl,l

M^:2(+\
- r \dQ/
-rF*""o"""t rv*r+l]J
rnro"i n (r.r+r/a)l ro
1; t-z'F^2u-tt"
/-1r,3
rT \-- "-rt.o"rr\/
Mo = pMo (6.23)
It6 AltlAtYlll Of iotlillo HIAD! At'lD ltAilllTloN slcTloN3 6.r HlMrsPHtRtcat HtADs lt7

6,"=s#6
,rr: -3#ro
Similarly, the deflection in the shell due to pressure is obtained from Eq. I of
Examnle 5.5 as

,='#(' _;,tt\
:ffi,,-0.,r,
_ 637,500
E

B=
= 0.1818
E/ | n\3
D=-ij:j_=0.0916E
ra\t - u.J-)

and from Table 6.2.

u,":,--#4r"
Figirr€ 6.8

eo" = aEEm
8nd
6rr=yM,
- O.3)(lqoJ
0,"=gfMo
12.038
total deflection of head = total deflection of shell
From Table 6.2,
q#
6,:Wl^
r.r+4pq *
Tr" Y*" * = _
ryH" * Yr,
OT

ouo=-2f4 8Ho+Mo=-995.17 (1)

I58 ANAI.YSIS OI FORMED HTADS AND TRANSITION SICTIONS 6.I HEMISPHIRICAIHEADS 159

Sirnilurly, symrnetry, expressed as

rotation of head : rotation of shell ZEa lr'-r|

r,.^,, f -,,\
O,:-l-ltr-Ar-ltr-Arl (6.24a)
..
2t9.tt 165.15.. tt - p)r'\r; - ri ,, ,, /
-579.65..
._-t 60.05..
uo - E *o: - -E-nrt --iwo 06: ao: tt- Eu l2r3+rl r"-,,
.. J,, I Tr.dr + J\f,^,, ,-\
| Tr.dr - r.Tl \6.24b)
^l p)r- \r;-ri /
Example 6.4. Determine the circumferential thermal stress on the inside sur-
rlo = -0 818 Mo face of a hemispherical head subjected to an inside temperature of 600'F and
varying linearly to a temperature of 400"F at the outside surface. Let 11 :30in.,
and from Eq. 1, 12 :
40 in.,E : x : x
30 106psi, o 7.0 10-6in./in.'F, and g, 6.3. :
Mo : 179'4 lb-in'/in Solution. The temperature distribution across the thickness can be expressed
AS
and

Ilo = - 146.8 lb/in. r=6oo_ Lg_rs

From Table 6.2, N0 at discontinuity is or

)A2 pr T=1200-2Or
N.: 2tH" +':::-M^ +
-2
: z(r2.o3s)(-146." * ?g?qg@-' !9P The first integral in Eq. 24b gives

Ne= -3534 + 1040 + 7500 f; r,,a, =

J*
trzoor, - zor3tdr
No = 5006 lb/in' = 6.O50.000

and The second integral is zero because the limits of integration at the inner surface
are both ri. Hence Eq. 6.24b gives
y^=A=7500 lb/in.
(30 x 106)(7 x l0 6)
Mo : 179.4 lb-in'lin. (1 - 0.3X30t
[2(3ot + (30t.. ^-^ ^^^.- (3ofll2oo - ^^ .l
2o(rnj
and
tffi ro'o5o'ooo)

Me : 53 '8 lb/in' I = -32,800 psi I

6.1,3 Thermol Sfress 6.1.4 Buckling Strength

'l'hc dcrivation of thermal stress in a spherical segment due to radial distribution The buckling equations developed by Von Karman and Tsien2 are the basis of
ol ternpcrature can be derived similarly to cylindrical shells (see Section 5.4.3). the design equations developed by ASME. Von Karman's equations, which are
Thc meridional and circumferential stresses in a sphere are the same due to substantiated by tests, give a more accurate prediction of buckling strength of
160 ANAI.YSIS OT FORMTD HTADS ANO TRANSITION SICTIONS 6.I HTMISPHERICAI.HEADS t6l

splrcricul sccli(nls tlurl thosc dcvclopcd carlicr by l.luggc, Timoshenko, and

others. Von Karrnan antl 'l'sicn took the out-ot-roundness imperfections into
consideration. 'l'hey also used the energy equations as a basis for derivation.
Refering to Fig. 6.9, it can be shown that the strain energy due to the extension
of the sphere is given by

u,:
' Er'(!\o f fYJ^- r)'sin d/d (6.2s)
\r/ Jo \cos a /
Similarly, the strain energy due to bending is expressed as

U7: -_,/,\ T I(p srn

,, _ Lr"l-l; ,fcos0 d0 ,\') , /sin 0
-., Ql--- _ -ll+l .\,1 ., 6.26) Figure 6.9
\r/ tz Jo @d@ / \srn A
lcos
--tlld6 / |

Such an expression can be written as

The potential energy of the external pressure p is given by

-rB
o:alr-c,1"-4)l
L \ p'/l
(6.30)
U1: Prit I P sin'?dcan 0 - tan O) cos Q dg (6.27)
JO
where 0 is the slope and is related to the deflection by

The total energy of the system is the sum of Eqs. 6.25, 6.26, and 6.27 . Hence
a: , fu @ - o) dO (6.31)
U=Ut+U2+Ur (6.28)
JO

From Eqs. 6.30 and 6.31 the value of C, can be determined to be

Equation 6.28 can be simplified by assuming B to be small. By neglecting terms
of higher order and expanding the sine and cosine functions in a power series, ^46
wt -;F (6.32)
liq. 6.28 becomes
Substituting Eq. 6.30 into 6.29, the energy expression becomes
U E(t/rt rp (0.
,^, It / 14\ / _ Ci Ci\ Et, ^,^, pBo
-:-# 4 Jo|
Tr" - 6'\6d6 _-: ir-al "" B2ct _,_L c
in' l+186lCl
\bur/ \ 7-i) - l8tP-ci-pc'
.ry rUffi-'l . G- 'flaoo This expression can be minimized by taking its derivative with respect to Cr and
equating the derivative to zero. This gives

+PrQz@-Q)dQ or= 4 /a\f-. 63\i)F

..ls\t/r - /.^6,* _^\trlr),]
(6.29)
a ros \;/L'zr - lot7 'o)'p-l (6'33)

'l'hc solution of Eq. 6.29 is obtained by the Raleigh-Ritz method by finding an where
cxprcssion of the deflection that satisfies the boundary condition
Pr
o:'
0:0 at 4:0
s:B at Q=B and D is obtained from Eq. 6.32.
I62 ANAI,YSIS Of fORMTD HEADS AND TRANSITION SICTIONS 6.2 ETTIPSOIDAL HTADS r63

A plot ol l!. 6..|.1 is shown in lrig. 6. l(). 'l'hc nrinirnum value ol ljq. 6.33 dil'lerentiation results in an expression whose minimum value is
crn bc lirund by taking thc derivittivc with respect to B and equating the result
(o zero:

or 4/D\l + (3/280)t6/r),
fi = o.rtt
(6.34)
Et 5\r/l + t24/3st(6/tP Experimental values have shown that the minimum value obtained is of the order
of
which is shown as a dashed line in Fig. 6.10. This figure illushates the effect
of 6/t on the buckling shength of spherical sections. The minimum value of
buckling strength is obtained from the figure as
ff: o.tzs (6.35)

Dxample 6.5. What is the required thickness of a hemispherical head subjec-

!=o.z+
tt at 9:9.35
t ted to an external pressure of 15 psi? Let r : 96 in., E : 27 x l0o psi, and
factor of safety (FS) = 10.
The value of 0-24 can be reduced if the strain energy due to membrane stress
before buckling is considered. Therefore, if Eq. 6.25 is modified to include this Solution. From Eq. 6.35, with o", : (FS)o and o: Pr/Zt
strain energy and if the revised expression is substituted into Eq. 6.29, the

(,t)'"''(;) : ' '*

1.2
\l
1.1 --\
t.o \
o9 t, '#;*
o.8 t,
,l
I 20 (15X96)110)
0.25(27 x 106)
.15
o.7
,r )
= 0.45 in. I
o.6 ,7
('R o.5
5\
Et 6.2 EttIPSOIDAt HTADS
o.4

o.3
I (\ The governing equations for the design of ellipsoidal and torispherical heads are
obtained from expressions 6. l0 and 6. I l. For internal pressure, P. :
P, P6 O, :
and the two equations give4
o.2
El tve op,i
o.1 ,ro: 2
.o (6.36)
64.rc 14 18 Ne: +Prz=j;-
%
Fisure 6.10 We can write Eqs. 6.36 in terms of the major and minor radii a and b. Using
l6tl ANAl,Ytlt Ol lOt,UlD HtADt AND TRANSII|ON SICTIONS 6.2 rruPsotDAt HEADS

where

{|,(tl -, - * ,1'"(i. ffi''r)"

-y, - *,(t) ,j
I
G=
\/l + [(a/ br2 - 1] cos2 7

At any given point on the ellipse given by.re and y6, the angle { can be obtained
Irom

fisure 6.ll Ellipsoi&l heod. "i"Q=ffi

A plot of Eq. 6.37 in Fig. 6. 12 shows that for ellipsoidal heads with a/, rarios
the notations of Fig. 6.11, we then obtain
over 1.4, the hoop stress at d = 90'is in compression. The curves indicate that
this compressive force increases as the head gets shallower. Design of heads
a2b2
based on these high compressive membrane forces iends to give ulha-
(az sin2 Q I b2 cosz E1zlz conservative answers. This is because discontinuity forces tend to lower the
maximum compressive sFess which results in more realistic desims. The ASME
Code uses such an approach in the design of elliptic and torisfherical heads.
n2
'' 1a2 5i1z Q r b2 cos2 qlrlz Example 6.6. A2; I ellipsoidal head is subjected to an intemal pressure of
100 psi. If a = 48 in. and r = 0.5 in., detemine the hoop and meridional stress
Expressions 6.36 then become at6=9A'.
I :
^, -Po'
^6- 2 @rJfI? AT brrxf, O,7t Sol.ntion. With d 90', Eq. 6.37 becomes
(6.37)
,, _ Po' b' - (a2
- b2) sin2 E
2b2 (a2 sin2 6 i b2 cos2 q1r/z nr=t
The radial deflection rll and meridional deflection ll due to intemal Dressure
= = 24oo lb/in.
are given by ryEq
,l
Pa'
n;t GIu'- ulc'- l]
and

D^2

n W'(Fcosv) %=r# = 48oo psi

166 ANATYSIS OF TORMED HEADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS 6.3 TORISPHTRICAI. HEADS 167

6.3 TORISPHERICALHEADS

In formulating the discontinuity equations for torispherical heads at the cylinder

junction, two assumptions must be made. First, the ratio a// must be over 30.
Second, all deflections dissipate rapidly away from the junction. With these two
assumptions (known as Geckeler's approximations), the discontinuity analysis
of a torispherical head near a cylinder junction is similar to that for a cylindrical
elo shell. Hence, the governing equations are (see Section 5.2.1)
zlq
+ 4Baw : O (6.38)
-!
where

B=
Equation 6.38 is similar to Eq. 5.21 for cylindrical shells except that in Eq.
6.38 the quantity p is a function of 12 that is variable along the meridian. This
requires numerical integration of all moment, force, deflection, and slope ex-
pressions at angles less than @ : 9g'.
If a discontinuity force is applied at the edge as shown in Fig. 6. 13, Eq. 6.3g
yields the following values.3

.:#rru,n,-FoB^Md.
u, :
7, -: z1,f;c FoBp,Mo)
^oo
n = Gr"^n, + zBoDe,Mi
(6 3e)
h/.
Fis'rr€ 6.12

*r=ffi<-oupo+ Ap"Mo)

Similarly,
Me = t&10
No=+(2br-ar)
zo-
/lno.|r4Rl
= -ffitz x 24, _ 482)

: -4800 lb/in.
and

- 4Rfn
o' = -(rf = -9600 psi I Fisuro 6.13
I6E ANATYIIT OI IORMTD HTADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS
6.4 CON|CAT HEADS t69
whcrc AA = ., rr'(cos ps + sin Bs) The forces and deflections obtained from Eq. 6.40 due to some typical loading
Be, = e &(cos Bs - sin Bs) conditions are shown in Table 6.3.

Cs = s-8" t.,t P Exampfe 6.7. A conical shell with d : 45" and base diamerer of g ft is
Dp" = a-Fs rin B" subjected to an intemal pressure P Find the expressions for N6 and N".
.Rt - u\ Solutinn. For intemal : = p. Therefore, from
rh= \l--a- 6.40,
pressure, N" 0 and lr'e Eq.

p= poisson's ratio
:
Ne Ps tan 6r

6.4 CONICAL HEADS

The sfress distribution in a conical head can be obtained from Eqs. 6. l0 and p-
6.11. From Fig. 6.14 with d constant, (1)
cos a
r=ssind Also
/t=o
P .2
12= stard N"=;*d,;+c
Redefining N4 as N, and p4 as p", Eq. 6.10 becomes
at
Na : p,s tan d
s=0 N"=0
and Eq. 6.l1 becomes
Hence
rv" = + I ,0,- o,tan d)r dr (6.40)
c= 0
Ps tan a'

and

Pr
lV":;-:
zcosa , I

6,4,1 Unbolonced Forces ot Cone-to-Cylinder Junction

Thejunction of cones-to-cylinders must always be considered as part of the cone

design because of the large stresses that occur there. By referring to Fig. 6.15,
the force 1{, at point 0 was found in Example 6.7 to be

PR
Fisure 6.1,{ 2 cos c!
 6.4 CONICAT HEADS t7l

od
I

d -o
\nP
d o (J NI
I at4
. 6t .t. Etr
Ao AIFr
, olsr
AI

^
:+!
r--:---r
ilN
t !
d.
'I
o R
itl
lo
o E - Ol
v; -l t 3
l6
o old
I IE N I
- - ;lo ;l .l olp
o ol olN olq
a, 'l'
o t *" ""1-
o
lt a drN
f'

o
o
-3 (b)

o
| -o
"i r:J
Figure 6.15

o I ld d -
p I (/lla o - ot-o
N | .1.^ u ltld
-o d old alN o olN Sumrnation of vertical forces at point 0 gives
(JI I E OIF
c tF Qti
a . lo) ilo N le Ull
of | 6 | . , tP 2zrRV = PnR2
(i ^" | ? ".li or
rlt
Fo
z@@
o
F
V =PR
2

Since V is the resultant of components N" and A, it follows that 11 is an inward

force with magnitude

..
,= PR t^n d
2
170
172 ANALYSI3 O' TORM!O HIAOS AND TRANSITION SCCTIONS

This tbrce H must bc resisted by ring action at the junction The required area
of the ring is given by
-
.HR
(f

o==
= =
ts I

PR2 tairr a' (6.41)

+
9cl .-l €
2o =
.._:- 61,-
ol @4
Nl . ol
where A : required ring area @l
Nl
x x IE
l-l
P : intemal pressure ->l
ttN lo
' o,lN -l!

NI
*'l * e- N l@
tl.{
R = radius at base of cone
o' = one-half the apex angle i-:-r
o: allowable compressive stress of ring

Example 6.8. What is the required area of the compression ring at the cone-
to-cylinder junction in Example 6.7? Let P : 20 psi and the allowable stress in
the ring 10,000 psi.

I .\r
Solution. From Eq. 6.41, F^
x Fl+ l-->
20x48'?x1.00 +
2 x 10,000

= 2.3O in2 . I o

o
.ol
6.4.2 Discontinuity AnolYsis t
o
@l
.l t
0, qI
I NIS'
tN
--> !l IN
N| -_>
The derivation of the discontinuity expressions for conical shells is similar to that
for cylinders. The resulting moment and force equations for conical shells are
expressed in the more complicated Bessel function terms. However, approxi-
mate solutions for various edge loading conditions can be expressed in simple
form as shown in Table 6.4. In this table, cg
6: =
.o *.
=11
^t
IJ='-,
' srn 4)

173
 6.4 CONICAT HEAD5 t/5
t74 ANAIYSIS Of fORMEO HEADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS

I exprcssrons:

f:Hu
F:H(1 -U)
/r\
M: HIiIVZ
\p/
where

Pr lan d'
Figure 6.16 H: 2

cos2 o'(3 * c')

cos2
ExamDle 6.9. Calcuiate the maximum longitudinal and
circumferential i + cos'zc'(6 + cos2 a')
P
*"r...i" the cylinder shown in Fig 6' 16 due to intemal pressure
_.u
vz=o*"o"2"';
Solution. From Fig' 6.16

(1)
f+F:H
The maximum longitudinal stress due to M and pressure is expressed
as

where from Section 6.4.1,

* : ?(t t - 4 sss v,,,4 "" "')

Pr tan a'
whereasthemaximumcircumferentialstressduetoMandpressureisgivenby

'l'he deflection compatibility between the cylinder and cone is given by

dclloction of cylinder at junction due to M and /

6.4.3 Cones under Exlernol Pressure
: deflection of cone at junction due to M and F (2)

to external hydrostatic
The solution of the buckling of a conical section subjected
The resultant equation is very
Sirrrilutly, oressure is normally obtained by energy methods s Experimental
ffi;;#ili; the iterativi prociis needed for lhe solution
shells has
and/ ,"."-"ft the buckling equations of conical and cylindrrcal
r()trti()n ol cylinder at junction due to M of cylindrical
.iro*oiftut"o-paring
tfti, U*lling of a conicai shell is similar to the buckling
of the cone and a radius equal to
F (3) r-n"fi.-*ift length eq-ual to the slant length
= rotation of cone at junction due to M and "
,h" un"aog" radiris of curvature of the cone Research has also shown that the
influence on the buckling of a cone'
qr""tiiy O - Dr/Dr) has a significant
llsirrl f rrlrlcs 5.2and6.4 and solving Eqs 1,2, and3 result in the following
176 ANAI.YSIS OF fORMtD HTADS AND TRANSITION SICTIONS
6,4 CONTCAT HEADS 177

'Ihc magnitude ofthe tunctionl(l - Dtf D) canbe deternrined thetlrctically

Accortlingly, thc buckling oquitti(n ol a cono citrl bc cxpresscd
*,:"('-';)
as
Based on this plus the "scatter" band of experimental data, a value of l 0 was
used for the function at Dr/D2 of 1.0 (cylinder). The function changes linearly
to a value of 0.8 for DtfDz of zero (full cone). Thus the buckling equation
becomes

where p is the modified buckling equation of a cylindrical shell and p

f(l - DtlD) is a function Drf Dz.
of
ti
A simplified equation for the buckling of a cylindrical shell" is

2.42E (t /2r)25 The second bracketed expression can be approximated by the quantity
p
=6_EfnlL/r,-o.4sen84 (6.42)

For most applications, the second quantity in the bracketed denominator is small
r+ND,
compared with the first one and can thus be neglected' Based on this, the
buckling equation of a cone (Fig. 6.17). may be wrinen as Using a factor of safety (FS), the allowable external pressure on a cone is given
by

P, 2.6(t"/D2)25 (6.43)
E- (FS)(Le/Dz)

P. = allowable external pressure

4, _ a')25(r)15./, _ 4\
2.6(cos E : modulus of elasticity
E tl1,Dt-rDtl21'5rU or/
t"=tcosd
7"=11/2)(t + Dt/D2)
Dl : diameter at small end of cone
!V"' D2 : diameter at large end of cone

Example 6.10, Design the cone shown in Fig. 6.18 for an extemal pressure
of 15 osi. Let FS = 4.0 and E = 30 x 166 psi.

Solutinn. a' = 30.96" and cos a' : 0.858.

,. : T (' * noq)
= 24 3't5 in.
Fisure 6.17
I70 ANATYSIS OT FORMED HEAOS ANO TRANSITION SICTIONS NOMENCI.ATURE 179

/)z = diameter at large end of cone

C : modulus of elasticity
L = axial length of cylinder
L":(h/2)(1 +Dt/D2)
/ = axial length of cone
l' : slanted length of cone
Dr
M = bending moment in hoop direction
=60"
M = bending moment in meridional direction
N, = axial force in cone
N= force in hoop direction
N= force in meridional direction
Fisur€ 6.1S
P : pressure

P" = allowable extemal pressure

From Eq. 6.43,
4 = intemal pressure
P, : external pressure
,": o,(wo-1a,ly' P, = radial pressure
P" = axial pressure in cone
=,,(u?,#i:,'*i"l' P = meridional pressure
: 0.20 in. Q : shearing force in head
r : radius
and
rr = radius of curvature as deflned in Fig. 6.4
I : """""""': : U.zJ ln. I 12 = radius of curvature measured from axis of symmetry
cos a'
4 = inside radius
r, : outside radius

NOMENCTATURE
s = distance along the slanted length of cone, measured from apex

? = temperature

a : major radius of ellipse t : thickness

b : minor radius of ellipse t" = tcos a'

lt:Et3/12(l-ttz) v = axial deformation
/)r : diameter at small end of cone w : radial deformation
I8O ANATYSIS OT IORMED HEADS ANO TRANSITION STCTIONS BIBTIOGRAPHY I8I

a * coellicient ol thcfl)lal oxpansion BIELIOGRAPHY

a = one-half the apex angle of a cone

e=w for cylinders

Bilfington, D. P., Thin Shell Conctete Structures, Mcclaw-Hill, New York, 1965.
Flugge, W,, Stresses in Shells, Springer-Verlag. New York, 1967.
Timoshenko, S., and S. Woinowsky-Kieger, Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill, New
Yo*, 1959.

for cones

7 =7r/2-Q
6 = deflection measured perpendicular to axis of symmetry
A : rotation
^p =\yto=-6i/F
= poisson's ratio
o = stress
o- = critical buckling stress
o, : radial stress
.r, = longitudinal stess in cone
od = hoop stress
od : meridional sfess

S = angle as defined in Fig. 6.4

R,EFERENCES

t. Gibson, L E., Linear Elastic Theory of Thin SherrJ, Pergamon Press, New York, 1965.
von Kaman, T. and Hsue-Shen Tsien, "The Buckling of Spherical Shells by Extemal
P.essue" in Ptessure Vessel and Piping Detign: Collected Papers 197-1959, Afieican
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1960.
Coates. W. M., '"The Stale of Shess in Full Heads of Pressure Vessels" in PressureVessel anl
Piping Design: Collected Papers 1927-1959, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
New York. 1960
Baker, E. H. et al., Srell Arnlysis Manual, NASA CR-912, National Aelonautics and Space
Adminisb"ation. Washingto!, D.C., 1968.
Jawad, M. H., "Design of Conical Shells Under Extemal Loads," Jounal of Pressure Vessel
Technology, Vol. lO2, 1979.
R^etz, R. Y., An Experimental Investigarton of the Strength of Small-Scale Conical Reducer
Sections Between Cylindrical Shells under Extenal Hydrostatic Pressure, V. S. Department of
the Navy, David Taylor Model Basin, Report 1187, February 1959.
 I

CHAPTE R7
STRESS IN FLAT PLATES

V'nnn^ flot plote3. (Court$y of lhe Nooier CorPorotion, Sr' Louis, Mo )

t83
 l8.l 3TR!SS lN fLAT ptATrS
7.2 CIRCUI.AR PI.ATES t85

7.1 INTRODUCTION

lli:4gl
such .ucas
ru\,rr
* very common in grgcesl .quiq-"nt.Qiqrgql
as rozztc
areas .ts nozzle covers, bulk
DulK neads, ani tubesheets,
heads, and tuUesilOets, Ttrereas rcefanCular
-whereas
glles.are used as segnrylq! trays, baffles, and in rectangulir'p."rGffi;i;.
This chapter presenB-6rieTdescription of the theoretical iackground of
circular
and rggjqggkUllates.
The theory of symmetric bending of laterally loaded plates is generally
based
on the following assumptions:

l. Thickness of plates is significantly smaller than the least lateral dimen-

sion of the plate.
2. Loads are applied perpendicular to the middle surface of the plate.
3. No forces are imposed in the middle surface.
4. Lines perpendicular to the middle surface before deformatron remain
perpendicular to the deformed middle surface.
5. These lines are inexlensible.
Fisure 7.1
6. These lines remain straight lines.

These assumptions form the basis for developing the bending theory downward deflections are positive, the relationship becomes
of plates
and apply to plales where buckiing is not a consideration.
6 1dw
(7.2)
fr f rdr
7.2 CIRCULAR PLATES
The moment-curvature relationship is based on Eq. 3.11 and is given by
The relationship between the radius of curvature and the deflection
of a circular
plate is obtained from Eq. 3.6 as
1 1\
- -r p-l
1 d,2w
;= 77 Substituting Eqs. 7.1 and 7.2 into this expression gives

or in terms of the terminology of Fig. 7.1,

M,: -D(+ * L+\ (7 .3a)
\4r- r dr./
! =d2w : -dQ
.t)
rn dx,2 dr
(7
= D(!+ * r/
dr *9\ (7.3b)
\/
'fhc second radius of curvature is also obtained
from Fig. 7.1. Line,4g is the Sinilarly,
m(lius of curvature r, of all points at a distancer forming a cone:

sind-at=I M,: -D(!+

ar
* p+\
dr/
\r
(7.4)
dd\
Using the sign convention that clockwise angles and moments are positive
and
= -o(9 * p-,
ar/I
t86 STRESS tN r[AT ptAnS 7.2 CIRCUTAR PTATES 187

For a unilorrnly bodcd platc, thc tbrces acting on an clement are shown in Substituting Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4 into 7.6 gives
Fig. 1.2u. Taking moments uboul a-n gives
d1w I d2w_--=:
1dw O

*(i) drr r dr2 12 dr D

(M,r d0) - (". - ff*)<, + dr) d0 + z(u, a,.t) -
/ )n \ /,{.\
" or (7.7)
-lO
\
+ 74r drl\r
/
+ dr) dol+l = o
\z/
(7 .s)
dlrdld,/,)\1
-:-|_-|r-||:= O
drlr dr\ dr / I D
Ttle qvant\ty Mt dr d@/2 is the component of M, perpendicular to axis d to a as
shown in Fig. 7.2b. Similarly, substituting Eqs. 7.3 and 7.4 into Eq. 7.6 gives
Disregarding higher-order terms, Eq. 7.5 can be reduced to
d20,ldo o -o
M,+#r-M,'rQr:0 (1 .6) a*-;ar-7: D
(7.8)
(o+5F dr)

(Mr1!!r l,lii,rr1= -g
Equations 7 .7 and 7 -t are the basis differential equations for the bending of
circular plates due to symmetric loading. Equation 7.7 can also be written in
term of the local load as

I d [,d l! d (,a\.ll c
r drl drlr dr\ dr/l) = (7.e)
D

Once w is determined from Eqs. 7.7, then the moments are obtained from Eqs.
7 .3 arrd 7.4. The shearing force is determined from Eq. 7.6, and is exDressed
as

o: D(+.!+ - \+\
\ dr- r ar- r'ar/
(7.10)

Example 7.1. Derive the moment expression for a uniformly loaded, simply
supported circular plate of radius a. For g, :
0.3, plot the moment diagram and
determine the maximum deflection. rotation. and stress values.

Solution. From Fig. 7 .3, the sheat Q at any radius r is givenby 2mQ : nnz P
or

Pr
(b)
tiswe 7.2
188 STRlSl lN rtAT PLATIS 7,2 CIRCUI.AR PI.ATES t89

Hence, the deflection as expressed by Eq. 2 becomes

Pra r2 13 + p\t_!_t
Pa2 Paa /6 + Zu \
r4':_
sD 4\l+prl8D 64D\t+p_ll 'l
or

o :, * '\
w: -)-(az '15+u
Fisure 7.3
UD'- - ,tll'; \l+p
.a2 - r2l
I
(3)

and
Therefore, from Eq. 7.7,

dltdldw\l dw Pr(, 3+p,.\

Pr -^ dr l6D\' (4)
d,l;E( d, ) ): b l+p')
Integrating both sides gives
The maximum deflection occurs in the middle where r = 0. Hence
Paa /5 + p,\ _t
Pa4 15 + u\ 12(l - ,42t
dl dw\:5Prl ^ nj*, =_t | |
- '" 64D\t + pl = 64 \r + p/
____________:_

Et3
d,\' d,)
andwithp=0.30
A second integration gives the expression for the slope that is given by
o'696!aq
^ dw Pr3 Crr
-drl6D2r
Cz
(1)
,-
"'-"" Et3

The maximum rotation occurs at the edge where r = d. Hence,

and the third integration gives the deflection w as

^ = -Pat : -3^,
d'- (l - rr)
Pr4 C,rz 8r,(r + p) tP"'
w:_L+++C2lnr+,C,
64D4- -i
and with /.r = 0.30
At the center of the plate, r = 0 and the slope is zero due to symmetry. Hence,
liom liq. l, f,2: Q. s^^= -t.os
At r : a, moment M, = 0 and Eg. 7.3 gives EtY

Paz /3 u\+ The moment expression is obtained by substituting Eq. 3 into Eqs. 7.3 and
Cr: -8D\l+,,/ 7 .4. Hence

At r a, thc deflection is zero and Eq. 2 gives ,,=*rt + 1t)(a2 - 12) (s)

,,=#(T#-') u, =
ftbt{z + p.) - r2(1 + 3p.)l (6)
r90 tliltt rN trAT PtATtt 7.2 CIRCUTAR PTATIS t9l

A plot of Eqs. 5 and 6 for g.

= 0.3 is shown in Fig. 7.4. The plot indicat€s that and
the maximum moment occurs in the center and is given by
- Pr3
H=-+-+i
-l6D2r
C,r C,
(2)
M*=3#
At the center of the plate r = 0 and the slope is zero due to symmetry. Hence,
from Eq. (2), C, = 0.
At r = a, the slope is zero and from Eq. 2,
6M l.24Pa2
I
T- I- Cr= -Pa2
8D
Example 7,2. Derive the moment expression for a uniformly loaded circular
plate of radius a that is fixed at the edge. For trr, = 0.3 plot the moment diagam Also at r = a, the deflection is zero and from Eq. l,
and determine the maximum deflection and stress values.

Solution. From Example I, Ct:6

Pr4 Ctz Lz Hence, Eq. 1 becomes
.:64D- -T-- ^ ,lll / -f L: (l)
pra pa2r2 paa
64D 32D 64D
= L1^z - 'z1z (3)
uD'"
The maximum value of deflection occurs at / = 0.

Paa Pa4 l2(l - tr-z)

2n
lt. '64D&
w=-

and for P = 0.3,

{{'o
r,v.*=0.171r9)
\Lt" /
00
The moment expression is obtained by substituting Eq. 3 into Eqs. 7.3 and
7.4. Hence,

u,: f,bT + p) - r2(3 + tL)l (4)

and

I'

llt tt + tLt -
h
u, = 121t + 3p)) (s)
Figoro 7.4 Momeni diltriburion for simply suppord plolo.
tt2 $iltt tlit llaT ptATtt 7.3 RTCTANOUTAR PrAlt3 t9g

^
Answeri mo( lr = #
azMn
at center
zD\t + l.L)

max 0^ =
aM"
at edge
-_ft 'f
u\r p)
max M, = Mo throughout plate
m^x M, = Mo throughout plate

.,. A ctcular plate is fixed at the edge and is at an ambient temperature of

70T. What is the maximum stess if the top surface is heated to a
16tl lemperature of l70T and the bottom surface is cooled to a temperature of
ffi
-30T?kta = 9 x 10-6 in./in. T,r:0.5in.,a:60in.,8:30 x
lffpsi,p=9.3.
.
answer. o =naLTE
_ 1.,
= 38,600 psi

7.3 Determine the maximum moment in the circular plate shown in Fig. 7.6
: :
if a = 4 ir., b = 2 in., p 0.3, and P 100 psi.

Answerz M' : 384.6 in.-lb/in.

l.
flgure 7.5 ,nom€nt didrihtion tor f,or ft(€d plote.

A plot of Eqs. 4 and 5 for p = 0.3 is shown in Fig. 7.5. The plot indicates tlnt
the maximum moment occurs at the edge and is given by

M,*"= -Paz
Fieur. 7.6

and

6M -0.7 7.3 RECTANGULAR PTATES

o*,=v_---v- SPaz
T
In developing the differential equation for circular plaies, the shearing shess was
ignore.d because the load was symmetric with respect to 0. In rectangular plates
under uniform loads, the shearing stress interacts with the normal shesses in the
Problems .r- and y-directions and thus cannot be ignored. This results in a more compli-
cated differential e4uation than that for circular plates. In addition, the solution
7.1 Determine the maximum deflection, slope, and bending moment for a of th€ differential equation of rectangular plates is more elaborate and involves
simply supported plate subjected to edge moment Me. the use of Fourier series. Because of this, only the case of a simply supported
Ifi lnl$ il ftAT ftATtt 7.3 RKTANOUTAR PIAT!3 19!

rrctangulsr plate loadcd throughout its surface is discussed here. Nonsymmetric

(7.12)
loadings and boundary conditions other than simply supponed result in quite
complicated solutions that are beyond the scope of this book. The examples
W-+-Q'y=o
given in this section are intended to give the reader a concept of the general
behavior of rectangular plates and the difference between them and circular
plates. dQ" d,g
_ atu, .t3\
If an infinitesimal section is removed from a rectangular plate, the forces
dy = dy-
(7
dxdy
acting on it will occur as shown in Fig. 7.7. Summation of forces in the z-axis
srves
Similarly, summing moments around the y-axis and deleting all quantities of
higher order gives
q(x, y)dx dy - Q, dy + (a.. ff *)', - Qt dx + (a. ft,,)* #.ry-e"=o (7.t4)
=0
This equation can be reduced to do, d2M, azM,,
ar-: d* - atfr (7.15)

q(x,yt+#.#=, (7 .1,r)
Substituting Eqs. 7 .13 andT .15 into7.1l and using M"t = -MofromEq.3.1l
gives
Summing mornents around the "r-axis and deleting all quantities of higher order
gives
, d,M, 2d2M*+
y,-r -;z a2M,
q\x, - -;i ir, = u (7.16)

The differential equation relating deflections and applied loads is obtained by

substituting Eq. 3.11 into 7.16 and obtaining

daw-l- 2daw-t 1aw: :-:---:--:-:-

ak. v\ (7 .17)
ax4 dx2dy2 dy4 D
- -
- of the bending of a rectangular plate subjected
which is the differential equation
m, *$$o' to lateral loads.
For any grven loading and boundary conditions, the deflection p can be
obtained frorn Eq. 7.17. Tlie bending.moments can then be determined ftorn Eq.
3.1I as

_,(#. _?) (7.18a)

".:
-'(#.,#) (7.18b)

^: o
u*' !-'Y^
= (7.18c)
Figwe 7.7 dxdy
Itc filttt tt{ il.tT tta?tl 7.4 CIRCUIAR PIATIS ON IIASTIC IOUNDATION I97

and tho shcarfng forccs Q, and p, arc determined from Eqs .7 ,12,7 .14, and3.ll comparison of the denominator in parentheses in the expressions for M, and M,
a8 indicates that M) will always give a larger value of M for the given values of a
and b. Accordingly, the maximum value ofM is given by

n.- -,*(#.?) (7. l9a)

M*=atrffitm@.*)
-,&(#.?) (7.19b)
M^."==,?'o,==fq!*a\
"= 1r2(1/ffi2 + /25\2\602' 252f
|
Example 7.3. Detennine the maximum moment in a simply suppofied rectan-
gular plate of length a and width D if the applied load is expressed as = 145.1 in.lb/in.
The maximum value of M,o occurs when.r = 0 and y= 0 or r. Hence, the
maximum valae of M, is given by
q = qssinTF*T)
3.0(0.7)
M,r
I*t a = 6O in., b : 25 h., eo = 3psi, and p = 0.3. 12(1/602 + r/25r,6q25)
Sohttian, Assume y to be of the form = 40.2 in.lb/in. I
txl
w=C rr;\rr rrY\
7/
7.4 CIRCUIAR PLATES ON ETASTIC FOUNDATION
This expression satisfies the boundary conditions of w = O and M : 0 at all four
edges. Substituting this expression into Eq. 7.17 gives
Many tubesheets of heat exchangers are designed as plates on elastic foundation
"r-= Dr4(1/ as discussed in Chapter 14. The solution of the differential equation of a plate
4o
az + l/b\2 on elastic foundation involves Bessel functions. The four Bessel functions used
in this section are
and the deflection expression becomes
- t
Z@) = 6sr1r1 = >. *,-l)ix4i
: -
'-?"7'[(2])ll'
w
DFn# +Ilbry't # ('* ?) (x/2\o (x/2\8 (x/2\t2
Substituting this expression into Eqs. 7.18, gives
=t-E--+o. 61, -"'
(-1\jx4j'
Ll\xt = Det\x) = S.
,,= aOffilnG,. *) sinr sin| 47W* ,X
, (x/2)6
(x/2)2
_ --l?---L- (r/2)'o
-f?-- "'
u : Qo /.]|l - F) -,- n!
^'- Tx srn
-t \ sln
-
'"" = }(FaI7FfV-j
..,-
- , t+ _
M,:dffi"*Y"o"| 23ft) = _ ? *"r(,) =
1lr,
* r^i .
a<.t]

Thc maximum value of M, and M, occur when .r

z1i = ar.,k) =z+ .1lr, * ,"5.t,<,t]
= a/2 and y = b/2. A
r9r ltiltt ll{ fLaT ptATll 7.4 C|RCUIAR PtAftS ON ltAgTrC TOUNDATTON t99

whcrc d2z,k) Zzlx) -| EtG)

ax- - x ---j
a.x
99/rY * 4(?1r\" - . . .
" -= /lY
\z) - dzz2\x)
.
1 fl,2@)
31'z \2) 51'? \2) -----:--;-=-zt\x)--
ax- x ax ,

_ 4{z\ (x\ _ d(4) /.rY _r d(6) /r\u + .". .

,,
h:-';-\1) -?tr\r/
--+r\1) - .
d'zA(x)L4\x) lfi,l?)
----=-- - -x -'--:-
dx' = dx
Q\n)=
I I l*.......*l
t*t*1-z d2z4@) | dZlx)
" -----:--t-=-23\r)--
ax- x ax ,

"t = 0.577216

The limits of the Z functions as 'r --> 0 and as x :+ co are given in Table 7' 1' The force exerted by an elastic foundation on a ciruclar plate due to deflection
The table also shows the limits for the first derivatives of Zt tltroryh Zq. of the foundation is expressed as
The relations between the various derivatives of the Z functions are as fol-
lows: P=Kow
where p = foundation load
Toble 7.1 Limits of Zfunctions
w = deflection of foundation
Limit as Limit as
.r ---+ 0
Ko = stiffness of foundation
Function
: modulus of elasticity of foundatior/depth of foundation.
Z{x) 1.0 f cos K
_x2 The differential equation of a circular plate on an elastic foundation can be
z2@) --7- -f sin K
obtained by modifying Eq. 7 .7 as

h6) 0.5 r, sin rl,

h(x) 2t^+ -z cos ry'

i,lli,(,#)l=ry (7.19)

&(x) -x' The solution of this equation is expressed as

-:7
dx lo 1fu(cosr-sinr)
il.(x) w= Cfl(ar) 'f C2Z2@r) * C3Z3(ar) i CaZa@r)
-x
dx z ;!(cosr+sinr) where ": ^{EJD
&'(x) x, yx
sinrli Za :
dx -Itr= ft@osi,- 21 - Bessel functions

E+(x) 2
Ct - Qa : constants of integration
dx nx 1fu(cosg+sin0 Example 7.4. Detemfne the maximum deflection in a circular plate on an
I.1x
elastic foundation subjected to a concentrated load F in the center of the plate.
=:eXD""'=
' !2tx - !2 Solution. From Table 7.1 it is seen that as r approaches infinity, Z and Zz also
xn j-
'v26 +i
,t, =
approach infinity. Therefore, Ct and C2 must be set to zero. Thus
v86
w:CtZt(ar)iCaZa(ar\
100 tTmll rt{ tuT ptaTtt UEUOORAPHY 201

and Mt = tangential moment in circular plates

M, = moment in .r-direction of rectangular plates
-dr
0 = + = Ct a Zi@r) + Ca a Zi@r) My = moment in y-direction of rectangular plates
M,r = shearing moment
As r atrrproaches zero, 0 must be zero due to symmetry. But from Table 7. l, Zi
approaches infinity as r approaches zero. Hence, Ca must be set to zero. Thus P = applied pressure
O = Shearing force
w = CzZz(ar)
applied load
dw
* = CtaZS@r) r = radius
d2w ^.f I I T = temperature
jj=c*'lzo{or)--zi@nl t = thickness
d3w ^"f I I w = deflection
7j - Aa'zlozi@r\ -:zKar)] 21 to Za = Bessel functions

Substituting these derivatives into Eq. 7.10 and equating this to F' gives a = */EJD
poisson's ratio
^F
4azD REFERENCE

and l. Tiomoohenko, S., and S. Woircwsky-l<liege\ Theory of phtes and Shelts, McGmw-Hill,
New Yort, 1959.

'= BIBTIOGRAPHY
and
'fi6t'<*>
Hetenyr,M., Beams on Etastic Foandation, University of Michigan Pr€ss. Atrn Arbor, Michigan,
1964.
F McFarland, D, E., Smith, B, L,, aDd Bernhan, W. D., Analyris of plates, Spaftan Books, New
8rr2D York, 1972.
Szilard, R., Theory and Awlysis of Prorer, hedice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, {.J., 1974.

NOMENCI-ATURE

Et3
;:;:----------;:
tz\t - p-)'
E = modulus of elasticity
Kq = stiffness of foundation
= modulus of elasticity of foundation/depth of foundation
M, = radial moment in circular plates
 PART3
DESIGN OF
COMPONENTS

203
 X CHAPTER 8
DESIGN OF
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

St tot,,is' Mo
a,' ,'l,rrrr-n rower used by o ferlilizer monufocturer' (Courtesv of lhe Nooter CorPorolion'
)

205
2tJ4
206 DlgloN or cyuNDRrcAr. sHEr.rs 8.I ASMI DESIGN EOUATIONS 207

Cylindricul vcsscls ure very liequently used in the petrochemical industry. They As the pressure increases above 0.4 S, Division 2 uses plastic analysis (see
a.re easy to fabricate and install and economical to maintain. The required Section 15.l) to obtain
thickness is generally controlled by intemal pressure, although in some instances
applied loads and extemal pressure have control. Other factors such as thermal
stress and discontinuity forces may also influence the required thickness. r /R+r\
=ftn \Ri (8.3)

Example 8.1. A pressure vessel with an inside diameter of 50.0 in. is subjec-
8.I ASME DESIGN EQUATIONS ted to an intemal pressure of 100 psi. Using an allowable stress of 17,500 psi,
find the required thickness according to Section VIII, Division 1. Assume that
A simplified equation was developed by the ASME Code, Vltr-l, for deter- all circumferential and longitudinal seams are double-welded butt joints and are
mining the required thickness of a cylinder subjected to intemal pressure. It is spot radiographed.
a simplification of Eq. 5.3 and gives accurate results over a wide range of r2/r1.
This equation is expressed as Solution. From Appendix J a value of, = 0.85 is obtained. From Eq. 8.1,
PR
100 x 25
sE - 0.6P
(8.1)
-t=-=SE PR0.6p
- 17,500x.85-0.6x100
where t: required thickness r = 0.17 in. I
P = inlemal pressure
Exarnple8.2. A seamless cylindrical shell with an outside diameter of 30.0 in.
R = inside radius is butt-welded to seamless ellipsoidal heads. The circumferential seams are not
x-rayed. Find the required shell thickness ifthe allowable stress is 15,000 psi and
S = allowable stress the intemal design pressure is 250 psi. Use Section XIII, Division 1 rules.
E : joint efficiency factor

A comparison of Eqs. 8.1 and 5.9 is shown in Fig. 5.6. It indicates the wide Solutinn. From Appendix J, with a value ofE = 1.0 (seamless shell), allow-
able circumferential stress must be reduced to 8070 since the circumferential
range of applicability of Eq. 8.1. The ASME Code, Vltr-l, has, however,
seams are not x-rayed.
limited the use of Eq. 8.1 to t less than or equal toR/2 and pressure less or equal
to 0.0385 S. Various forms of Eq. 8.1 are shown in Appendix I together with
From Appendix I, the required thickness equation in terms of outside radius
is given by
an altemate equation that expresses the thickness in terms of Re rather than R.
The factor E in Eq. 8.1 is an efficiency factor and its magnitude depends on
the extent of radio$aphy performed at the various seams of the cylinder. Appen-
PR
dix J illushates the effect of radiography of various seams on the values of E as SE + O.4P
established by the ASME Code, VI[-l.
In Section VIII, Division 2, of the ASME Code, the equation for required
thickness is based on the stress at an average radius. Hence,
250 x 15
^ P(R + t/2) (15,000 x 0.80)(1.0) + (0.4 x 250)
t = 0.31 in. t
Probhms

PR
(8.2)
8.1 An ASME pressure vessel with an inside diameler of4 ft has a seamless
s - 0.5P shell. The head{o-shell seams are partially radiographed. Find the re-
206 DtStON Of CYt"tNORrCAt" SHE|TS
8.2 TVATUATION OF DISCONTINUITY STRISSIS

quircd thickness il'thc alkrwablc stress is 20,()00 psi and the design prcs-
sure i$ 2900 psi. STRESS

CATEGORIES
Answer: t: 3.81 in.

8.2 What is the maximum allowable pressure that can be applied to a cylinder PR II4ARY SECON DARY

shell with an outside diameter of 6 ft, thickness 1.25 in., and an allowable
stress of 17,500 psi? Let E : 0.85.

Answer: p = 524psi A stress developed by the constraint

of a structure. Secondary stress is
8.2 EVATUATION OF DISCONTINUIW STRESSES self-limiting, Local yieldinq and
minor distortions can satisfy the
In Chapter 5 we showed how stresses are evaluated at different locations due to
thermal and mechanical conditions. The magnitude of these stresses must be condltlons l'hich cause the stress to
kept below a given allowable shess. This allowable stress is established in the occur and failure fron one application
ASME Code, VIII-2. The designer has to establish first whether the stress is at of the stress is not to be expected,
a local or a gross shuctual discontinuity, as defined in Fig. 8.1. Next the stress
Examples of secondary stress are geheral
thermal stress and bendi ng stress at a

STRUCTURAL gross structural discontinuity.

DISCONTINUITY

Peak stress does not cause any noticeable distortion

GROSS STRUCTURAL LOCAL STRUCTURAL and is objectlonable only as a possibl€ source of a
DISCONTINUITY DISCONTINIJITY fatlgue crack or a brlttle fractufe. Examples of peak
stress ar€: I ) thernrl stress in austenitic steel
cladding of carbon steel vessels, 2) thermal stress
A source of stress or stfain A source of stress or straln li the vrall of a vessel caused by a rigid change in
intensification which affects intenslf{cation which a ffec ts a teFperature of the contalned fluid. 3) the stress at
a relatively lafge portion of relati v€ly small volune of a I ocal structural discontinuity.
a s truc ture and has a mat€rial and does not have a Fisure 8.2 Str$s Colesories (Courr$y of rhe Americon So.iery of rvle€honicdl Ensineer3.)
slgnlficant effec t on the significant effect on the overall
overall s tres s or strain stress 0r strain pattern or on the
pattern. Exahples of gross s truc ture as a l1lhole. is categorized as a primary, secondary, or a peak stress as shown in Figs. 8.2
structural d I sconti n ui ti es are and 8.3. In Fig. 8.4 is a description of the two categories of thermal stress. Once
Icad-to-shel'l and flange-to- the stress categories are established, the stresses at a vessel's different locations

!hcll junctlohs, nozzles, and

can be classified as in Table 8. l
Table 8.2 shows the allowable stress for various stress caiegories. Application
.lunctions between shells of of Table 8.2 to various stress categories is given in the following example.
(llfferent d i ameters or
Example 8.3.
Calculate the stress at points A, B, and C of the vessel in Fig.
8.5. LetR :
60 in., L= 2.0625 in., 11, = 1.9313 in., P : 500 psi, .S. =
Flsuro 8.1 Slrucrurol Dirconlinuities (Coortesy ot tho Ameri.on Socisiy ol r.te.honicol Engineers,) 15,000 Psi, P = 0.3, Eo = 30 x 106 psi.
 8.2 EVAI.UATION OF DISCONTINUITY STRESSES 2I I
2lo DtslGN of cYLlNDRlCAt SHtLLS

TIlE RI4AL STRESS

tRlt4ARY STRtSS
A self-balancing stress produced by a non-uniform
A stress developed by the lmposed loading
distribution of tenperature or by differing thermal
|lhich is necessary to satisfy the la$s of
coefficients of expansion. Thermal stress is developed
equilibrium, The basic characteristic of
in a solid body whenever a volume of material is
a primary stress is that it is not self_
prevented from assu'ning the si2e and shaPe that it
limiting. Primary stresses |,lhich considerably
normally sho!ld under a chang€ in tefiperature.
exceed the yield strength l,lill result in failure
or at least in gross dlstortlon. A therrial
stress is not classlfied as a primary stress'
General thermal stress is classified Local thermal stress uhich
BENDING
I'4E14BRANE
as secondary stress. ExamPles of is associated wi th almost
An exanple ls the bending general thermal stress are: conpl ete suppression of the

staess ln the central I ) stress produced bY an axial differential expansion and

portion of a flat head due tufe distribution in
tempera thus produces no significant
a cylindrical shell. distortion. ExanPl es of
2) stress produced bY the I ocal thefmal stresses a|"e:

tempe rature dIf ference I ) stress in a snall hot sPo

general prima rY membaane nn e*'ampte of a local PririarY betqeen a nozzle and the in a vessel v/al l.
stress is one which is so membrane sttess is the menbrane shell to t,Jhich it is attached. 2) the difference betl/leen th
distributed ln the structure stress in a Shell Produced bY 3) the equivalent linear stress actual stress and the
that no fe-distributlon of external loadr dnd monent at a produced by the radial tenperature equlvalent I i near stress.
'load occurs as a result of perFanent suppoft or at a distribution in a cylindrical shell 3) the thermal stress in a
yielding, An exaniPle is the noz2le connection. cladding material.

stress in a circular cYlinder Figure 8.,{ Ihermdl Stress Cot€gori6 (Courr$y of lhe Aftericon Socierv of Mechdnicol Ensineers )

due to internal Pressure.

Primory Slre$ Cotosoria3 (Courtelv of lt'e Ahericon Socisiv of M3€honicol
Eneine€rs )
Figure 8.3 or o = | -71501 psi
Hence, maximum stress = 14,300 psi. From Tables 8.1 and 8.2, the maximum
Solution stress for a general primary membrane sffess is
Point A. From Fig. 8'6 and Eqs. 5.9 and 5' 10,
S, : 15,000 psi > 14,300 Psi O.K
oo= 14,300 Psi
o'=0Psi Point B. Frcm Fig. 8.7 and Eqs. 5.3 and 5.4'
or = 7150 Psi
ae : 14,800 psi
The stress differences are o., : -500 psi
14,300 | psi
or = 7150 psi
-7150 | psi
 Tobb 0.1 Clorrlflcotlon of Slrun (Rrforrncr l) Tobb 8.2 Slreu Cotrgorlrr qnd Llmltr of Strcrr Intrnrlfy (Rrf l)
Sirart
Ee.dlns

!o Pnhe.y or eR0n6.

tt
-I--,--.---t----*-1--1
tP. F{ s.) I I i
|i i
:

a
T\-/
I
|| || r-.+
| - - -;i I

.-r- /'\ I- --l-

I P. Hr.5 s,) llPr+PD+O+ rs. )
i
-l-L----T-------r
\__/ l---l- \__/ '
:

.- -r- /-\ ri !
:
lP(-PD H1,5 s-) L__---*f ----.t
\--'l I

a U* &5iEn load3

---- Us op.aungloads
- .
lPr +P. +Q +F , s. )
H
\-/
-

{av. &dslull sclio.t

Fisure 8.5

213
212
 2ta Dltloltl Of CYtlNoRlCAt 3H!rr3 8.2 EVATUATION OF DISCONTINUIW STRESSES 215

500 x !'0-x-2 0625

r'" = +e) - = 7734 in lb/in'
Also,
Mt=M,+N,e=M,+7734
.-....._" r, : 60 + '#:6l.olt3 in.

rh = 60 + =
+! 60.5157 in.

B=
Fisur.8.6
,,1
3(1 - p')
h/
= 9.8465

o, = ,^'.!o'1
tz\t - p-),, =
o.so35E

=._"a

n, oe

Figur€ 8.2

The stress differences are given by

r0_, = 115,3001 psi

:
4_r l_2650lpsi
6,_, = l-7650lpsi

Hence, the maximum shess = 15,300 psi, which is about 27o above the allow-
able sffess of 15,000 psi.

-
Point C . The discontinuity forces at point c are shown in Fig . g .g . From this
ngure, Fisure 8.8
 216 Dt]Ot{ of cful{DflcAt 3H!U.3
8.2 EVATUATION OF DISCONTINUIW 5TRE55IS 217
Thc lirst cornputibility cquution is given by
^
aw"=
N,e 83,991
defl€ction of shell = deflection of head D,= h
^ r0.86M,
or ar, = En

wo * wlsn ! wy" * wql^,"n"n: wp I w9 I wy1l6, ** (l) o - 47.3822Q

0s: 2p'D Eo
where for the shell
and for the head
It'- =
Pr? m2,987
" -Et, Es ^ 4A3Mh 6l.t86lM, . 473,213
N,e _ 366,454 E6t1r6 Es Es
t*" = zB'o,=
k ^ zA,Q
O^= - 188.022Q
' Eoh E,)
."" : 47.3822M,
___Eo _
Substituting these values into Eq. 3 gives

. 4-
''': -
zp"D,
4r3'4s69Q
Eo M"+ 1'.9521Q= -7733.99 (4)

and for the head

Solving Eqs. 2 and 4 gives
Prl .
we=EA\t |,242.851
- lt)= E" = -262'55 lb/in'
Q
M' : -7221.47 in.-lblin.
2'QrA 1155.56650
*^ =
' Eoh- Eo Mr: 512.53 in.lb/in.
2Mhi2 188.o22M, t.454.162
.ur: -EJo = E, r totaly = l$y
-E-
Substituting these values into Eq. 1 gives The actual forces are shown in Fig. 8.9.

M' + r1.1563Q = -10,150.55 (2)

The second compatibility equation is obtained from

rotation in shell = rotation in head

or

0N*+ 0M" - 0ol.*.u : -Iun- Lal^rc"a (3)

where for the shell

Fisurs 8.9
 2ll DlltoN of cYuNDRtcAt SHttts 8.3 ASM€ PROCEDURE FOR EXTERNAL PRTSSURE DTSIGN 219

cxpresses the basic relationship as

noop sress ar point C =!3y:35,000psi
rs

axial stress at point C : ff : ZSOO psi

,,: + = i*'(L)'
Defining A= e""
axial bending stress at point C : Y = 720 pri
circumferential bending stress at point C = 220 psi
oe x/ tY (8.4)
^: a= ,1;"1
These stresses are divided into two categories in accordance with Table g.2:
Equation 8.4 is plotted as shown in Fig. 8.10. Hence, for any given value ofL,
l. Local membrane stress (Pr) D",and, t, a value ofA can be determined from Fig. 8.10.
The allowable compressive stress in the elastic region can be determined from
o6 = 35,000 psi the equation
o1 : 7500 psi
AEo
a, = -500 psi -FS
maximum stress difference : 35,500 psi
where FS is factor of safety and E6 is modulus of elasticity. Or in terms of
From Tables 8.1 and 8.2 the maximum allowable local membrane stress Dressure
is equal to
,2AEg

1.5S, = 22,599 < 35,500 psi overstressed (D,/'XFS)

2. I-acal membrane plus secondary stress (pr + O) In the plastic region, ASME uses quasi-stresFstrain curves similar to those in
Fig. 8.11 to determine plastic buckling. These curves are plotted on log-log
a6 = 35,000 + 220 = 35,220 psi graphs with a factor of safety of two for stress. Because the stress-strain curves
+ 720 differ for different temperatures, a number of curves for different temperatures
ot = 7500 = 8220 psi
are plotted in Fig. 8.11. Hence, allowable stress is given by
o;: -500+0 : -500 psi

= (factor I from chart)(factor of safety of chart)

maximum stress difference 35,720 psi
o=T (8.s)
From Tables 8.1 and 8.2 the maximum allowable local membrane olus
secondary stress is equal to
or
3S. = 45,000 psi > 35,720 OK I 2"8
o=FS
8.3 ASME PROCEDURE FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE DESIGN

A comparison of Figs . 5 . 1 7 and 5 . I 8 indicates that the buckling due to pressure If allowable pressure is needed, then
applied to sides and ends is more critical than the pressure applied to the ends
only. Accordingly, the ASME code, VIII, uses Eq. 5.17 as the basis for design. ^ zto
-D.
4tB
This equation is modified to take into consideration nonelastic bucklins and FS (D,)
 g
I I I 8lolgv:l
I
i
$ 33933 BssFF e ?3s 3

tl
-6
-8 -6 -6

:l V g;
11 -'t
a.>
!"" 5-
jE
I .."
E.n
\ \ JR
E
\ \ 5:.
E c- fq
fiA
tt5
5c;
.:.'
E
-a9
€
'6
E.E
I
- s 5F
q 9 fl-
; f :('
+Tet
\ .:J I
'= bt

j6 E
i;+
;bE
da EE9
oE 39PP9
4 -Fo
5g :* RFR R
'd
g9
aE 8.
i; !a

220 221
 olsloN oF cYt"rNDRrcAL sHEtrs 8.3 ASME PROCEDURI FOR EXTERNAI" PRESSURE DTSIGN 223

l.l
(E.lr )
\D./t)'
P : 4
@"/t)FS The ASME procedure for the design of cylindrical shells under extemal
pressure is complicated because of the various parameters that must be consid-
----!-
ASME uses a factor of safety of 3.0 for buckling of cylindrical shells subjected ered. A summary ofthe procedure is shown in Fig. 8. 12 as an aid to the designer.
to lateral and end extemal pressures. Hence, for elastic region (D./t > l0),
Example 8.4. The length of a cylindrical shell is 15 ft, outside diameter l0 ft,
2AEo and is constructed of carbon steel with minimum yield strength of 36,000 psi.
(8.6)
3(D,/t) The shell is subjected to an extemal pressure of 10 psi. Find (a) the required
thickness using ASME factor of safety and (b) the required thickness using a
and for elastic or plastic region (D./t ;- lO), factor of safety of 2.0.

Solution. (a) Assume

P = 3(D./t)
.t4B,t
t : 6 rn.
where A = factor determined from Fig. 8.10 and is equal to e",
B : factor determined from Fig. 8.11 Then

D, : outside diameter of cylinder

4:zzo
t '--
L=1.2s
D.
Eq= modulus of elasticity
P= allowable extemal pressure From Fig. 8.10, factor A = 0.00018. From Fig. 8.11, modulus of elasticity ar
r : thickness of cylinder room temperature is 29,000,000 psi. Hence, from Eq. 8.6

ForD,/t values less than 10, ASME uses a variable factor of safety that ranges p_ (2x0.009_l-8..1!Z? x 106)
: psi o.K.
from 3.0 for values of D"/t = 10 to a factor of safety of 2.0 for values of r0.9
(3)(32u)
D"/t = 4-O. This reduction occurs because for very thick cylinders, buckling
ceases to be a consideration and the allowable values in tension and comoression A check is needed to ascertain that buckling is in the elastic rather than the plastic
are about the same . Hence, for D"f t< 10 the allowable value of P is tfie lower region. FromFig.8.ll with A = 0.0018, a value of B:2600 psi is obiained
of the quantities Pr and Pz given below. in the elastic region of the curve. Hence, the above solution ;f l0.g DSi is
For D./t < lO, adequate.

(T# - 00833)' ur.r:]in.

^: 2ol. I \
(8.7) (b) For a factor of safety 2.0, assume
6

^
"= DJr\'- oJ,) t= 0.3125 in.

where o = two times the allowable stress in tension or 0.9 times the yield Then
stress of the material, whichever is less.
I
Note also that for values of D"/t < 4, the following equation can be used:
4=38a
t
 8.3 ASME PROCEDURE FOR EXTERNAI PRESSURE DESION 223

I.rom F'ig. 8. 10, factor A : 0.00014 and from Eq. 8.6

Cd loulot. Oo/t
zAEo ASME factor
l. Oo./t, l..r Lhar 4 ?
'p : 3(D"/t) specified factorofofsafety
safety
o = idtrr" Aanft.t L 4 oolculolar L lo
_ 2(0.000t_41_ll?9 x 106 3.0
x
l. L./Do gF.ot.r. thdr 50 ?
= 10.6 psi O.K.
l. L./Do 1... ttrar O.O5
"
Returning to Fig. 8.1 1 with A = 0.00014, it is seen that the value from the chart
indicates an elastic behavior.

Coloulot.! A ad u..
ur",:jin.
lo r
E rt,r- not.rlol. ofi.r.i, vtLh A

I. A lo r.lght off oa .c61. Ext rrd eD..oi |ot. Example 8.5. A cylindrical shell with length 18 ft and an outside diameler 6
? l.nE r€tir-. I lfl
tE lzchlol ls crd ft is constructed of carbon steel with a yield stress of 38,000 psi. Determine the
..cd B
t. A to l.it, otfroO .col. thickness needed to resist an external pressure of 300 psi.
?

Solution. I€t r = 1.25 in.

Ia Oo./t ar .lO ?
L:
D.t z.o
4: st.o
O.l.rmln 2Sl |fl.|-.
St l. ol lor. l. ll.
.tr... fFon 9.$..c1| on C
From Fig. 8.10, factor A : 0.00095. From Eq. 8.6 with Eo :29 x 106 psi,

p 2x0.00095x29x106
3 x 57.6 = 320 psi
I. 2Sl, < O.96U ?

Now check for plastic region. From Fig. 8.11, factor B :

12,000 psi in the
plastic region. Hence, the first of Eq. 8.6 cannot be used. From the second of
Eq.8.6,

P-4x12'oon
,: = 278 psi inadequare
3x57n
Try r: 1.375 in. Then

and A:o.oo11
I. Pol < Poa ?
!=sr.o
Figure 8.12 The ASME method for daerminins moximum ollowobte oxternot pr€ssure on cvtinders. From Fig. 8.11,

224
226 Dl3tON Of CYUNDR|CAL SHEttS

lJ = 12,400 psi
dx It
'=^:"
don
'P: 3 52.4 =
x 316 psi O.K.

Use r = 1.375 in. I

Problems

8.3 The thickness of a l3-ft diameter reactor is 5.50 in. and its effective leneth
is l8 ft. Ifthe design temperature is 900'F, what is the maximum allowa6le
external pressure?

Answer: P = 300 psi E

A vessel has a 15-ft outside diameter and effective length of 6 ft. If it is

subjected to 15 psi extemal pressure, what is the required thickness (to the 9
nearest l/ 16 in.) if the design iemperature is 300'F?

Answer: t = 7/16in.
A jacketed pressure vessel with an intemal diameter of 12 ft is subject€d I
to an interni pressure of 400 psi and a jacket pressure of 200 psi . The shell
thickness is controlled by the intemal pressure using an allowable tensile E
stress of 15,000 psi at 800T with an E factor of 1.0. Determine the i
-F
required stiffener spacing from Figs. 8.10 and 8.11. '6
I
.J
Answer: L = 16.2in. I

+ E
I
8.6 A distillation tower is subjec0ed to a vacuum of 15 psi. lf D" = 9 ft, -J
p
t = 0.75 in., and stiffener spacing = 8 ft, what is the maximum permis- I

sible lemperature? +-
l'
E
E
J
Answer: T : 900"F I i5 a,
+ ,r&
.og
; e;
+- AF
8.4 DESIGN OF STIFFENING RINGS I

In deriving Eq. 5.17 for the maximum strength of a cylindrical shell under
cxternal pressure, it was assumed that the ends of the shell were simply sup-
F)rted. For this to be true, stiffening rings, flanges, and so on (Fig. 8.13) are
nccded as lines of supports. These supports are assurned to carry all the load that
thc shell carries due !o external pressure. By refering to Figs. 8. 13 and 8.14,
Iotal force in stiffener is

227
 DESTON Ot CYltNDRtCAt SHfl.tS 8,4 DESIGN TOR STIFFENING RINGS

,:4P
FS PP"
': 2 2(t + A,/L)
With a factor of safety (FS) of 3.0 expression 8.5 becomes

-3PD"
a:or,aatra (8.8)

The stiffening ring must also be checked against buckling. The classical expres-
s ti ffener sion for the buckling of a ring due to external pressure is

I 2116

U;

E l1ti I
- A
tf=-:
Di,G + A,/L)L

The expression for strain is

Figure 8.I.t
o 12I

PD.L = 2F
Es D')"A + A'/L)L

With e", = A, the expression for l becomes

PD"L I:. DzL\t + A,/L)A

a
(8.e)

The stress in the shaded area of Fie. 8.14 is This equation can be used in conjunction with Eq. 8.8 and Fig. 8.10. In doing
so, a hial A, is normally selected and I is calculated from Eq. 8.8. Using the
value ofB, which already incorporates a factor of safety of 3.0, a value ofA is
o- I'- PD.
obtained from Fig. 8.11. With this A, the required moment of inertia is calcu-
- L(t + A,/L)- 2(t + A,/L) laled from expression 8.9
Because the stability of the stiffening ring is essential in calculating the shell
In this equation it is assumed that the area A" of stiffening ring is ,,smeared', over
stability, a higher factor of safety is used by ASME in the stiffening ring
the total length z.
calculations as compared with shell calculations. With a factor of safety of 3.5,
Using the terminology of Fig. 8.11 and expression 8.5,
exoression 8.9 becomes

'FS
28 .
t:--
DZL(I + A"/L)A (8.10a)
A-
 230 DIS|ON Ot CYUNDRTCAT SHEItS 8,5 ATIOWABI.E GAPS IN STITFENING RINGS 23I

The svuilable / obtuined liom Eq. tt. lOa must be lower than the available Hence,
tmoment of inertia of the stiffening ring. This inertia is calculated without
considering the contribution of the adjacent cylinder. If the composite 1of the
ring and the effective cylinder are considered, then a penalty of 28Zo is applied r=;t4J\--.,/4ooo\
,* l: l0.4psi
to Eq. 8.10 and a new expession given by
Use a shell thickness of3/16 in. and try a 3 x 3 x 3/16 angle stiffening ring.
,, _ DzLa + A"/L)
' - lo.9
(8. r0b)
A, = 1.09 in.2 and I = 0.9622 in.a
must be used. The actual f is calculated from the available rins and shell areas : r
R = : ----------l-
/t0x72)
as shown in Fig. 8.15. " 4 (u187 5 + l og/4a: z)/u PSr
Example 8,6. A long cylindrical shell is constructed of carbon steel with a From Fig. 8.11, A : 0.00018.
yield stress of 38,000 psi and a radius of 36 in. If the stiffeners are spaced at a
4-ft interval, calculate the required shell thickness and the size of stiffening rings , _722 x 48(0.18?5 + 1.09/48 x0.00018)
for an external pressure of l0 psi at 100"F. A
Solution. l*t : 0.67 in. a OK t
r : D--
= tt+
0.1857 in.
a = 0.67 t
8,5 AITOWABLE GAPS IN STIFIENING RINGS
From Fig. 8.10,
Gaps in stiffening rings are normally provided to allow for drainage of vessel
A= 0.00028 contents or permit piping and other internals to extend through the ring. Exam-
ples of various gap arrangements are shown in Fig. 8.16. The maximum allow-
From Fig. 8.11, able gap can be calculated by assuming the distance between points a and b of
Fig. 8. 17 as a simply supported column of length l. The maximum buckling load
A : 21000 psi that can be applied to this column is given by

^ lf'I1ol
I'
(8.1 la)

The strength of the column must be equal to or greater than the cylindrical shell.
For large diameter shell the curvature is small and the buckling streneth of the
shell approaches that of a simply supponed flat plate. The riinimuit critical
buckling strength of the simply supported plate abcd (Fig. 8.17) loaded in the
circumferential direction is given by

_ 4i2Enl ----=-
4T2EJ
I'c, =;r=- _
t-tr - lt-t = t'
(8.1 lb)
.ing..
By comparing expressions 8. 1la and 8. I lb, it can be concluded that in order
Fisure 8.15 for the column aD to be as strong as the plate, its length must be about one-half
 8,5 ATTOWABTE GAPS IN STIFFENING RINGS 233

Grp lnor to.tc..d I rtm.r

th. hrckn.r. ot rh. $.lt ptlrd

Thii.&iion rha h64 momsnt of i..ni!

r€qutr€d tor.i^q unl.r r€qun€m€ns ot

S]
L.ngth of.ny g.p in u6eppo.r.d .lt nor o Figure 8.17
.r..sd l.ngrh ol .c ih*. in Fig. UG.29_2

that of the plate. Therefore, the maximum gap length must be one-half that of
a buckling lobe length of a cylindrical shell. In referring to Fig. 5.16 the
maximum gap length can be expressed as

-_l
g_;_-;; _ ttD. (8. l2)
_l
_+
^';
- Typ. ot onttrucrio.

ASME has developed curves that are based on Eq. 8.12. These curves are
1xa- shown in Fig. 8.18. A comparison, however, between Eq. 8.12 and Fig. 8.18
indicales some differences. These differences are due to the fact that Fig. 5.18,
which is used with Eq. 8.12, is plotted using the first two terms of expression
fl in Eq. 5.27a whereas Fig. 8.18 uses all terms. Therefore, the results of Fig.
8.18 are more accurate.
Tht larion lhatt h!v. mfr@r ot
i...ri. r.qui4d to. nng.

Figur' 8 6 voriou
Example 8.7. What is the maximum gap allowed in a stiffening ring of a shell
L : 15.0 ft, and r : 1.0 in.?
1 orrong€rnenrs oI rrittuning ring. for cyrindri.or vessers 3ubiecd ro exrernor
(Ref. 2).
preasure
with D. = 7.O ft,

Solution

L=
'-:
t
t+
r
a.zs

232
 8.6 OUI-OF.ROUNDNESS OF CYTINDRICAT. 5HIItS

lrronr F'ig. 5.lll, N = 4 and fiom Eq. tl.12,

G ::+
(4X4)
: o.2oD^
-
d
!
G = 16.8 in. T

"":#ii .s
8.6 OUT.OF-ROUNDNESS OF CYLINDRICAL SHELLS UNDER
EXTERNAL PRESSURC
3,6+Id ;
"+r3
= In the fabrication of cylindrical shells, slight out-of-roundness invariably results.
*"""p;'L; E3 This is due to forming, welding, or postweld heat-treating operations. Normally,
$-E intemal pressures tend to minimize out-of-roundness, whereas extemal pres-
d;:; ";: sures tend to increase it. Because of that, and to prevent failure, extra pre-
cautions must be taken in fabricating shells that are subjected to external pres-
;a sures.
In Fig. 5. 16 it is assumed that the shell is approximated by a series of columns
s!
5= connected end to end. The length of each column is one-half a lobe length, or

nDo
E bet ,=
-2N
-5
;IJ The slendemess of each column is expressed by the ratio //r where r is the radius
=_- of gyration. Since r is eqtal to t2/\/12 in a shell wall. the equation becomes
@i
o5
t_ 5.44
r N(t/D.)
g gfig g F 8I 889 S R
The eccentricity of each column in expressed by e. If it is assumed that the
rTog'reu1lq1 - neurrg epcrng eccentricity ratio e/r affects the strength of a column in the same way as the
shell, it can be concluded that

el for columns
rr
and

e
------ca-
5.44
for cylinders
t/y12 N(t/D.)

234
 DESION OF CYI.INDRICAI. SHELLS

I
I u
!:t c'
N(t/D)
(8. r 3) I I @E
V I oB
: /
where C1 1.57.
Experiments have shown that for constant tfD, ratios, the value of eft tl / I
increases with an increase inLf D.ratios. This, however, applies only in the case
of intermediate length shells. For this range, Eq. 8.13 was found to give ade- ( / /
quate results. As the length gets longer, tests have shown than an increase in
L/D"has no influence on ef t. On the other hand, tests have shown that as the
length decreases, the value of e/l increases slightly. Thus, Eq. 8.13 needs
modification to take into account the two extreme cases. Thus. disreeardins the
increase in e/t as L/D. decreases. an empirical equation of the fo;
/
/,1 "1
/t 4ls
il I
t q QE

I
*:1 t- . E=
9: Ct . f q 66
t N(Jf,j- "'"
..'- n
/
I
I I o €o

/ ct €.0
is found satisfactory. In using the values of C1 and C2 as obtained from tests, the
equation becomes
/ / I I
I I P6

/
C : o, o,'=8
+ o.ol5N (8.14)
dF
t N(t / D")
I E

Figure 8.19 is a plot of this equation. 'i

3{

,9d

Example 8.8. Calculate the maximum out-of-roundness allowed in a cylinder 3.ssps F s 8 t I tt3R8
subjected to extemal pressure with D, 5.0 ft, Z : 14.0 ft, and t -
0-75 in- : rTog rcurralql; lraueqq epnrng
Compare the result with that obtained from Fig. 8.19.

Solution

D-
R
5.60 t
= to

237
2il D|lrol{ o; cYuNDilcAr tH[t3 NOMINCIATURI 239
From Fig, 5.18, N = 3. From Eq. 8.14,
o,: -0.062510
n/t (8.1s)
f nnrr -l

"=Lffi)+o'or5(3)J(o7s) For plastic range,

e: 0.39 in.
ot= B
From Fig. 8.18,
where B = is obtained from Fig. 8.ll using A = 0.125/(R,/t).
e: O.53t
Example 8.9. A cylindrical tower is constructed of stainless steel 410 mate-
rial. Its radius is 6 ft and thickness is 0.5 in. Determine the maximum allowable
compressive stress at room temperature.
e = 0.40 in. T
Solution

&=3=roo
, u.)
8.7 DESIGN FOR AXIAT COMPRESSION From Fig. 8. 11,

Eo = 29 x 106 psi

For axial compression, Eq. 5.29 rnay be written as For elastic region,

.".=*Lo o,=fifo.oazs x 29 x 106)

: 12,600 psi
or
For plastic region,
A:ltEot:99
RJt
A =W: o.ooo87
The allowable strain can be expressed as
and

FS(R,/r) A = Il,fiX) psi <- use I

A large factor of safety is normally used in this expression because a slight NOMENCTATURE
out-of-roundness can significantly reduce the critical sfain. ASME uses an
approximate factor of safety of 10.0. Hence, the expression for allowable com- A = shain obtained ftom extemal pressure charts
pressive stress in the ASME is for elastic range, A" = area of stiffening ring
210 DtStON Oi CyUNORtCAt SHH"|"S EIBTIOGRAPHY 241

I = stress magnitude in a cylinder due to external pressure BIBTIOGRAPHY

D, = outside diameter of cylinder
Windcnburg, D, F., "Vessels under Extemal Pressure," in Pressure Vessel and Piping Desiqtl:
6 = joint efficiency Collected Papers 1927-1959, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1960.

: modulus of elasticity tk)lt, M., "A Procedule for Determining the Allowable Out-of-Roundness for Vessels under
E6 External Pressure," in Pressure Vessel and Piping Desiqfi: Collected PaPers 1927-1959,
F : peak stress as denned in Table 8.2 American Society of Mechanical Engineering, New York, 1960.

/ = moment of inertia of stiffening ring

1' = combined moment of inertia of stiffening ring and adjacent shell
L = effective length of shell
P = intemal or extemal pressure
P6 = primary bending stress as defined in Table 8.2
P1 = pnmary local membrane stress as defined in Table 8.2
P- : primary general membrane stress as defined in Table 8.2
Q: secondary membrane plus bending stress as defined in Table 8.2
R = inside radius of cylinder
R, = outside radius of cylinder

S = allowable tensile shess in the ASME Code, VI[-1

& = alternating stress in the ASME Code, VIII-2
S, : allowable tensile stress in the ASME Code, Vm-2
t : thickness of cylindrical shell

REFERCNCES

ASME Boiler and Pressue Vessel Code, Section Vm, Division 2, Alrs rnative Rules-pressure
Vessels, ANSVASME BPV-Vn-2, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New york,
1980.
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VItr, Division l, prcssure Vesrels,
ANSUASME BPV-Vm-I, American Society of Meahanical EDgineers, New york, 1980.
 CHAPTER

DESIGN OF FORMED HEADS

AND TRANSITION SECTIONS

Inside surfoce of o vessel hecd. (Courtosy of the Nooler Corp.. St. to'rir, Mo.)

243
2U DISION OT IORMED HTADS AND TRANSITION SECTIONS 9.I INTRODUCTION 245

9.I INTRODUCTION

A large variety of end closures and transition sections are available to the desisn
engineer. Using one configuration versus another depends on manv factors suih --r-.
as method of forrning, material cost, and space ."ihi"tionr. Some frequently
used heads are: ].'
(a) FLANGED
Flanged Heads. (b) HEI.lISPHERICAL

These heads (Fig. 9.1c) are normally found in vessels operating at low
pressures such as gasoline tanks, and boilers. They are also used-in high-
pressure applications where the diameter is small. Various details for their
design and construction are given by the ASME Code, VI[-l.

Hemispheical Heads.
_1
_T
,
Generally, the required thickness of hemispherical heads due to a grven
temperature and pressure is one-half that of cylindrical shells with equivalent
diameter and material. Hemiheads (Fig. 9.10) are very economical when
(c) ELLIPTICAL (d) FLAIIGED & DISHED

construcied of expensive alloys such as nickel and titanium----either solid or (TORISPHERIcAL)

clad. In carbon steel, hemiheads are not as economical as flaneed and dished
heads because of the high cost of fabricalion. Hemiheads are iormally fabri-
cated from segmental "gore" sections or by spinning or pressing. Segmental
gore hemiheads are economical in thin, large diameter equipment or thick,
small diameter reactors. Because hemispherical heads are thinner than cylin_
drical shells to which they are attached, the transition area between the head
and shell must be contoured so as to minimize the effect of discontinuity
stress. Figure 9.2 illustrates the hansition requirements in the ASME Code,
vm.
Elliptical and Torispherical (Flanged and Dished) Heads.
These heads are very popular in pressure vessels (Fig. 9.lc and d). Their (e) C0NICAL (f) T0Rl c0lt IcAL
thickness is usually the same as the cylinder to which they are attached. This
reduces considerably the weld build-up shown in Fig. 9.2. Thus, because the
required thickness in areas away from the knuckle region is less than the
furnished thickness, the excess can be advantageously used in reinforcing
nozzles in these areas. Many mills can fumish such heads in various di_
amelers and thicknesses that are competitive in price. ( g) IlISCEL!ANE0Us
In a true elliptical head the radii of curvature vary between a jacent points Figure 9.1 commonly usad lormed closurc heods.
along a meridian. To simplify the calculations and fabrication, the ASME
Code established the following various approximations. A 2: 1 elliptical
head can be assumed to consist of a spherically dished head with a radius of Conical and Toriconical Heads.
9OVo and a knuckle radius of 17go of the shell diameter to which thev are
attached, as shown in Fig. 9.3. The smallest knuckle radius allowed for a
/
These heads shown in Fig. 9.1e and are used in hoppers and towers as
bottom end closures or as transition sections between cylinders with different
flanged and dished head is 67o of the shell diameter and a spherical radius of diameters. The cone-to-cylinder junction must be considered as part of the
1007o of the shell diameter. cone design due to the high unbalanced forces at the junction. Because of
 I 9,2 ASME EQUATIONS fOR HEMISPHERICAI HIAD DISIGN 247
I
r
lilc b thcse high fbrces, the ASME Code, Vlll-1, limits the apex anglc to a max-
imum of 30" when the cone is subjected to intemal pressure. Above 30'a
l- '".ca
F
discontinuity analysis is done or a toriconical head used to avoid the un-
balanced forces at the junction.
<1l2las-.hl <112k,-.hl
Miscellaneous Heads.
taper./, may inctude Many chemical processes require unusual vessel configurations. The heads of
the width ol the weld- such vessels can have an infinite number of contours. One such contour is
shown in Fig. 9. lg. The design of these heads is very complicated and there
are no simple methods of analysis. Experience, proof testing, and sophisti-
cated analyses are generally used to determine required thicknesses.

9.2 ASME EQUATIONS FOR HEMISPHERICAT HEAD DESIGN

The ASME Code, VI[-l, has combined Eqs. 6.1 and 6.7 for internal pressure
into one simplified equation:

PR
(e.1)
2SE - O.zP

where t: required thickness

P = intemal pressure
{cl (dl
Fisure 9.2 H€od-to{hell iunction. (Courrety of the Americon Societ}' of ldechonicol
Ensi'ieers) .lR = inside radius
S : allowable stress
B = joint efficiency

This equation with E : 1.0 is plotted in Fig. 6.3 and it approximates the more
complicated Eqs. 6.7 over a large range of r'fri- Othet forms of Eq. 9. 1 are
shown in Appendix I.
For external pressure, Eq. 6.35 is taken as the basis for the ASME Code
equations. Defining e". : A, r : R,, and modulus of elasticity as Es, Eq. 6.35
can be written as

0.t25
{a) ASiIE 2:1 Head Es R"/t

I "
. 0.125
R"/t
(9.2a)

(b)
T where A = critical shain
ASI.IE Flanged and 0ished Head R, = outside radius
fisure 9.3
t : thickness
246
214 DISION Of FORMED HTADS AND TRANSITION STCTIONS 9,3 ASME DESION EQUATIONS 249

The critical strcss in a sphcrical section is given by lixamplc 9.1. Using the ASME criteria, determine the allowable cxternrl
R, = 60 in. and t : 0.5 in. Use the 300'F line
prcssure on a spherical shell with
a*: P",R. in Fig.8.ll.
Zt
Solution, From Eq. 9.2a,
or
n rs l
A:ffi=0.00r
= 2%
P.,
R"/t=4+
R./t
(e.3)

From Fig. 8. I 1, with A :

0.001, a plastic behavior exists and Eq. 9.2c must be
and the allowable pressure is expressed as used. Hence, from Fig. 8.11

zAEo B : 11,000 psi

(e.4)
FS(R,/')
and
Using factor of safety (FS) : 4.0 and substituting Eq. 9.2a into 9.4 gives
= nt o" I
-p _ o.0625Eo
(R./ t)'
(e.2b) ":*@
where P = allowable extemal pressure 9.3 ASME DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR ELTIPSOIDAI AND FLANGED
AND DISHED HEADS
Eq = modulus of elasticity
The general solution of Eq. 6.39 is very cumbersome because 12 is a variable
The ASME procedure for determining the allowable external pressure for a function. However, the stresses obtained from Eq. 6.39 are important because
spherical section is to detemine fust the A value from Eq. 9 .2a. The allowable they can be added to the membrane stresses of Eq. 6.37 which results in
pressure can then be obtained by referring to a stress-strain chart similar to the significantly reducing the total stress at the vicinity of the junction. Therefore,
one shown in Fig. 8.11. IfA falls in the elastic region, then P is calculated from this equation can be advantageously utilized by the designer in reducing the
84.9.2b. If ,4 falls in the plastic region, however, a value ofB is determined required head thickness. The ASME used this fact in developing design param-
fust from the chart. The allowable pressure is then calculated from exoression eters for ellipsoidal and torispherical heads.
9.3 as: A study was mader with ellipsoidal heads to determine the effect of the ratio
a/b on the stress level at the head-to-shell junction for a constant ratio 32 of head
P" 20- thickness t to shell radius r. The study indicated that the point of maximum stress
= FS(&/r) (e.5)
in the head changes with a change of afb.Forheads shallower than a/b of 2.5,
the maximum stress is in the hoop direction at the outside surface of the knuckle
Substituting B : o",/2 inl.o Eq. 9.5 gives region and is in compression as shown in Fig. 9.4. For ratios of a fb between 2.5
and 1.2, the maximum stress occurs at the junction and is a hoop tensile stress.
The stiess magnitude for various ratios ofa/b is shown in Fig. 9.4. A simplified
-p= R./t
B
(9.2c) equation used by the ASME Code, VIII-I, approximates the theoretical stress
ratios of Fig. 9.4 for values of af bbetween2.6, which is the maximum allowed
where B = factor determined from Fig. 8.11. by the code, and 1.0 for a spherical head:

Equations 9.2 form the ASME basis for determining allowable external pres-
sure for sDherical sections.
- : il'. (-tl] (e.6)
 DISION Oi TORMID HEADS AND TRANSIIION SICTIONS

___-_ Lh.or.t, loo I vo lLr.. e

tmot. votu.. etvon bU Eq.{9.O1
x- IE
d
lle hooD etr€e6 of o L_4
Ile nerldlonol EtroBs ot
o*r
-E, tt.
o.- o -!
tl q-
-6
de eual'oc€ of knucklo o-eo
I
---.'i
a *,-
rxo0
-oxl( ;-F
tJ i-;
lrc
do
-ti 6t
o ", o.l ;-3 qo-
:sE l0^
;t$
1 rffz,tf;r] i
iE,6
\.
-:Zt
6il-
d9
;i
-li l ll
at6 o "P
Fisur€ 9.4 l,{oximum ske5s in ElliFoidol Heo&. (Ref. t, p. l3,t).
C.
'o
.! -l r o (.l-
:.{
( to
-l t9 6i
.a
'tI IO- li't^
'l_
.o- t.
.,lJ o
E5
{
-_! .l ]a
)to
g

A plot of this equation is also shown in Fig. 9.4. The ASME Code uses the K -j :LLi - lts ttl ,^=
values given by Eq. 9.6 to determine the required stress ratios needed in obtain_ )o
l -l 6o
do
ing thickness of ellipsoidal heads. This is accomplished by multiplying the I // q-:
calculated thickness of a cylindrical shell with diameter D by'K valuis. Hince, do
for ellipsoidal heads, a
ct

ci

(e.7) rt
zSE - 0.2P 3*3533
ss€J1s ur\oJc 01 sseJ,ls xour Jo o|1ou
where t : thickness of ellipsoidal head
ur^rr r

P = internal pressure
D = diameter of shell to which head is attached
l< = sfiess intensity factor obtained from Eq. 9.6
S : allowable stress
6 = joint efficiency
For torispherical heads, tests conducted by H<ihnr and others have shown that
the stress at the knuckle area due to internal pressure reaches the yield value long
before the spherical region does. Hrjhn plotted an empirical equation that cor_
relates well with available test data, as shown in Fig. 9.5. To ivaluate Hcihn's
empirical curve, Fig. 9.5 shows anotler curve that indicates the stress rn an

251
 DIsION O? TORMID HTADS AND IRANSITION SICTIONS 9.3 ASMI DISIGN IOUATIONS 253

equivBlent ellipsoidal head whose thickness is equal to the shell thickness. This
curve indicates that Hrihn's curve is liberal for small values of knuckle to crown + - z.z4,,os!) + rs.oszr(r)] r" I (9.10)
radri r/L. Accordingly, the ASME Code, VIII-I, developed an empirical curve fo.oozw
that parallels both Hdhn's curve for large values of rfL and the ellipsoid curve | /r\
for small r/Z ratios, as shown in Fig. 9.5. The ASME curve can be expressed + 10.26879 x 10 a - 0.442621;l +
by the equation
L \U/ ' "'-,(;i]l('";)]'
where t : required torispherical thickness
n =)(z + (e.8) -L : spherical crown radius

r = knuckle radius
Thus the ASME equation for the torispherical heads is given by
D = diameter of shell to which head is attached
PLM P : intemal pressure
(9.e)
zSE - O.zP S: allowable stress
where r : thickness of torispherical head
A plot of Eq. 9.10 is shown in Fig. 9.6.
P = internal pressure
Z = spherical crown radius Example 9,2. :t ifD = 144 in.,
What is the required thickness of a 3 head
M = stress intensity factor obtained from Eq. 9.9 P= 100 psi, S: 17,500 psi, E: 1.0?

S = allowable stress
g = joint efficiency Solutian. From Eq. 9.6, with a/b = 3,

r = knuckle radius K: 0.166712 + (3.0f1

In practical applications researchers noticed that Eq. 9.9 gave conservafive = 1.83
results for the majority of head designs but became unconsirvative for laree
ratios of r/t. This ratio was not considered by the ASME in its derivation of E-q. From Eq. 9.7,
9.8 because Fig. 9.5 was based on a constant value of r/r. Accordingly, research
was conducted to evaluate the buckling behavior of the knuckle region for heads (100x144)(1.83)
with large ratios of //t. The plastic analysis concept was used arid shown2 that 2x 17,500 x 1.0 - 0.2 x 100
thefollowing equation can adequately predict the behavior of torispherical heads
with large rf t rutios: = 0.75 in. I

o"/FS
= (0, *,,;);.,'(, -,,;)(i) - o 0006 Example 9.3,
D=24O in., L=2AO in.,
What is the required thickness of a flanged and dished head
r: 15 in., S:17.500 psi, E= 1.0,
if
and
P : 50 psi?
Sglving. for and
_r fetting or/FS
:S, the following approximate equarion
obtained and used by the ASME Code, VIII-2:
Solution.

nl= -t.zent - 4.ss246(; + 28.e3318G) L ..

r
 9.3 ASMT DESIGN EOUATIONS

l;rrrn Eq.9.tl.

l-
M=zG+vr6)
: 1.75
From Eq. 9.9,

t:-
50x240x1.75
'-2xl7joox1.o-02x50
: 0.60 in.

Because the thickness is obtained from Eq. 9.9 and because this thickness is
.17 l2: I Etl,plo'dar h€.d) small compared with the diameter of the head, the requirements of Eq. 9. l0 must
be checked.

r15
D 240
: 0.0625
P 50
;J 17,500

= 0.002857

and from Eq. 9.10,

/r\ :
ln l;l
\L/
-s.54851

o.oo38e
;=
t = 0.93 in.

Hence, for this head a minimum thickness of 0.93 is to be used. I

,005 .01 .02 .03 .04 _05

9.6
9.3.1 Ellipsoidol ond Torisphericol Heods under Exlernol Pressure
Figure Required Thickne.s of Formed Heods (Courre.y of lhe Ane.icon Sociery of /vtechonicol
Ensineers.)
For extemal pressure, the knuckle area is subjected to a tensile stress. Hence the
critical area that is necessary for consideration under extemal pressure is the
! spherical region. Thus the ASME criteria for all ellipsoidal and torispherical
I heads under extemal pressure are the same as those for spherical heads.

254
 116 DIIIO}I O' IOTMID H!ADs AND TRANSITION SGCTIONS
9.4 ASME EQUATIONS FOR CONICAT HEAD DESIGN 257
9.4 ASME EQUATIONS FOR CONICAL HEAD DESIGN
"\ I

T]--+. l+I
From Example 6.7 it is seen that the hoop force Np is twice
as large as the
longitudinal force N5 in conical heads subjected to internal pr"rr*".
Th" ASME
Code, VI[-I, uses Eq. 1 of Example 6.7 as the basis for establishing the
required thickness of a conical section subjected to intemal pressure.
The Jqua_ 2raon6
tion is given by

PD
_ (e.l l)
I' +ilvl_t -nT r
\l
I
I
2 cos a(Str' 0.6p)
,l
where P = internal pressure
D = inside diameter of cone at the point of consideration
I ?
measured
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis _t_ ___L
,S = allowable stress Fig'rr€ 9.7 Discontinuiiy iorcas dus ro internol preslur€.

g = joint efficiency
a = one-half the included apex angle of the cone at the center line of where, in this chapter, a is used rather than q' and X and Y are given by
the cone
X= 4.559U2 tan d
9.4. What is the required thickness of a conical head attached to
a
.
"I:TOr"whose inside
cyllnder diameter is 40.0 in. if the intemal pressure is 450 psi, the
Y = 1.316(V - 2V) tan a
allowable stress is 20,000 psi, E = 1.0, and a
= 20.0? and V and V2 are given as in Example 6.9.
Solution. From Eq. 9.11, The longitudinal stress in Eq. 9.12 is in tension for all values of a and does
not govem the design criteria. The f term in the circumferential stress expression
in Eq. 9.12 is positive for all practical applications. Hence the quantity a" varies
from a maximum tensile value of Prft to a compressive value that depends on
(2X0.940X20,000 x 1.0 - 0.6 x 450) the angle a. The ASME Code, VIII-I, limits the maximum compressive circum-
= 0.49 in. ferential stress to a value of Pr/r. Using these criteria, the quintity yl|rt;n
I Eq. 9.12 must be limited to a value of 2.0. Values in excess of 2.0 must be
9.4. I ASME Simplificotion of Discontinuity Anolysis due fo Iniernol supported by a ring added at the junction. The area of the ring is given by the
rressur€ equatron

The ASME Code, VtrI-1, uses the stress expressions obtained (Y\EIt -
in Example 6.9 tr2 tan q 2)
f9r inlernal pressu€ as the basis for establisiing simplified l.ite.iu
tinuity analysis at the cylinder-to-cone junction. At ihe large end
fo, dir"on_
of the cone
2 Y\6rt
(e.13)

(Fig,. 9.7) the discontinuity analysis

results in the following i*o.*piessions fo, A plot of the quantity y shows that it can be approximated by the expression
me longlrudlnal and hoop stresses in the shell:
0.005a as shown in Fig. 9.8. Substituting this value into Eq. 9.13 gives

,=!(o'+x{rz\ t2tanall
, ['
400 \ (9.14)
(9.12)
""=7(, - rrn The ASME Code,
1.5SE and thus
VI[-l, limits the comnressive circumferential stress to
 258 DTSION OF fORMTO I{TADS AND TRANSITION SECTIONS 9,4 ASMT IQUATIONS FOR CONICAL HIAD DISIGN 259

t.o liquation 9. l5 is used by thc ASMB Cirde , Vl ll- I , as thc bitsis litr chccking
lllc.ioint bctween the cylinder and the large end of cone due to internal prcssuro.
o.e At thc small end ofthe cone (Fig. 9.7) the circumferential and longitudinal stress
o cquations due to internal pressure are
S
/
X=O.C t2 6-
\-7
,: !(o '-',4)
(9.16)
'7Li =,r.5591 'z Lan o\
o.2
--2 <=-l---<ly,o.brri
I
""=?('- ",4)
4 tO'
!Y= 1.3t6<,V | -zvz tLonc,.
30' 40. SO.
Because both expressions include a negative term, the equation for or controls
because X is numerically larger than Z Limiting the maximum compressive
o<
stress to Pr/t, the term in parentheses in the equation for o1 is
Figure 9.8 X ond Y volues for externot prossurc.
< 1.5

l.sSE :A
t and a stiffening ring is needed for values of XYr/t greater than 1.5. The
required area of the stiffening ring is
'l
Prl ran q l- t.s
E [ssz, l_=-=-tl
zSE I
_.:l
xt/r,/tl
V7= ! P
From Fig. 9.8, it is shown that the quantity X is approximated by 0.012a. Hence
Equation 9.14 thus becomes the required area can be expressed as

Prl / 326.6\/F7SE\ . Prl af , 125

'l

^,=G('_ --
tan
(9.r7)
" 1t^" 2sE L' d,rtl
or for the large end of cone,
By assuming that the maximum allowable longitudinal stress is limited to ,St,
the expression
. P,1 /. A\ t"
o':2sE\'-i) (9.15) Pr.
SE =;
where A, = required area of ring
P = intemal pressure can be substituted into Eq. 9.17 to give for the small end of cone,

=
12 radius of cylinder at large end of cone
J= allowable stress ^': #(' - *) "" " (9.18)

t : joint efficiency
A = 326.6\/FEE where A = *G
a= one-half the apex angle of cone r, = radius of cvlinder at the small end of cone
-*"--"W*-ffiUfY6ffiU'iii,aibt
iio mmnror uapng 9,.1 ASrvU IOUAT|ONS fOR CONICAI HIAD DlllON 261

Exanple 9.5. Doslgn thc conc ehown in Fig. 9.9 and check the cone-to-shcll and the required area
I junctions. L€t S = 20 ksi, E = 1.0, and p = 150 psi.
Solutian. From Eq. 9.11, ,=ffi(t-1ff)<o.sttt
= 3.70 in.2 I
100)
9.4.2 Conicol Shells under Exlernol Pressure

The goveming equation for the design of cones subjected to extemal pressure is
For the large end,
obtained from @. 6.43. Using a factor of safety 3.0, Eq. 6.43 becomes

A= 326.6\m =28.28" P. 0.87(t,/D)25

(9.19)
Es. L"/D,
and from Eq. 9.15 the required area at the large end is
This equation that expresses the cone in t€mrs of an equivalent cylinder of
thickness r" and length tr, is analogous to 84. 6.42 for cylindrical shells. Thus
the ASME Code, VI[-l, applies the same equations for the design of cylin&ical
^=ffiffi(r-ff)<os,t shells under extemal pressure for the design of cones with applicable values of
t" urd L":
= 0.64 in.2

For small end 9.4.3 ASME Simplificotion of Discontinuity Anolysis due to Externol
Presgure

A=89 = 7.71 The discontinuity forces due to external lnessurea at the large end of cone are
shown in Fig. 9.10 and expressed as

{irtt*-
Fisurc 9.9
_:I_
figur. 9.10 DLconrinulty for.e. dua lo cx|lrnol pr€!!ure,
262 DI3ION OI IORMTD HIADS AND NANSTTION STCTIONS 9.4 ASMI EQUATIONS TOR CONICAT HEAD DESIGN 263

lly limiting the axial stress to an allowable value of SE, the above equation can
u,__p_!t*r{^r,
I I''' bc written for large end of the cone,
(e.20)

'--&1'-"2)
r\ t/ o'=*'#""1'-i(|*2.4):] (9.2r)

where X : 9.34 Vz tan tt P

where A: 104
SE
Y = 2.57 (Vy - 2V2) tan a
N,: axial compressive force = Pr2f2t +g At the small end of the cone the stress is eiven bv
Q: axial force due to wind, dead load, etc.
o" =
- Pr. r;N,
1- "l/2
v-alues of X and I in Eq. 9.20 can be approximated by the expressions in t I'' -
lhe (9.22)
Fig. 9.11. A comparison of o; and or given by Eq. 9.20 indicates that the
maximum compressive stress is given by ar; a conservative maximum allowable
compressive stress value is Pr2/f and thus
r:;l,t -N-/ *
"v;/
/^

and the maximum compressive stress by 4. Limiting the allowable compressive

o.o27a
E Pr'
strcss to -(P/r/r), the first of Eq. 9.22 reduces to
'V;=N*-l
A stiffening ring is necessary if this quantity is exceeded. The required _r,,_r,ill.r.-
the ring is given by
area of ^t _P,,

A,: (N,tanr(;;)lt _ (Prz/N,) - 1f or N, s 0, which indicates that at the small end of the cone the axial force N,
O .027 a\/ r2/ t l must be resisted by a ring with an area for the small end of the cone

"o _ N,rr.sEtzn a (9.23)

z.o
t,e In addition to providing the required arca at a cone-to-shell junction, it is
t.6 necessary to design the ring at the junction to prevent buckling due to external
o 1.1 -./.
.7 pressure. The procedure is similar to that for the design of stiffening rings in
E x=bs4vzrLno<
J t.2 cylindrical shells. A conservative approach used by the ASME Code, Vltr-l, in
la designing cylindrical shells under extemal pressure assumes that intermediate
t.o
X:O.O27d rrttt' stiffening rings support all the load applied to the shell. Using the same criteria,
o.8
x the load on the cone in Fig. 9.10 due to extemal pressure can be proportioned
o.6 '.t' at the large and small end stiffening rings as follows:
o.+
o.2 =o. to6 I
4 - r) cos a
Y
\- f_le. SZ.y - zvr,'Lonq^ : ZnP (r2 r)(r2
o pressure load at large end stiffening ring
o' to. 20. 3sina

Figure 9.ll
o(
X ond Y voluer for externol pressure.
pressure load at small end stiffening n"t: O!&i#
 2U DTSION Of TORMID HIAOS AND TRANSITION SECTIONS
NOMENCLATURI

'Ii)t l l()td itt lirrgc cnd duc ttl axial conrprcssitln, prcssurc Ily using
on conc, an<I pressure rr1 = E,A. thc above equation reduces to
on cylinder is
Ar2 A,

!. eliffi*
(e.26)
, = +tan q +, tun o+
which is the required moment of inertia of a cone-to-shell stiffening ring.
or For design purposes, the value of A in Eq. 9.26 is obtained from a
stress-strain relationship. This is achieved by considering the stress in the ring
F = P(M) +, tan 0 (9.24) as

where Fr
(9.27)

t,_r2tana, Lt ri- rl
Applying a factor of safety of two in the foregoing equation and using the
Extemal Pressure Charts in ASME (hat have a factor safety two), a design
Total load at small end due to axial compression, pressure on cone, and pressure criteria can be established as follows:
on cylinder is
1. Calculate f. from Eqs. 9.24 or 9.25.
^ Prttan c + PL,
/"= -=- + 14 - r? -r f,
2. Establish
z^ I =-P
br2 t0ll d
t?trr ct

F = P(N) + f2 tar, d. (9.2s) 3. Enter the Extemal Pressure Charts with a (factor B) and calculate the
strain A.
where 4. Use Eq. 9.26 to establish the minimum required moment of inertia. The
ASME allows a 307o increase in value if the composite ring-shell mo-
ment of inertia is considered and the equation then becomes
rv=?tun o+L:
L Z
+:3 lrl
O/2 l&Il (t
ADZA,
Equations 9.24 and,9.25 establish the maximum applied force at the cone_to_ 15.6
cylinder junction. The critical buckling stress of a iircular ring is

o" : 3Eol
nr, NOMENCTATURE

where A, is the total effective area given by A: strain as obtained from Fig. 8.10
At : area of stiffening ring at cone-to-shell junction
A' =
Lj + e,
+ for large end of cone
+ ,B = stress factor as obtained from Fig. 8.11
Lj D: diameter
A' =
+ + + e, for small end of cone
D1 : base diameter at small end of cone
26 OISION O' IORMID HTAO3 AND TRANSITION SICTIONS Bf sf.tooRAPHY 267

l)r - base diumeter at large end
6 = joint efficiency
8s = modulus of elasticity
.1. Bourdtnun, l{, C., "Strc$scs al Junction ol Conc and Cylindcr in Tanks with Cono Bottuns or
of cone Ends" in Prc.rsare ye.rszl aul Piping Design: Colkcted papers 1927-,/9Jg, Amcrican Socicty
of Mechanical Engineers, 1960.
4. Jawad, M. H., "Design of Conical Shells under Extemal Loads,,' Jounnl of pressure Vessel
Technology, pp. 230-238. Vol. t02, 1980.

, = head depth
I = moment of inertia BIBLIOGRAPHY
lK : factor for ellipsoidal heads as determined from Eq. 9.6
Fliigg€, W., Strcrrer ir, S,ells, Springer-Verlag, New york, 1960.
Z = spherical crown radius of flanged and dished heads
Z' = effective length of cylindrical shell
L" : effective length of conical section

= 70 + Dt/D:.l
M= factor for flanged and dished heads as obtained from Eq. 9.g
P = pressure
P" = allowable extemal pressure

It = inside radius
R, = outside radius
r = knuckle radius
rr : base radius at small end of cone
/2 = base radius at large end of cone
S = allowable stress
r = thickness
t" = effective thickness of conical section
: tcos d
a = one-half the cone apex angle
4 : circumferential stress
(,r = longitudinal stress

REFERENCES

L Brownell, L. E., and E.H.Yorlll.g, Process Equipment Design, lolmWiley, New york, 1959.
2. Shield, R. T., and D. C. Drucker, "Design of Thin-Walled Torispherical and Toriconical
Pressure-Vessel Head,s" in Pressure Vessels anl Pipirrg: Design atd Anatysis-A Decade of
ProSleJr, Ameican Society of Mechaoical E4ineers, 1972.
 CHAPTER IO
BLIND FIANGES, COVER
PLATES, AND FLANGES

Iypicolflons€: r.ody for in.tollins. (Courlesy G+W Tdylor-Bonmy Div., lqylor Forse)

264 269
 SIIND fLANOTS, COVTR PIATES, AND TLANGES IO.I INTRODUCTION 271

IO.I INTRODUCTION

One of the more common types of closures for pressure vessels is the unstayed
flat head or cover. This may be either integrally formed with the shell or welded
to the shell, as shown in Fig. 10.1; or it may be attached by bolts or some
quick-opening device as shown in Fig. 10.2. It may be circular, obround,
square, rectangular, or some other shape. Those circular flat heads that are

I .--.i.nil
Fetaining i--l lhl/il
i --ltll-llll
rhreaded
I ll'hl- "*
\
-J- -t+-u--
(d)

(a) (b)

Fisur€ 10,2 Bolt€d or quick-op€nins flol h€o&.

bolted into place utilizing a gasket are called blind flanges. Usually, the blind
flange is bolted to a vessel flange with a gasket between two flanges as shown
in Fig. 10.3. Although flat heads or blind flanges may be either circular or
noncircular, they usually have uniform thickness. In addition to the flat head or
blind flange+ype closures, many large vessels use a circular, spherically dished
cover with a bolting flange, as shown in Fig. 10.4. In all cases, the bolts ofthe
head attach either to a bolting flange on the end of the shell or to a thickened
shell.
In general, "failure" of a bolted flanged joint is due to excessive leakage at
't the gasket, with very few failures in the metallic pressure boundary. Occa-
t- sionally, problems encountered with bolts result from excessive tightening in
I

T
|-.............. reducing the leakage problem during hydrostatic testing of the assembly. Some-
T|-?\ I
times excessive stresses in the bolts cause them to break or to stretch until the
I I
)Fi
tt I
closure leaks.
-)-"--w The basic equations used for the design of flat plates and blind flanges in the
(e) ASME Code, VI[-1, are based on a flat plate with uniform thickness and
Figoro l0,l Int srol or wlld€d tlct h€ods. uniform loading over the entire surface due to pressure. Depending upon the
 r0.t tNTRoDUcTtoN 273

dc(ails of the corner construction shown in Fig. 10.5, various C-factors are used
that require different minimum head thicknesses. The maximum deflection of
l
I the plate is assumed as not more tltan one-half the thickness and all the stresses
are keDt within the elastic limit.

icmkor!!dd .tth.^..2t,
_- _^_ jrr
r,rf l:l'^ ,.. .,. '
i-- L- _ i
'hnror75n ,,-,.,.i'i-'::l
ffi:.,,,M
1"6;,: .' lt M,.,,.:r:-
.WZ
14/4,.1,, l;
|', 1
i_4;"
rn:-,^.'o.25,,'"' {ll $-
",+#'
c'o.r7o,
L",Jr{-
c. o.r?
|c-033D "''^* **'
- -VA ":J^H:" #l-r.,
c.o3o
C.0.10 C m'n..0.20 C-o.20or0.13
(rt lb ll lb.2t l.)

Figur. 10.3 Elind flonsG-intesrol flonge conn.cnon.

r* = ? rr nr.. nor r.$ rh.n 1.25 rr

c' 013 sk.rch.r{.llr) lsl ctrclr..cov.d,c- 033n, cmin. - o.2o

,0, Cov.^, C -033
i., ir)
"on-C',cur.r ror

h
lU-\ca,rer
'.1__{|I
Kiucrh \
! R.d,u' \
ffiSt
t [.\ i
| firj'I
\ c-0,33
Loos F1169. Typ.
Gastel -l-1n c::

|-1/2A-''--.------.1 + @*4
I F-l/a la 8l+ )I dllNni
I I .#f,
---?,,/-"), f
ll\l
r{lf
ll
ll

a f
I
T
t-
I
rcKl
t 1- h+
1t2 I C.
t2c C - O.2S o.33

tbt (d)

Figure l0-4 Sphericolly dish€d cove|'s with bolting flonses. (Courte.y Americon Socisry of Mechdn.col 10.5 Un3toyod flor heods dnd covers. (Court6y Americon Soci€ry of r{€€honicol Ensineerc,
Fis',r€ tom Fis.
[nsino6r', ftom Fig. l-6 of rhe ASr{E Code, V I-i.) UG-3,1 of rhe ASME Codo, Vlll-I.)

272
 IO.2 CIRCUTAR TIAT PI.ATTS AND HEADS WITH UNITORM TOADING 275
274 BTIND FI,ANOTS, COVTR PTATTS, AND fIANGES

IO.2 CIRCULAR FI.AT PLATES AND HEADS WITH UNIFORM w^ = 0.0B6# ( 10.5)
TOADING
Tangential stress at edge equals
When an exact solution involving a discontinuity analysis at the shell-to-head
juncture is not wanted, flat heads are generally calculated based on the assump-
tion that the edges are simply supported or fully fixed. The true condition lies o': O'Ilrcf; (10.6)
somewhere between.
Exact equations for circular plates were developed in Section 7. l. In using
Radial and tangential stress at the center equals
those equations as a basis, the equations below were developed using the head
diameter d instead of the radius term a. The following nomenclature was also
substituted in the equations of Section 7.1: ^ . -_ P
OI: OI = U'IJJ'i (10.7)

Poisson's ratio (p = 9.3;

p = pressure loading Qsi) When the circular flat plate is loaded under uniform pressure p over the entire
surface, simplified equations of stress are
E' : modulus of elasticity (psi)
d = diameter of head (in.)
T = nominal thickness of head (in.) ,: o.3ose(xf for simply supported edge (10.8)

P : total presswe load (lb) = 6.7*t Ort / )\2

o = o.r88P(;/ for fixed edge (10.e)
With the edges assumed to be simple-supported,
Maximum stess is located at the center and equals
In actual designs, neither of these edge conditions is likely to be realized. Fully
fixed is very difficult to obtain in any constiruction.
o^ = o.zs+fi (10.1)

Maximum deflection is located at the center and equals Example 10.1. Determine the maximum stress in a flat head under internal
presswe of 1000 psi, diameter / = 48 in., and thickness r = 7 in. for both
simple-supported and fixed-edge conditions. Assume carbon steel with
w* = 0'0554# (10.2)
fr = 0.3.

Maximum rotation is located at the edge and equals Solutian. Determine the total loading

o* = o.s2s:L (10.3) P : 0.785 pd2 = 0.785(1000)(48),

"'"-'E',Tj
P = 1.809.000 lb
With the edges assumed to be fully-fixpd,
For simple-supported edge use Eq. 10.1:
Maximum stress is radial and located at the edge:

o* = o.zto (10.4) , : o.:l+!!.ffi : 14.550 psi

f;
Maximum deflection is located at the center and equals For fixed edge use Eq. 10.4:
 276 0UND FTANOIS, COVfR ptAT[S, AND ftANOIS
IO.3 ASME CODT FORMUI.A FOR CTRCUTAR FIAT HEADS AND COVTRS 277

,, = 0.239
-1109-(xx)t
!l--lj-: tlttzopsi I head-to-shell juncture (see Fig. 10.5) and contains a factor to
increase effectively the allowable stress to 1.5 S because the stress
is predominandy a bending stress
Example 10.2. For the flat head in Example 10. l, determine the deflection at
the center for both edge conditions. d = effective diameter of head (in.) (see Fig. 10.5)
t = minimum required thickness of flat head (in.)
Solution, For simple-supported edge use Eq. 10.2:
Example 10.3. Determine the minimum required thickness of an integral flat
rr R09,000x48f head with intemal pressurep equal to 1000 psi, S = 15,000 psi, d = 48 in. with
w= 0.0554* x
r.l toltzt' = u'uzrz rn'
no corrosion, and no weld joints within the head (E = 1.0). The arrangement
is the same as that given in Fig. 10.5, sketch , - 2, with m : l.O.
For fixed edge use Eq. 10.5:
Solation. From Fig. 10.5, sketch b - 2, C = 0.33 m: 0.33(l) = 0.j3.
From Eq. (10.10),
, = 0.0136#" r0.)or24gx4l
= 0.0057 in. I
0.33 x 1000
:
Problems
t=48 15,000 x 1.0
7.120 in. I
10.1 What is the maximum shess in a simple-supporied flat head whenp : 56
Example 10.4. Determine the minimum corner radius to make Example 10.1
psi, d: 24 in., t:0.75 in., and p = 0.3t acceptable (valid) to be used.

Soltrtion. The cylindrical shell thickness

Answer: o^ : 15,840 psi
27(c)(1) of the ASME Code, VII-1:
r, must be calculated using Eq. UG-

10.2 What is the maximum stress for the conditions in hoblem 10.1 usins the
simplified equation? PR 1000 x 24
'l::=---------:
sE - o.6P = 1.667 in.
15,000x1 - 0.6x1000
Answer: c,,," = 15,820 psi
From Fig. 10.5, sketch b - 2, the rule is for

,, > 1.5 in. r.j" : 0.25t, : 0.25(1.667) = 0.417 n. ACl l

IO.3 ASME CODE FORMUTA FOR CIRCULAR FLAT HEADS AND
COVERS Problems

In the ASME Code, Vm-1,1 and Section I,2 the minimum required thickness of 10.3 A flat head is constructed according to Fig. 10.5, sketch d. The diameter
circular, unstayed flat heads and covers without bolting are calculated by the d = 12in., thickness r = l.25in.,E: l.0,andS = 15,000psi. What
lollowine: is the MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure)?

t=d tcp Ansyer.' MAWP = 1250 psi

lsr (10.10)
10.4 A large flat head is made from pieces that are weld€d together and spot
wnere E = butt-weld joint efficiency for a joint within the head examined so that ,E : 0.85. The corner details are similar to Fig. 10.5,
: skerch/ with ltt = 1.0. The diamet d = 60 in.,,S = 12,500 psi, and
S allowable tensile stress (psi)
the internal pnessure p = 300 psi. What is the minimum required
p: design pressure (psi) thickness?
C = 0.10 through 0.33 depending upon the construction details at the
Answer: t6n = 5.792 n.
278 0UND ftaNoEs, cov[R plarts, AND fl.ANGtS
IO.4 COMPARISON OF THEORY AND ASMT CODE FORMULA FOR
CIRCUTAR FLAT HEADS AND COVERS WITHOUT BOLTING
As previously mentioned, the ASME Code formula contains a factor of 1.5
within the C factor to adjust for the permitted higher level of allowable stress
because it is chiefly caused by primary bending stress. If the 1.5 value is
removed from the values of C, the range of C values in the code adjusts to
C = 0.15 to C = 0.5. Rearranging Eqs. 10.8 and 10.9 into the same form as
Eq. 10.10, we see that C : 0.15 through C : 0.5 encompasses the two ex-
hemes from fully fixed edges where C = 0.188 to simply supported edges
where C = 0.309.
The low value of C : 0.15 in the ASME Code is for a special head-to-shell
configuration with an inside comer radius of at least three times the head
thickness. The structural effect of this edge condition results in reducing the
equivalent pressurized diameter on the circular flat head from the normal di-
ameter d to a diameter of 0.893d such that the Eq. 10.9 becomes
o=orssp(o8e'il=r"(il (10.11)
IO.5 BOLTED FTANGED CONNECTIONS
The most usual type of joint for easy assembly and disassembly used in the
process vessels and piping system is the bolted flanged connection. A convenient
method to design and calculate flanges with ring-type gaskets that are within the
bolt circle was first published by Taylor Forge in 1 937 . 3 These rules were further
developeda and incorporated into the ASME Code, VI[-l, some years later.
These rules, which are still used to calculate this type of flange, are in Appendix
2 Of thE ASME COdC, VIII.1.
Rules for calculating flat face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside of
the bolt circle are given in Appendix Y ofthe ASME Code, VI[-1. This design
incorporates a self-energizing-type gasket such as the O-ring gasket. fhe origi-
nal rules were restricted to analyzing identical pairs of flat face flanges. Current
rules have been improved to permit analysis of both identical and nonidentical
pairs of flanges.
Further development of design rules in the ASME Code, VI[-1,5 came with
the issuance of reverse flange rules that use a ring-type gasket with no additional
contact of the faces. These rules were added to Appendix 2, ASME Code,
VIII-I.
In addition to these rules for flange design in the code, many designs are used
in which rules are not in the ASME Code. One common type is the full-face
gasket flange. There are many others that may be designed for ASME Code
approval by meeting the requirements of U-2(g) of the ASME Code, VIII_I.
Before any flange design calculations are performed for a vessel to be ap_
I0.6 CONTACT FACING 279
provcd according to the code the dcsigner should recognizc th t s(nr1c calcu
lltions can be avoided. If the flange is the type described in Appentlix 2 ol thc
ASME Code, the code permits using flanges with recognized standards that
cstablish items such as dimensional standards, materials, and pressure/temper-
ature ratings. The code accepts flanges designed to ANSI 816.5 .,pipe Flanges
and Flanged Fittings,"6 API 605 "Large Diameter Carbon Steel Flanges",T and
ANSI 816.24 "Bronze Flanges and Fittings, 150 and 300 lb,'.8 Several other
standards are not included; however, when the flanges are selected by this
method, no additional calculations are required to satisfy the ASME Code.
When calculations are necessary according to Appendix 2 of the ASME
Code, VIII-I, for a nonstandard design or when it is desired to upgrade a
standard flange, similar design calculations are required for blind flanges (circu-
lar flat heads with bolts) and for regular bolted flanges. Although each item is
discussed in geater detail in the following paragraphs, the basic steps in de-
signing a flange are as follows:
l. Establish design pressure and design temperature.
2. Select gasket material and dimensions and facing type. Calculate N
and b.
3. Calculate loads for both gasket seating and operating conditions.
4. Determine bolting sizes and gasket width check.
5. Establish flange dimensions (usually using those from a standard flange).
6. Using loads and dimensions, calculate moments for both qasket seatine
and operating conditions.
7. Determine required thickness of flange.
10.6 CONTACT FACINGS
For ring+ype gasket design as given in the ASME Code, VI[-I, Appendix 2,
several types of flange facings are used. Some of the more usual types are the
raised face, the tongue-and-groove, and the lapjoint. When these types are used,
the full seal loading is taken by the gasket because no other part of the face is
in contact with the adjacent face.
In addition to the types of facing where the gasket must carry the seating load,
one type of closure and facing depends upon the adjacent faces to be in contact
with each other, but it does not require a large seating load for initial sealing.
This kind of closure is used on both the ring-type gasket design of Appendix 2
and the flat face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside the bolt circle as
described in Appendix Y ofthe ASME Code, VIII-1. This construction utilizes
a self-energizing or pressure-actuated O-ring gasket that is internally pressurized
to seal the gasket and does not depend upon initial gasket seating by the bolts
that cause compression of the gasket (Fig. 10.6).
There are also special types of gaskets and facing designs that become self-
 ETIND TTANOES, COVTR PIATIS, AND IIANOES 10.7 GASKETS 281

FACING DETAILS
o. Sell
r0.7 GASKTTS
Energizing
A large variety of gaskets is needed in process equipment. The diverse pro-
O.Rin9
cesses, temperatures, pressures, and corrosion environment require gaskets with
different configurations, materials, and properties. Some of the frequently used
gaskets are:
b.

/
/'' -)
l\ l. Rubber O-rings
Cold tr.t.t Finbi
t Metallic O- and C-rings
Met.llic 3. Asbestos

Delta R ing
4
\T-
4.
I
6.
7.
8.
Flat metal
Spiral wound
Jacketed
Metal ring
High-pressure type

10.7. I Rubber O-Rings

These gaskets shown in Fig. 10.7a are used extensively in low-pressure applica-
Ring & Bevel
Cold Water
tions such as storage tanks and air receivers. They are normally confined in a
Finish groove to prevent exhusion and their maximum temperature limit is about
250'F. Because the required seating stress is negligible, the number of bolts
Lap Joint Ring Joint needed in the flange is kept to a minimum. A groove finish of 32 rms is usually

,,.-1.n o/y %F*

Groove specified.

\ -\-l
b=, I \-1\__r/T;'l
10.7.2 Metollic O- ond C-Rings
Wirh Searing
Nubbin
The metallic O- and C-Rings in Fig. 10.7b and c have a wide range of applica-
Figur. 10.6 Typicol Gocing d.roil.. tions for both extemal and internal pressures. They have a good springback
characteristic and a low seating stress. The gaskets may be manufactured from
widely selected matbrials compatible with the flange. This eliminates the prob-
lem of thermal expansion between the gasket and the flange and increases their
sealing frorn the gaskets rotation and deflection that are caused by contact applicable temperatue range.
loading ftom a retaining ring and head closure. Some of these are called the delta O- and C-gaskets seals along a contact line. Accordingly, a finish of about
gasket as used in Bridgeman closures, the double cone gasket, and the wedge 32 rms is needed in the flange seating surface to properly seal the gaskets. In
gasket. In all these cases, the initial gasket seating load is low. As the pressure critical applications a silver plating is specified to help sealing.
in the vessel is increased, the gasket rotates and deflects into a special facing in The O-rings manufactured in ftree different styles shown in Fig. 10.7c are the
which the sealing load increases as the pressure increases. Care must be taken unpressurized, pressurized, and vented types. The unpressurized one is used at
with this type of closure because the gasket often "seizes" and it may be difficult high temperatures whereby the increased pressure from the sealed gas cornpen-
!o get the closure apart. In many instances, the gasket may be silver, gold, or sates for the loss of strength. The vented ring gasket is used at high pressures
platinum plated to help prevent the "seizing." for better sealine.
 r0.7 oAsKtTs
EtIND TTANOIS, COVER PIATES, AND TI.ANOES

ITil
ll I

_)l
(a) Rubber O-Ring (t) sp iru t

tressurized tessurized

I7I Htr
)t )t O- Ring

(d) Asbestos (e) Flat Metal

figur. 10.7 lypo6 of oq.kcls. Fisu.. lO.7 TyF of solk6b (conrinu.d)

10.7.4 Flqt Melol Goskets

These gaskets (Fig. 10.7a) are made from a wide variety of materials that can
10.7.3 Compressed Asbestos Goskels be cut from sheet metal to any desired configuration and width. Some frequently
used gasket materials and their temperature limit are:
'fhese gaskets in Fig. lD.1d normally consist of 707o asbestos, 2O7o ntbber
hinder, and l0% filler material and curative. They can be cut to fit various shapes Max. Temp. ('F)
Material
und configurations such as heat exchangers with pass partitions and oval and
square openings. Thicknesses are normally fumished beween fr and i in' and Ipad 212
rcquire a seating surface finish of about 250 rms. Asbestos gaskets are normally Aluminum 400
used for tempemtures up to 850T. A rule of thumb for determining the adequacy
Brass 500
of Nbestos gaskets for a given temperature and pressure is to limit the product
of temperature in T times the pressure in psi to about 300,000. Copper 600
2t1 IUttlD ttaNots, covER ptaTts, AND FtaNors r0.7 oASKETS 285

Materiul Max. Temp. ('F) 10.7.5 Spirol-Wound Goskels

Titanium and zirconium 800
Carbon steel Spirul-wound gaskets (Fig. l0.1f) are very versatile and used in numerous
900 npplications. They are especially suited for cyclic conditions where the excellent
Monel 1000 npringback makes them ideal for repetitive loading. They:ue manufactured to
400 series stainless sieel 1200 I rlcsired width by spiral winding a preshaped metal strip with a filler material
Nickel 1200 bctween the strips that consists of asbestos or teflon composites. Asbestos-filled
Inconel 1200 Iuskets are limited to temperatures of 850T, whereas teflon is limited to 500"F.
300 series stainless steel For most applications spiral-wound gaskets are retained in a groove. In raised
1500
luce flanges, an outer ring is used to prevent the gasket from extruding and the
Incoloy 1500 t:hevrons from excessive deformation. Sometimes an inner ring is also used to
Hastelloy 1800 rninimize erosion and to reduce temperature fluctuation in cyclic conditions.
Many factors affect the performance of spiral-wound gaskets such as tightness
*l Tt1l q".9,: need a high searing force for proper seating. Accordingly, of wraps, material of filler and strips, height of strips, diameter of opening, and
tney are best-suited for high-pressure applications . The seating stirface must have surface finish. The gasket seating surface finish is about 125 rms.
a finish of about 63 rms.
S€rated gaskets require a smaller seating force than flat gaskets
usedin screwed flanges where friction forces are to be miiimized.
and thus are 10.7.6 Jockeled Goskels
'these gaskets in Fig. 10.79 are normally used for pressures up to 500 psi in large
diameter vessels where flange out-of-roundness and tregularities are large com-
pared with small flanges . They may be purchased as plain or corrugated and they
seal at the inner and outer laps. The outer metal jacket are made from a wide
variety of metals. The filler material is normally made of asbestos, teflon, or
metallic. The asbestos filler limits the temperature application to about 850'F,
whereas the teflon is limited to 500'F. The metallic filler is used at the hish
temperatures. The seating surface finish is about 63 rms.

10.7.7 Metol Ring Goskets

Lens The metal ring gaskets shown in Fig. l0.1h are used in high-pressure and
temperature applications. Their small cross-sectional area makes them ideal for
compact flanges. The required high seating stress has the same magnitude as the
pressure stress. The rings are made from many varied materials and are some-
times silver plated to improve sealing. The gasket groove finish is about 63 rms.

| 0.7.8 High-Pressure Goskets

I€ns, delta, double-cone, and Bridgeman configurations shown in Fig. 10.7i

comprise the majority of the pressure applications where the seating saess is
Double Cone required to be low due to physical limitations of bolt spacing and flange width.
Bridgeman
(i) High Pressure They are used extensively in pressure vessels operating above 1000 psi and are
made of softer materials than the seating surfaces to prevent damage to the
Fisure 10.7 TyF! of golkei! (conrinud) flanges or covers. In general, these gaskets are expensive to fabricate and
 216 IIIND COVIR PIATES, AND TTANOES 10.7 oASKETS 287
'IANOIS,
m1lchinc; rcquirc vcry tight k)lerunces; and need very smooth seating
surfaces of
16 rms or better. l'hc outside thickness of the gasket is established to allow tbr an 0.25 in.
clctrirnce plus 0.0625 in. for a centering ring, ifrequired. The pitch diameter lbr
. High-pressure
pr:r*t::.
gaskets have a large surface that is subjected to
the vessor grskct seating reaction is established as
+ccordingly, a free-body diagram is no-ully n"""rrury ro
ll,.e.rnall
determlne the additional forces transmitted to the flanges and
boltjresulting from
pressure on the gasket.
The individual design requirements for lens, delta, and double-cone
c=(rD)*1(oo-ro)
3
gasketo
are given in the next three sections.
whcre G = diameier of gasket reaction.
10.7.9 Lens Ring Goskets 'the spherical radius of the gasket surface is taken as

"p=G/z
The lens ring- gaskets in Fig. 10.8 are normally used in small
flanges. Thc
:f:r.-::"j^",:1T19j ttgflanc:
rins. through points a to b, must be equal to or larger
!o pyent crushing of the gasket. Thus knowing
sin 0
f:_T::i1t-Tl p:
Ine nslde-dameler"fof the gasket and the required bolt
area, the outside diameter where R : spherical radius of gasket surface (in.)
can be calculated from
I: angle of friction (for mild steel, it is 20")

oo =llr,+ (D),]'/ l.'rom the geometry, the inside thickness of the flange is calculated from

where OD : outside diameter of ring gasket (in.) /ODYI

't=:-+)l
16 -l - \, i I
ID = inside diameter of ring gasket (in.)
where t = inside thickness of gasket (in.).
Aa = actual bolt area of flange
The width of gasket seating is normally

(At(1.s)(design bolt stress)

z(GX3)(yield shength of gasket material)

where N = gasket seating width (in.).

Figure 10.8 shows the flange and cover surfaces at the vicinity of the gasket
machined to have a slope of 20'.
5-
fc
l"r
16
10.7.10 Delto Goskets

The delta ring gaskets in Fig. 10.9 are extensively used in the United Staies for
high-pressure applications. These gaskets rely on the inside pressure to wedge
them in the gasket groove for sealing and thus do not requhe any initial seating
or bolting shess. The general dimensions that are shown in Fig' 10.9 apply to
rings of all diameters. The pitch diameter G is normally taken as

G=ID+0.125
Figur. 10.8 t.n. so3k6t,
and tlle gasket seating width N is usually equal to 0.125 in.
 IIINO II.ANOIS, COVER PI.AT!S, AND FTANOES 10.7 oasKlts

Figur. lO.9 Dclto go!k6t. Figur6 '10.10 Doublo-cono gosk6t.

The seating length N is determined from

10.7.1| Double-ConeGoskets

Double-cone gaskets are very popular in Europe and can be fabricated in (cos 60)(aXc)(3)(yield strength of gasket material)
various
slzes. A typical detail is shown in Fig. 10.10. The required cross-sectional
area
is given by and the pitch diamet€r G is expressed as

f t 1tl2 G=OD-0'5N
OD = l:A, + (rD), I
L1r I The height of the gasket is usually set so that the net pressure force does not
where OD : outside diameter of gasket (in.) exceed the seating force. Thus,
ID : inside diameter of gasket (in.)
A, = actual bolt area of flange (in.r) tzxrr(|)<,- 60) = (P)(,r)
 290 ITIND IIANOIS, COVTR PI.ATES, AND TIANOES
r0.7 GASKETS 291

'l'he operating condition exists when the hydrostatic end fbrce from the internal
dcsign pressure tends to open the joint, for the gasket retains enough resiliency
' ----(rXN)(sin
P
6o)
l() keep the joint tight. Loadings and stresses are determined at design pressure
rund design temperature. The loading for the operating condition is

where I = seating stress of gasket material (psi)

P = internal design pressure (psi)
W.t: H + n,:f,C'zp + mGp(Zb) (10.13)

To avoid crushing the gasket in those bolted flanged connections where the
10.7.12 Gcsket Design gasket is carrying all the loading, it is recommended that the initial loading does
not exceed the gasket seating stress y. Once the actual bolting areaA, is selecied,
cnaraderistics depend upon the material and the design of the a check may be made to determine the required minimum gasket width by the
!a1f1t.fei1e,_r-fhe
gasKet rtself. gasket faclor m and, the minimum design seating sEess )l irre fbllowine formula:
th: cTk"jjlry and the gasket marerial. flrhou;h-the rn and
P^l:':j:o,ro
tactors have been in the ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel
y
edition, they are suggested values only and are not mandatory.
CodJsince the 194i
The originat
N^"=ffi (10.14)
iesting and development of the m and y factors are described
ln an articii Uy
Rossheim and Markle that does not give the underlying background
specific.values. V9ry
for the Example 10.5. A vessel has the following design data: design pressure
changes have been made to ttiese faciors since they p= psi; design temperature = 250'F; a spiral-wound metal, fiber-filled
_fu* 250/U..
were originally published.
stainless steel gasket with an inside diameter of 13.75in. and widthN = l.0in.
the of many inquiries to the ASME Code Committee regarding the
.A.s
validity of-result
The gasket factors are m = 3.0 and y =
10,000. Bolts are SA-325 Grade I with
the m and J factors, a large-scale investigation has been undertaken :
& = Sa 19,200 psi. Is the gasket width sufficiendy wide to keep from crush-
by the hessure Vessel Research Committeero of the frelding Research
Councit. ing out?
As experimental tests progressed, it became obvious that thJrz
and y factors are
."J1t"9 t" many items not previously considered. There is a closJ corretation Sohttian. Determine the effective gasket seating width as follows: N =
with the amount of tightening of the bolts, the gasket type, and the
material, for 1.0 in., b" : N/2 = 0.5 in., b = 0.5!bo = 0.3535 in., effective gasket di-
thel are all related to the leakage rate of the j-oint. "
ameter ls
the_gasket tlpe and material have bCen selected, the effective gasket
.g.nc-e
width for cabulation may be determined. For solid flat metal and for
type joints' the basic gasket seating width bs is found by the formuras
thJ ring_ G = 13.75 + (2 x 1) - (2 x 0.3535)
rn column
I of Table 7-5.2 of the ASME C;de, VI[_l, whereas for all other types of G = 15'M3 in.
gaskets' ba is delermined by the formulas in column rI.
The effective gasket
seating width D is found by applying the following rules: Gasket loadings are

D=06 when bo = iin. b: O.slbo when De )|rn. H : o.785G2p: 0.785(15.043F(25N1 = 444,1ss

With D deiermined the location of the line of gasket load reaction can
H,= 2brGmp = 2(0.3535)r(15.043X3X2500) = 250,600
determined as well as the values of G and h6 for calculating
be
Wa : H * He = 444,1A0 + 250'600 : 694'700
flange moments.
designing a flange, it is important to recognize that two'desiln
.ln
cxrst-the gasket seating and the operating conditions. Gasket seattg
conditions W^z: rbGy = z(0 3535)(15.043X10'000) = 167,100
condition
fi = Sa :
cxlsts when an initial load is applied by the bolts to seat the gasket
at ambient Since 19,200 psi, W.r sets the bolting arca A^ as
tcmperature with no intemal pressure. The minimum initial
biolt loaO is

W"e = tbGy (10.12) A^=Y# = 36.182in.,

 292 IUND ftANOrS, COVIR plarrs, AND FtaNots 10.8 BotT|NG DESTGN 293
AD = octuul bolt {reu = 36.ti in.2 lbr l6-2-in. diumeter bolts. Minimum gaskct scnting and operating conditions must be examined.
width is The minimum required bolting area A, is th€ greater of

.. = 36.8( 19.200) :
fl^" W.z W^r
zlq000).(15.0a, 0 748 in versus I in' actual
s, ot
Sa

One-inch wide gasket is sufficient to prevent crushing. f where & : allowable bolting stress at room temperature (psi)

Pmblem S1= allowable bolting stress at design temperature (psi)

W.1 = operating load: H + H, (see Eq. 10.13)
10.5 A solid, flat, stainless steel gasket with : 6.5 and y : 26,000 is used
in the vessel described in Example 10.5. 'l2 The preliminary gasket 1Y.r = gasket seating load
inside
diametef is 12 in. and the gasket width is 1.0 in. whai is the easket
seatine load? From this minimum required bolting a;ea A. the actual bolting area A, is
selected. In order to obtain a bolt loading for calculating moment for gasket
seating, the minimum required bolting area and the actual bolting area are
Answer: W,,2 = 384,000 lb averaeed as follows:

w:0.5(A.+Ars" (10.16)
IO.8 BOTTING DESIGN
Certain times during the operation of a process vessel the bolts in a bolted
In designing bolting for flanges, the initial item is selecting the bolting matenal. flanged connection are subjected to actual stresses in excess of the allowable
It must be a malerial compatible with the flange material . ihat is there musr nor design stresses. This may be especially true during hydrostatic testing. Care
, must be taken to enswe that during this testing, no permanent elongation ofthe
be any chemical or galvanic action between the bolting and ffange material
that bolting has occurred. If so, the bolting may have to be replaced before the vessel
would cause the bolts to seize in the tkeads. Under certiin circurn'stances,
rt may
be necessary to plate the bolts or to make them from special material is put into service. Realizing this is especially important if each of two suppliers
to prot€;t provides half of the bolted flanged assembly and one does not know what bolting
them from the environment. Although it is not neceisary to select a 6olting
material with a tensile shength close to that of the flange material, one should is supplied.
carefully consider the effects of strain elongation and rehxation of bolting
materials that have a high tensile strength and requte a smaller cross-secdona'i Example 10.6. A vessel flange uses 16-2-in. diameter bolts. Flange sfress
area.- In addition, when high sFength material is used for the bolting, calculations indicate that a flange thickness of t : 4.5 in. is adequate. The bolt
care must
be taken not to rcduce the number of required bolts to such a small -number circle diameter is C = 22.5 in. Will secondary bending stresses be developed?
that
excessive bolt spacing is developed. r I
Wlren the bo_lt spacing exceeds (U + t), secondary flange bending is devel- Solutian. The maximum permissible bolt spacing without a penalty is
oped between the bolts to the extent that it affects the ;ormal flange (2d + t1 = (2 x 2 + 4.5; = 3.5 in. The actual bolt spacing is
bending . To
account for this effect, the flange bending moment M0 must be iricreased
by the rd _ n(22.5\
Iactor
1V -]6- = +Az n.
actual bolt spacing
(10.l5) Because the actual spacing is less than the rnaximum spacing without a penalty,
no secondary bending shesses are developed. I
where d = nominal diameter of bolts (in.)
Example 10.7. Suppose a vessel requires Z-2 j -in. diameter bolts on a flange
t : flange thickness (in.) that is 5.5 in. thick. What is the madmum bolt circle that will not cause
secondary bending shesses? The minimum bolt spacing for 2 j -in. diameter bolts
To detennine the total required cross-sectional area of bolting, both the gasket is 5i in.
294 lutito ftaNolg, covER ptATEs, AND frANOrS IO.9 BI.IND FTANGES

Solullon, Maximum spucing is

(2d + t) = (2 >< 2i + 5.5; = 19.5 tn.

Diameter of bolt circle is

lo'5 x 24
n = 80.2 in.

based on maximum spacing. I

Problems
H

10.6 Sixteen bolts at I l-in. diameter are io be located on a bolt circle of

G = 32 in. The flange is 2+ in. rhick. What is the factor rhat is due to
secondary fl ange bending?

Anstrer: l.l2 )
10.7 The minimum spacing for the wrench to fit I |-in. diameter bolts is 3 | in. Fisurg lo.l I loodings on blind flons€.

Twelve bolts are to be used on a bolt cide of 15l-in. diameter. What is

the minimum flange thickness that does not cause secondary flange bend-
iog? Solving Eq. 10.18 for r gives

Answer: 1.0 in.

,:oJgll\, *t'n-LYl', (10. r9)

IO.9 BTIND FTANGES This is identical with the equation in the ASME Code, VI[-l, except that the
constants of 0.3 and 1.9 are used in the code instead of the exact constants of
The minimum required thickness of a cicular, unstayed flat head or blind flange 0.31 and 1.91 and the gasket load G is substituted for d. The general ASME
attachedty bolts and utilizing a ring-type gasket that causes an edge moment is Code equation for circular flat-bolted heads is
derived from the assumption that the flat plate is simply suppofted; the gasket
load line G and is loaded by a gasket seating load or a combination of easket
loading and a uniform pressure loading . The combination of these loadingJat the (10.20)
gasket and at the bolt circle causes an edge moment ofMg/zrG, as shown-in Fig.
10.11. ff the edge moment ffi
is assumed to be equal ta Wh", tlre theoretical For the gasket seating condition, the internal pressure equals zero and the only
stress at the center of the flat plate is load is the gasket seating load W" at ambient temperature with the allowable
tensile stress of S.. The equation for gasket seating condition is
_3(3 + + 1 /wrrc\
tt)p (GY
"-
" :z F)-"G\-F) (10'17)
t=G (10.21)
Sening trc = 0.3 and E = weld joint efficiency within the flat plate,
For operating condition the intemal pressure p as well as the gasket loading are
sE:(*rye\-r..(W) (10.18) applied. For this condition, Wr : H + Il, at operating temperature with an
allowable tensile stress of S1. The equation for operating condition is
 296 ITIND ?LANOI3, COVTR PLATIS, AND FTANOTS t0.9 EUND FTANOES

t=G 0.3p | .9W,,1ha;

s"E - -srEcl-
(t0.22')

Figure 10.12 shows a sample calculation of a blind flange.

E-xample_ 10.E. Considering the pressure vessel described in Example 10.5,

the vessel is to have one end closed by a blind flange. What is the minimum x -crr/. - 41{,12
required thickness of the blind flange? Design data are the following: t. -,51c - d - ,-'12

l. l..iir C.|l.1-+6. 6 l4hlig

Design pressure p = 2500 psi. OO, dillina.

2. Xc .addj.el rfiktid. I l, l.d.!

Design temperature = 250'F. '.{ft.d
3, Ud{ or[.Rin rF..tjrd, l!.G .l $r'l 0..!.
Flange material is SA-105. Br b. d.ri..d .nt d.. .r- lo'
'.i!lni
Bolting material is SA-325 Gr. l
No corrosion exists.
Allowable bolt stress at gasket seating and operating conditions =
19,200 psi.
Allowable flange sfress at gasket seating and operating conditions =
17,500 psi.
Gasket is spiral-wound metal, fiber filled, stainless steel, 13.75 in. inside
diameter times width N = I in.
Fisur€ 10.12 Elind flonge romple colcolorion sh€€|. (Courrery G+w roybFBonney Div., Toylor Forge.)
Solution. Following the information calculated in Example 10.5, once the
actual bolt area A, is found, the design loading for the gasket seating condition
W, can be determined as:

W: 0.5(A^ + Ar)S, : 0.5(36.2 + 36.8X19,200) For operating condition,

%= 700,800
-,
O.3p |.9W.rhc
t:G srE- s"EGt
The moment arm is determined from

t = ls.(Ml.
rF
hc = 0.5(C - G) = 0.5(22.5 - 15.043) = 3.729 in. x 1.0 (t7,500 x
v 17,500 1.0x15.043t

fJgt Pxample 10.5, the design loading for operating condition is lll.r = Therefore, the minimum required flange thickness is t : 5.329 in. I
694,700.
The minimum required thickness is determined as the greater thickness of
. that
dctcrmined for gasket seating load according to Eq. 10.i1 or for operating load
Problcms
rrccording to Eq. 10.22.
10.8 Suppose the flat head in Example 10.8 is made by butt-welding flat plates
l.i)r gasket seating, together. The welds are spot examined so that E = 0.85. What is the
minimum required head thickness?
,= _ ll.gwhc ts.o+:{ffi
uV .__.. I t.9(700.800x3.729) :4.343in.
s,uoi = Answer: t, n = 5.780 in.
 298 IIIND IIANOIS, COVER PLATES, AND TLANOES IO,IO sOTTED fI.ANGED CONNECTIONS WITH RING.TYPE GASKETS

10.9 Suppose the bolt circle diametsr is incrcused ro C

= 24 in. What is thc
minimum required head thickness considering both gasket seating
and
operating conditions?

Answer: tnn^ = 5.671 in.

) (l
I ) (l
IO.IO BOTTED FTANGED CONNECTIONS WITH RING-TYPE GASKETS |
lr
The design_rules for bolled flanged connections with a ring+ype gasket that is (a) Moment Loadlng
entirely within a circle enclosed by the bolt holes and with no iontact outside of

(b) Direct Loadlng

, Wh€n it is necessary to design a bolted flanged connection because no stan_
dard flange of the proper size is available, the standard pressure/lemDeraure
ratings are not adequate, or sperial design factors are to be used for the gasket,
the procedure in Appendix 2 of the ASME code is used. The design of nanges,
bolting, and gaskets by the ASME Code rules is essentially a ftal_and-enor
procedure where some dimensions are set and remain fixed, whereas other
dimensions such as the flange thickness are varied. Stresses in the flange and the
hub are calculated. If any of these shesses exceeds the allowable tensile stresses,
a "new" flange thickness is selected and the stresses are recalculated until they
t+t-lrr,-ri'r'ro f+.l

are satisfactory. The trial-and-error method is essentially due to the complei Illll.
l-----v------J
theory used by Waters, Rossheim, Wesshom, and Williams to solve the problem 'tt 0z
in the original development. The WRWW method, which was ultimatelv incor_ (c) Combined Loadlng
porated into the ASME Code in 1940, is ar elastic analysis of the intiraction Figure '10.13 Flongo loodin$ for alo:ric anolysii.
between the vessel or pipe, the hub, and the flange ring assembly. The shell and
hub are resolved by a discontinuity analysis that was previously described in
Chapter 5 and the flange ring is considered as a flat plate with ihe center Dart flat plate is assurned as linear with no dishing effect and superposition is accept-
rcmoved (Fig. I0.13). Interactions of rotations and deflections are oermiited able.
until lhe balance is obtained. The solution of the complex problem is simplified for code use by cwves,
. The basic assumptions in the analysis are that the flange materials are elastic,
that is, no creep or_ plastic yield at lower temperature ocJurs, the bolt loading
formulas, and tables that contain constants depending upon the geometry of the

assumed or determined from the gasket factors, and the moments due
ii flange assembly. Formulas for various coefficients are given in the code that
to loadinss permits cornputer programming of the basic equations for rapid solution.
are essentially constant across the width ofthe flange. In addition, rotation The code designates flanges with ring-type gaskets to be three types for
of tie
 EIIND FTANOIS, COVER PLATES. AND FTANOTS IO.IO BOTTTD TTANGED CONNECTIONS WITH RING.fiPE GASKETS 301

Bnalysis: int€grsl, loose, und optionul. lntegral means that the pipe, hub, and
ring are one continuous assembly from their original manufacture as eithcr
forging or casting welded together by full penetration welds. lnose means no
attachment of the assembly to the pipe or no ability of the juncture to carry sheafs
and moments other than those required to seal against pressure. These types of
I
I
flanges are called slip-on, lap joint, and threaded, and they may or may not havc 6
hubs. Optional means flange designs that, by construction, are integral, but thc
analysis is permitted by the simpler method for loose-type flanges. Examples of
these various types are depicted in Fig. 10.14.
The calculation of a flange with a ring-typ€ gasket first involves selecting the tr=
-tr_r F
E--
material for the flange, bolts, and gasket in a manner very similar to the blind el \__ d *--'t
flange. Next, the facing and gasket details are set, the loads due to intemal
presswe are determined, and the required bolting area and bolt sizes are selected.
The bolt circle is then decided; and the loads, moment ams, and moments due
(d)
1+ (.)
to both gasket seating and operatihg conditions are determined as with the blind
flange. By knowing these and the geometry used to determine K and other hub
coefficients, stress calculations are made for both conditions. The longitudinal
hub stress, the radial flange sness, the tangential flange stess, and their various
combinations are comparcd with allowable stresses.
The method of calculation is virtually identical for welding neck flanges and
slip-on or lap-joint flanges except that the axial pressure load is applied at a IT l-T
slightly different location. For the ring flange design, the tangential flange stress {-..*,o
is the only one calculated. The minimum required thickness can be directly 9t 12 l9lt\
determined from A 9 j 12
(s) (h)
tM* (10.23)
V s-B Opii.nrl lYF. Fl.n96.
,..I Th6. M.y b. C.ldl.r..t.r Eirh.. Looro.or Inr.9..t.Typ.
Example 10.9, What is the minimum required thickness of a welding neck
flange as shown in Fig. 10.lzla with the following design data? (Nore.' These data
are the same as those used for the blind flange in Example 10.8. In Fig. 10.15
is a sample calculation of a welding neck flange.

Design pressure, p. = 2,500 psi.

Design temperature = 25O"F. (i) (i) (k) (1)
Bolt-up and gasket seating temperature = 70'F. Figur6 lo.l,t Typer of flonger. (Courl,ely Americon So.ieiy of Mechonicol Engin€.rs, from Fig. 2-.1 of the
Flange material is SA-105. ASME Cod., Vlll-I.)
Bolting material is SA-325 Grade 1.
Gasket details are spiral-wound metal, fiber filled, stainless steel, inside 2. Allowable flange sfress at design and seating temporatures = S/ =
diameter is 13,75 in. and width is 1.0 in. 17,500 psi.

Solutinn
3. Gasket dirnensions are

1. b.= N/2 = 0.5in. and b=0.5Vro=0.3535

Allowable bolt shess at design and seating temperatufes = S, =
19,200 psi. G = 13.75 + (2 x l) - (2 x 0.3535) = 15.M3 in.
302 BTIND fI.ANOES, COVER PIATES, AND FLANGES

I orrron coxorrronr
J7i.^l u."^L azl-1,
13.154 l;ber fi//el,s u/eer tt"el
'r= rl t5 t.o. i t" ",tt /e'
h= 6'at B= to.7t "
Io-:". I P;Pe s'ze
ra't L. tza I
ll
tr

c. 2t,5'
I Ac =,5lc -6r = t.1L
hT
t6- 7"' eot::s - rc =.5(c - cr - t71'65
Figure lO.l,C(d) Flons€ dim€Bions ior Ex. 10.9.

4. Determine bolt loadings and sizing of bolts with N = l; b = 0.3535; .s(s, + srfq .5 {sr + srl =
y= 10,000; m=3.0.

, : Xo,, = 2|o5.o43)'z(zsoo) : 444,323

+5rl =
H, = 2btrGmp = 2(0.3535)zr( 15.043X3.0X2500) :250,591 .5lsi + s,lr.5lsx 13. oO
,
= 1/3t.+t = Z.o
Wa = H + Ho = @44323) + (250,591) = 694,914
W^z = nbGy : z(0.3535)(15.043X10,000) : 167,060
'
A. = the greater of W f Sbh : 694,914) /(19,200) = 36.2 in.'z a.115
t0.75 "
or W,ef 56" = 067 ,0ffi) /(19,2C0) : 8.7 in.'z lf Lh
E
i9oc., no..g ro + t .uttipt
.il .. lr .6or au.rld b,
Aa = actual bolt area = 36.8 in.'z 16 bolts at 2-in. diameter

W.: 0.5(A^ + Ar)Sr. = 0.5(36.2 + 36.8X19,200) : 700,800

Wo=Wa=694,914

Calculate total flange moment for the design condition.

l6 - 2"toont t r. a41' Cdrvnd- D.+
Flange Loads
Crxt.a-- tt'i..

a, : :
XB'p !{ro.ts)'{zsn) = 226906 Figuro lo.l5 weldins neck flonse sdmple colculotion sheet (Courtesv G+w Tovlor-Bonnev Div
' Tovlor

Fors..)
-
He = Hp:250,591
Hr : H - Ho : 1444,3231 - Q26906) = 2r7,4r7

Leaer Arms
303
hp=R+'0.591 = (2.5) + 0.5(3.375) = 4.1875
 Itll'lD flANOt!, COVIR p[Arr3, Al,tD frANOrs
IO.IO BOLTID FTANGED CONNECTIONS WITH RING-fiPE GASKITS 305
nr; - O..J(C * 6) = 0..5(22.5 - 15.043) : j12BS
Lon g itudinal H ub Stre s s
}r=0.5(R*g1 * ft6):0.5(2.5 + 3.375 + 3.7285) = 4.9613
Flange Moments
sx = fMn/ LglB : (t)(2,928,490) / (r.763)(3.37 ra(0.7 s)
sa: !3,s70 q9!
Mo = Hp x hD = (226,910)(4.1875) = g5g,17g
Radial Flange Stress
Mo- Hox hc= Q5O,5g0)(3.7285) : g34,33g
Mr = Hr x h, : (Zt7 ,420)(4.3018) = t,O43,gg} s^= Qte + r)Mo/LtzB = <z.uzaf,s:x:rrii;li:..763)(4.s),Oo.7s)
Ma" = Mo + Mc + Mr = 2,928,490 s" = lLsg-Q-pg

6. Calculate total flange moment for bolt_up Tangential F lang e St e s s

condition.

Flange Load g7: (YMs/t2B) - ZSa

He = W: 700,800
= (2.29)(2,928,490) / (4. r, 00.7 5) - ( 1. 39X 1 5,590)

Sr = 9140 psi
Lever Arm
10. Allowable stresses
hc=0.5(C-G):3.7285 < 1.5Sy: (1.5X17,500) >-11,10 pC)
56 = 26,250
Flange Moment Sa < Sr: 17,500 > 15,590 psi
$ < Sy: 17,500 > 9140 psi I
Mon= He x ft6 = (700,800)(3.7285) : 2,612,930
7. Use the greater of Md. or M6"g1/S);
Ms
2,92g,490. =
Example 10. 10. What is the minimum required thickness of a ring flange with
E. q}11pe consrants from the ASME Code,
VI[-I,
the same design data as given in Exarnple 10.9? The inside diameter has been
A/B = Q6.s)/(ro.7s) = 2.16s.
Appendix 2: K: increased to fit over the outside of the shell to where,B = 12.75 in. The bolt
i,e..-i 7 i, "s"Ju'i uro-,,
r = 1.35 z = 1.3e y 2.2e ^F,-":" ii : : z.ii."*""^'
loadings and bolt size are the same as in Example 10.9. A sample calculation
sheet is shown in Figure 10.16.
sr/ go = 3.375/1.0 :3.275
Solution
h=Vrry'=V@jr1D=3.27s
h/lro = 6.2s/3.2t9 = 1.906 1. Calculate total flange moment for design condition.

From Fig. 2-7.2, Section VIII-I, I. = 0.57. Flange Loads

From Fig. 2-7.3, Section WII_I, y = 0.04.
From Fig. 2-7.6, Section WII-I;y
= 1.g. H, = !oB2p = X02l s),(zsn) = 31e,2oo
e = F/ho= (.57) / (3.27s) = 0.1738 He : = 250,600
Hp
d= (u /v)hoeT = e.s1 / .o4e.279)(t)2 Hr= H - HD= 444,300
= 2g5.76 - 319,200 = 125,100

9. Calculate stresses. Assume a flange thickness

t = 4.5 in. Lever Arms
L= (te + 1)/T + t3/d = (1.320) + (0.443) = 1.763
= o.5(C - B) =
ho 0.5(22.5 - 12.75) = 4.875 in.
 306 BTIND TI.ANOES, COVIR PTATES, AND FI.ANOCS IO.I I REVERSE FTANGES

I 2 cerrn I r^o l'robhm

E!"., r zfoo ftL ssir.l ..:."d raf.l,
zrooF Korrcl foce 10,10 Suppose a solid flat 2j chrome steel alloy gasket with 13.75 in. inside
{itc v f;rl€dr stainl?r, jf.el
iA- to5 Itl'lD J( l'dii< diameter and width N = Lin., m = 6.0, and y = 21,800 is used with
5A'tz6 GP.l G. tr lt +QtD4r .'r<.A,B.ql the flange in Example 10.9. What are the gasket seating and the
roao AxD aott cltcuultoNS
tllapsi rv.' - 5,cr E i6'Lo6o operating loads?
-a:j w-,/r q wi/s\- 9.1 4 tC.
x, z 25tc^r: ZE O,5 ^-
tc @1."9
li 117., a';, H -efr/! - 4t14,tt. w =,!l^. + Ats. - 100,€oo Answersz design condition is I7,' = 734,599 tO
J1t wn-,r.+n- 6,j1,1t{
l.vlt arra seating condition is W^, : 244,rOO ,O
150 ,ti = rolb = tt5t6,096
q.-*.t-h- zto,tq I It E.5t< - ct = 3.1295 ,14
= rdg = 934,j21
tt,-r -i/!- lZ5)132- :.51 lD + ri.l = {.iol6 u' -8fi - t1a.79t IO.I I REVERSE FTANGES
v. = 1,028,618
- loorSoo A. =.rtc - cl - 2,1285 N. - 2,ctz,1r1 Rules for the design of reverse flanges are given in Appendix 2 of the ASME
6 tn^tr cof.3r^Nri r:^/. rz.o'18 r-- L^z Code, VI[-1.5 This type of flange is often used to form a reducing joint. The
_b.h
p..hr .ro.c, 2. + ,.,Lnirtr /rdi;;Ec
tb lvr .!d n h '.qe.ri6r
5'| \J r" +-;- solution of the reverse flange is similar to that for the raised-face standard flange
with the ring-type gasket within the bolt circle except for some minor differ-
,-,[x=r*
adrd.d-
@ Dd.-
ences. Figure 10.17 shows some loads that are applied in the reverse direction'

'={ *i.mi 6.1.J-}lvib.r-

Figure 10.16 Rins llonse lomple col.ulorion sheet. (Court€sy c+W Toytor-Bonney Div., Toytor Forge.)

hc = 0.5(C - G, = 0.5(22.5
= 3.729 in. - 15.043)
hr = 0.5(ho + hd = g.514.gr1 + 3.729) = 4.302 n.

Flange Moments

Mo = Ho x h": (319,26)(4.575) = 1,556,000

Mc = He x h6 : Q5O,ffi)(3.729) = %a,5gg
Mr = Hr x h, = (125,1N)(a.302) = 53g.26i
Ma" = Mo + Mc + Mr= 3,029,000

t Bolt-up moment is the same as in Example 10.9, Muu = 2,613,000.

3. Shape constants arc K = A/B = 26.5/12.75 = 2.078
From Fig. 2-7 .l of tlrc ASME Code, Ylfi-l, Y = 2.812.
4. Required thickness is based on design condition as

, :
': iE
M*Y _ (3.029,000x2.812)
= -1r21x1)@.n : 5'8e8 in r Fisurs 10.17 Rwer$ flonge looding ond dimen3ions.
 308 IUND ftANoxs, covrR puTEs. aND rrANG[S

'lhis muy cuuse sorns ol the moments t0 be applietl in thc opposite direction liom
I Drt|ox coxofioxt
those loads on a regular flange. However, the analysis is the same after thc
5/rr/ Kai'ed {""e-
fi l. r "t"-"/-
"new" total moment is determined. Again, the moments arc determined for both 'a.tat,
{,t/el, t& ;ahs 4a/
the gasket seating condition and the operating condition. In Figure l0.lg is a /r.75't0 ' / ltde-
' -
sample calculation sheet of a reverse flange.
Additionally, a new term aa is introduced to convert some terms from reqular
flanges io reverse flanges; fra and K are redefined and based on the reverse fl-anse
inside diameter; and a new equation is added to calculate the tansential flanie
stress at the inside flange bore. IOAO I llwt lr|| l Or{t|.l
-
A special precaution is noted. When K < 2, results are faidy satisfactory; t.=J(C+i'-23-t)=
however, when I( > 2, the results become increasingly conservative. For this
fi*r- x.t - t81,1o -,r'r' - _ I,Orl,tq l
r.r
reason the ASME Code procedure is limited to where I< s2.
- zz 1q f. y't f
Derivation of the new equations for reverse flanges is similar to that for the
regular flange except shears and moments are applied at the outer edge of the ring
* - Z,trL'?V
flange where discontinuities occur between the flange ana *re truU. Wittr
K = A/B', the conversion term ca is determined for converting T, Il, and y to
T,, U,, alrd If, which is obtained as
r(5r+ s.)rJ(s' + e!)
= 816EO ?e\
r.ir. rta. 9r ( ! a') =? I't,|o'l rtl
"=*['.*.#*)
=
(1,0.24)
rr = r:-rj.jb.t r = 0.957

Substituting this expression into the regular equation for tangential shess I=.ch/d loatr.+ l),,P=
- Z5r
4sr +tn.t 3l +n= qt6rl
(10.2s)
r".9, rrg, sr t^r r') =
ff

t =./3r+ | = l.
Example 10.11. A reverse flange is joined to a regular ring_type joint flange
to form a reducing connection . The total bolt-up momint ls coitroiting
anA equit
to Ms = 2,613,W. The flange bore d, = 13.25 in.; the outside diameter
A = 26.5.n.; and the flange thickness r = 5 in. What is the tangential flange
stress at the hub and at the inside bore?

Solutian, The tangential flange stress 51 at the hub is

" _Mol,,
tr= zl.,z \j
*,zl+ - i\l* r*7i
t, = #*#f
tj.zJ\zJ) L
r.ut - fl(r*
4.14\ --/] :
]3 " s " o.r:r)l szzopsi
Fisurs 10.18 Rwerse flonse somple colculotion she€|. (Courtesy G+W Toylor-Bonney Div.. Toylor Forge.)

'fhe tangential flange stress Ji at the flange bore is

s+ = kly _zK'?(_t +
gof
B'f L (K, - l)i l
309
 ll0 luND ftaNots, covln puTrs, AND ItANOES IO.I2 FUI.L.FACT GASKET FIANGE 3l I

_ 2,6t3.(xx)L +lx5
.(,.
r3.2s(25)
oa
L-'"
_ z(+Xl
#*itti
x
= I6'o5opsi r
Example 10.12. With the reverse flange given in Example 10.11, what is the
minimum required thickness based on an allowable flange stress of 17,500 psi?

Solutia3. The tangential flange stress at the flange bore of 16,050 psi is
controlling. Because / appears in several terms in a no;linear manner, the easiest
way to select the proper thickness is by nial and error. For the initial trial, use
a square relationship as follows:

16,050 17.500
--tl-: l1z- or t:48in.
The term ,\ is recalculated as 3.855. Using this, the .ti = 16,900 psi. By
successive recalculations, the approximately correct thickness is , : 4.6g in.
which gives Si: 17,500 psi. I
Pmhlcm

10.11 Using the details of the flange described in Example 10.11. what is the
minimum required thickness if the material of the flange is changed to one
with an allowable stress of 15,000 psi?

Answer t-i\ = 5 -26 in.

IO.I2 FULI-FACE GASKET FTANGE

919 gp" ot flange that is frequently used but no design methods exist in the
is the flange using a full-face gasket, as shown in Fig. 10.19.
lfME "C:* is a sample calculation sheet. This type
Figure.10.20_ of flange is designed
according to the provisions of U-2(g) of the ASME Code, Sectiorivll, Division
l. This code paragraph permits using good engineering design for those con-
structions where no rules exist in the code. Although the analysis is similar to
l-l
_tA I

that used for a raised-face , ring-type flange , a countermoment is introduced

from
that part of the gasket that is outside of the bolt circle. In addition, the Figura I 0.19 full-foce gosket loodin$.
decrease
in section strengtl at the bolt circle from the bolt holes must be considered when
the radial stress at the bolt circle is determined.
..soft,, Several important design assumptions made in the analysis are uniform gasket
lmplolng this type of gasket is usually limited to designs where a
gasket (with a low m and 1, factor) is used and the design prlssure is pressure over the entire gasket, inner edge of flange assembly unrestrained, and
low. This
is necessary to keep the loads and bolt size within reaso-n ti fit *ithin no reduction in gasket pressure area due to bolt holes. Other restrictions and
th" fl*n"
geometry even though the countermoment usually results in a low limitations necessary for the raised-face, ring-type gasket flange, such as linear
flange mi_
ment and a minimum required flange thickness. rotation about the centroid of the ring, prevail.
Assuming a uniform gasket pressure, determinations are made of the dis
 312 tNo ttANots, covrR p[ATrs, AND FtANOIS

tonce$ or momcnt olTns lrom the bolt circle to the ccntroid of the annulus from
I oraa.. corDmoxt 2
the bolt circle to the outside diameter and from the bolt circle to the insidc
diameter. In solving for the distances, the angle is assumed to be small and F'tt - F'.e ,/1eturtL.f 'be. - |ltt=7 qrlE
thc z
arc lengths are evaluated as sfiaight lines. From Roarkr2 and using his 5 to9
termi-
nology, the basic equation is sA-rzt cv.l ro^0 aro fori calcul lo|t
rlj= 6tor + ti'.r
= l,tq,tqQ wd/s. d w-Jt= 17., n
^- =ebcL'of
)c.1b
tt,=26ra6r = | 18,q86 \^.2 t(.- z"Q tJte
N.A
^,= .+^,1t.= 706,t16
,=i(T#) (lO.26a)
I
lr
tlEoo
)qzoo
14
ftl trtD = t/tt.r1' =
Fi E=cnr/.=
reL
4 t r' 5 t1
1t,168
wr'=tt +lt.r+t|'r = 7At,1l3
w=tl
tr'at=r./:. ttc,= 94a, 4q6

Horvever, converting to the terminology used in the ASME Code and as I ltv ar
in Fig. 10.19a, the equation becomes
shown 5 it - r)trl. - 1,'t,o4\ r. - r+ .5r, - tl,t 1 Pt-,d6- tZt,r72
,tt-E-ED- 1L,17-4 |'-Jtr+.,+tEl - { Zt, & - rrir - l1{,,rO{
V. - ?t1,h.6
a-
A_C 6= !!:!E!-*9=- = 2.9915' (.
=bg.4Lgl= = r.oz?2'
(10.26b)
2
,.o=\a -l|.= LlAtSoa *" = h.L- = o. 11 f6 a.=8.t-t'= 1C4 tozL
b= (10.26c)
"^err,J 8 t:* 3nls3 CIICULllDOT-€4din, 6 x er,o sur rrcrort

*(#) (10.26d)
16!, |kb, ti = nJIEI
r.rErFEgr: Pb/f
r-r. tla 9=-.t/f -u.-
-
= 1tt 71 ?ta
t1,71o ?,1
?,95'
:-j.5(5r+ s.l'Jl3r +5'l q' ToL,?r
- L
-
hL (rO.26e) t/iDrrt 5trE$ al tolt oto.t '-i 0 t118

Therefore, substituting Eqs. 10.26b, c, d, and e, into Eq. lO.26a,

..-:;iffi = n,qL4 ?,. t\I'ti;-,.217
.-lh&.'-20116
/ nr.3s torMuta tactott

. -r.+l r l.:5
t calak+r = l.4IO
(10.27) -afi - t. ool l
,, (A-C'^)(U+Cl , -.tla - O,o.lo1
- 6(A + C) r -t+a - r,o1',
-=rL,rt - H?.l6

t br rp.d.. o....' 2. + r.*htrt l;E

I 2.+l

16- 2"uotst t1.tt1"

C-r-a- Od.-
o.d.a- L'r.+

Figurc lo.2o Fvll-Goce flonge lomple colculorion 3ho6t

Fiour€ 10.19(0) Full-foce gosket dim€nsions.

3r3
 3I4 II.IND ?U\NO!S, COVER PTATTS, AND TIANOTS IO,I2 FUIL-FACE GASKET TIANGI 3I5

ln a similar munncr, the distance or moment &rnt k)w&rd the inside diameter
h1; .. (A - c)(u + c) (26.5 - 22.5t(2 x 26.5 + 22.5)
is determined as
6(C + A) 6(22.5 + 26.5\
C_B hb : 1.0272 in.
-0"=+('!:'\
5 \O + c /
(r0.26f)
Determine the gasket dimensions:
. C_B
a: (to.26s)
2 G= C - 2hc:22.5 - 2 x 2.5915 = 17.317 in.
, = .r(?*) . c-B\
t-44
(22.5-10.75)
(10.26h) =- = 2.93?5 in.

,= *(?; (10.26D y= l10O and m = 1.75

Determine the loads:
And substituting Eqs. 10.269, h, and i into Eq. 10.26f gives

c-B n = Tc.p
4'4 = +,r7.317)r(3z})
: 75,368

Ho = ZbtGmp = 2(2'937 5) n(17 .317)(r.7 5)(320) = 178,986

and solving for ft6 gives
: /r,^\ .? sqr 5)
HI = 45r'55e
\rt)H' @;^t'is,r8rl:
(r0.28) Wt= H + Hp+H; = 75'368 + 178,986 + 451'559 = 705'913

Hsn = blrGy = (2.9375)r(17 .317X1100) = 175

'79o
gasket loadings and two moment arms are determined, the
9n9" t"_*9
analysis of the flange is the same as for other flanges. The method / h^\ /, 5015\
is equally Hb'= 443'4e7
applicable to integral flanges, loose flanges, reverse flanges, and any othei
type
of flange. It is important to remember to use a..soft,'gaiket that keeps tfre tott
\nHc'= @rfi5rw=
loading within acceptable limits. W,a = Hay + Hb, = 175,799 + 443,496 = 619,286

Example_10.13. A welding-neck flange with the same geometry as that in Determine bolting requirements: A' is the greater of Wa/S"ot W^z/S.
Example.10.9 except for the thickness is used with a full-facJ gasket. The design A^ = 36.76 in.'z based on ffi
pressure is 320 psi and the "soft" gasket is vegetable fiber with m
= 1.75 and At = 36.8 in.'z based on 16-2-in. diameter bolts
y = 1100. What is the minimum required thickness?
W = 0.5(A^ + A) : s.5136.76 + 36.8)(19'200) = 706'176
Solution
Determine flange moments at operating condition.
l. Determine the lever arms of the inner and outer parts of the sasket:
Flange Loads

- B)(28 + C\ _ (22.5 - t0.75)\2 x 10.75 + zz.5)

'" = G
h.
6(8 + C) 6( 10.75 + 22.5)
6(10.75 22.5\ H, = loB2p = f,go.t s1,1szo) = 29,oM
ha = 2.5915 in.
- Hr = H - Ho = 75,368 - 29,444 : 46,324
316 ILANOIS, COVER PI.ATES, AND FI.ANOES IO.I4 f LAT-TACE FTANGE WITH MEIAI-TO-MTTAI CONTACT 3t7
'IIND
Lever Arms
Radial Flange Stess
[o=R * 0.59' = 2.5 + 0.5(3.375) = 4.t875 in. tlte + l\M" (t.4'104)t4M,O22)
lr = 0.5(ft i g * h) : 0.5(2.5 + 3.375 + 2.Sgt5\ = 4.2333 n. ^ Lt2B (1.042Sx2.03)110.75)
Sn : 14,77O psi < 17,500 psi allowable stress
Flange Moments

: : Tan Be ntial F lange Stre s s

Mp Hphp (29,044)(4.187 5) = 121,622
M7 = H7h7= @6,324)(4.2333) = 196JOq s,:
VM
--+ 2.29(464,022)
M. = Mo + M, = 121,622 + 196,104 = t'B - zs,
(2.03f (10.75) - (1.39)(14,77 0)
317,726
Sr = 3457 psi < 17,500 psi allowable stress t
6. Determine flange moment at gasket seating condition.
Problcm
Flange Load
10.12 Assume a flange with a flat-face gasket has an applied moment of
He = W" - H= 706,176 - 75,368 = 630,808 Mo -- 464,000 with a bolt circle of C = 22.5 in. using 16-2-in. bolts.
What is the required thickness of the flange if the allowable skess is
Lever arm 15,000 psi?

h',_ =
hahh (2.5915X1.0272) Answer: t,"q'd. = 2.19 in.
"o - ho + hb-- Q.915) + [onr) = 0'7356 in'
IO.I3 FTANGE CATCULATION SHEETS

Fhnge moment
Calculation sheets are included for the following types of flange design:
Mr: H6h'[ = (630,808X0.7356 = a6a,O22 Sheet 1. Welding neck flange with ring-type gasket

All flange geometry
constants are the same as in Example 10.9.
1 Calculate flange stresses. Assume flange thickness t = 2.03 in. This is
set directly from the radial flange stress at the bolt circte which is
Sheet 2. Slip-on or lap-joint flange design with ring+ype gasket
Sheet 3. Ring flange with ring{ype gasket
Sheet 4. Reverse welding neck flange with ring-type gasket
Sheet 5. Slip-on flange with full-face gasket

sF=, M' 6(4u,022) Sheet 6. Welding neck flange with full-face gasket
" t"(rc - Nd)- (2.0j),(22.5t - 16 x 2)
SF = n,a@ psi < 17,500 psi allowable. stress IO.14 FLAT.FACE FTANGE WITH METAT.TO-METAL CONTACT
OUTSIDE OF THE BOIT CIRCLE'",'O,''
Inngitudinal Hub Stre ss
Rules for the design of flat-face flanges with metal-to-metal contact outside of
L= te+l
T
+a= 1.0021 +0.0407 = 1.0428 the bolt circle are given in Appendix Y of the ASME Code, VIII-I. The rules
are for circular, bolted flanged connections with identical and nonidentical pairs
\4e,022) of flanges. The pairs of flanges that are in metal-to-metal contact across the
Sr= whole face and the gasket load to compress the gasket are small. (see Fig. 10.21)
L'?n (1.0428X3.375f(10.7s)
The rules also apply to identical pairs of flanges with a metal spacer added at the
Sa = 3634 psi < 26,250 psi allowable stress outer edge between them.
 torrD afto aorY calcut
'|or{S

It
ro/ro r llvar /lr|r rOAO l val - |rorlxl
^rr

,!lsr + 5r,.! tsi + S,j =

SlSr + trlo'.5(t, + t'i =

lr b.l iFdne d.od.2. + r,'.hi?t

r .d i. h .br .qd'or b', v /i"L,Da.r
-;=;-

aEotr. Csrea- O.r.

6.r., |{Jih.'-
Sh6.r l. Welding neck flcng€ with ring-ryp€ g6kei. (Co,.rrresy c+W Toylor-Bonnoy Div., Toytor Forg€.) -----J@!!
Shsor2. Slip-on or lop-ioint flonse v.irh rins-typ€ sd3ker. ( Courre3y G+W Toylor-Bonney Div,, Toylor
Forge.)

3t8 3r9
 tl0 ll.lND .ANO!s, COV!n p[AtES, AND trANOls

.:...:.--- 2olrr ---

1,- I prrr 2
:-:-=-._.....Y-

la,;,.-= rv.r - brc,

4 to^o eno rotr cercur.r6ii
^-=Zi w-,tt,- s-,,.- ^-,44
||-1/s.' w-tts,-
trl Lsc I c
l*' "I.
-e,r/.

5 r tavl| atr
I iD=J(C+r,-2$-tJ=
ti=.5(c-G)
.Jlrb rEl E
+
^,=.r{.-F-
iiiiiiS,iiiidiii'fi iF,il,,i -""'!,iit,y,,,:,.^*,-,.". M.l
1."'.e
6 rxpt coxrr^'m l-t I "',i,:. rtttsS carculaiox-{rf, rolin, 6
L3,nfl;:r,,1*-;E;F- r{e, xu5, 5r =ti./I!r'
xAtD |lut t^cro$

7 tcie. tle., S'= tufr/t, -ZS,tO,6rt.+rt/B=

t-
k_/, trb rltt
,=J+l @ 1:/ r rsr + sr,or J{s{ + s,, =
r".".a,.s,o,r'r=+
[v-,xit(Jj
z

at lt,
1, 5:t
Co"ur.d-
G.*.d_
O.r.
ili5.,-- 9 "?.::' ttr$t cllcutano|r- sdd.. ""+[+:!Ilr#rl t-
)-
.rub, g rr =+.a, r
Shs€i 3. ning flonga yrith ring-iypo golk€t. (Cou|.tosy G+W = Ircllo,r
Toylor_Bonney Div., To),lor Fo; ! rod,crae.,sr
= pn./lt l;-------=_+
r.^o fl!., S'= Ur=drU
^cfr/r' -Z',to.6rt.+n/R=
llji .la, +sa- rrs, + s,r =
r-, n,.. s" 1^l 11 = f, _
i::" i i,' ] = 7 trrls3 Forr ui,a ;^cort

x r_..
[v

The.basic development assumes that the flanges

outer.diameter or at some point between the
are in tangential contact at the
?r-T*-+
at a distance llc from the boit circle.
b;ft circle th;i,r'te. oiam"te, ;; e-rrr:-i-------.']
Ttre gasket is assurneJi. ti-rJrilr"o,ng
u"a
generaGs a negligibre load during
operation and is located in rir,"iia tn"
u"rr"t
lY El k_r'=
wall. The major difference uetrieen ttris ryp",f
;il'tr,"'Jrg_typ" o"_ d;" | [.n'rV I

|t--|r---T-
scribed in Section 10.9 is the additional pryi'nl
the two flanges. of ;fil;;;iliit;
contact | / h ]_-,_ ,__<.
't r 4'"F-
tt
To organize the calculations svsiemadcally, II
it is necessary to !ru!.
blies and to categorize each individual nann". -- "--veJqr !v classify assem_
r-bJ
il
+

C hs s ifcation o! As s e mb ly
--l,o l.-----r=
Cmptrd- D.h.-*----
aadl. <t_A: Chxr.d- N!ib.r=--
Class l. This is a pair of flanges that are identical except
for the gasket Sh€€l ,a. R€verc€ w€ldins n€* flonse wirh rins-fyp€ goskst. (Court$y c+W Toylor-Sonney Div., Tdytor
g'oove. Fors€.)
Class 2 . Ii consists of a pair of nonidentical
flanges where the inside diameter
of the reducing flange Jxceeds one_half the
U.it Ou."to*
Class 3- This is a flange combined with "i."f"
a flat head or a reducing flange where
the inside diameter is small and ao", oot
on"_tlif" fieiort ctcte
diameter. "*"""0-
321
 I o8rox cDaa!|no{t 2. 3

4 loao lott carcuraroxt

^to+ Nir
w.r= bror Ar = rr..tr.t wd/s. d w.Jt =
=

Ir
li
Wn=fi+i!+fi'?=
IOAO : lavn rrr - |tot,Nt I TIVlt T

,r lA-Cll2A+Cl= tc-tlra+o=
""=-:rc+.i- -=-=iiT6-
h,i= l'.1"., -

E "i* ttatS CArqrlAnOx-Ot rato, o x |lo nof tac'ot

lttr|lr,h=nJr6r
r.aEt tr- ar P*/If f
r@. 6E = r
sr
= ..1/ I -l5l
Jl!, + li'Jl$ +5rl ' u
t^Dur str!3s At |olr ot<ll

7 ttrg totnutt ttctotg 7 nra$ tourula tacloti

I Llr !Fd'! .s.i' 2. + I rlrirt It !.lr D.d'. .B.dt 2. + t dldrlr I t lr r.dr

r.inlb.e!fu !r! I 2.+l

C..'a.itr Dd.- o.r.-

C6er.{--
O.d.a- f&iL'-
6rr.a-
Sh.at 5, Slip-on flons6 with tulLlcce soska. (Court€sy cfw ToyloFBonney Div., Taytor Forss.)
Shcet 6.

322 323
 321 II.INO FIANOIS, COVTR PTATES, AND FI"ANOTS
t0.15 sPHERtcattY orsHED covtRs

dished head and the flange ring. The flange thickness is set by the combination
of the circumferential ring stress and the tangential bending stress. Figure 10.22
shows the head geometry and the loading applied to the ring flange resulting
liom the reaction from the internal pressure against the dished head. It is derived
thus. Using the geometry in Fig. 10.22, the following is set:

adjacent side :
(10.30a)
cos B, =
adjacent side _\/L'''' - ( _ \/4L'1Err-=E
hypotenuse L' 2L'

membrane force in head to due to oressure : F' =pL (10.30b)

2T
pR
circurnferential ring stress = 5" = :pD (10.30c)
Figur6 10.21
t 2t
Flor-foce flonge wirh mebl_to-metol
conto.r ouisid. of tfie bolt circle,

Catagory of Flonges

9i*g.IV^
t. This is an integral flange or an optional flange calculated
as an
mtegral flange.
ca'gory 2.It consists of a loose-type flange with a hub that is
considercd to
add shength.
3. A.loose-type flange that is with or without a hub
:l"g.y
type calculated as a loose type
or an optional
where no credit is taken for the hub in any case.

Once the class and category are established, the

analysis is similar to that
fr:gAppendix 2 flaige except for tt udaitionJrl"oings
i"9" effe{t where the iuus"c uy ttr.
prying contact near the ourcr "diameter occurs . iiis Jontact
torce
H3 and its_moment arm lk involve an interaction
between tfr" Uoft anC
flange deflection and the moments Me and Ms. "iongution
The required bolt load for operating conditions is

W:H+Hc+Hc (r0.29)
A ( outeide dianeter)

IO.I5 SPHERICALTY DISHED COVERS

'Ihe ASME.Code
contains special rules for designing spherically dished covers
flange. The formulas given in the code are approximate
I-tllI
DecauseTntnC,
tney do"ng
not take into account the discontinuity existing between the
Fisuru 10.22 Sphcricolly-dirhed covcr.
 t26 .tND ttANO!!, COVIR puTrs, AND traNols
IO,I5 SPHERICATTY DISHED COVERS

Substituting l, = tr', cos B,; D = B; and , = (/ _ B)/2 in Eq. 10.30c, l)ividing by S and rearranging terms to form a quadratic,

^' F'cos B, I T2-27(F)-J=0 (10.37)

a-B)/22 (r0.30d)
2p -r 1/@ufi or T:F t-1/vta1 (10.38)
When the value of ./c, is substituted in Eq. 10.30d,
the equation becomes

s" = *2 ,,"o" 9,,,

212@-B)/2 (10.30e)
This equation is identical with the equation given in 1-6(9) of the ASME Code,
v[-1.
Application of this equation is permitted for either internal or extemal pres-
Whdn the value of cos B1 from Eq. 10.30a is substituted, sure. The term p is the absolute value for either the internal pressure or the
external pressure. The value for ffi is determined by combining the moments
from bolt loading and gasket loading with the moment caused by the pressure
t/+Ld-=E
". - pn
4T A_B (10.31)
loading from the spherical head on the inside edge of the ring. When this total
moment is determined, the absolute value is inserted for Mo in the equation.
Figure 10.22 shows the loadings caused by the pressure. In Fig. 10.22, the
]anCeryia gtrep] ring due to Me is as follows: from Eq. 9 of 2_51 of the ASME loading shown is due to intemal pressure. However, if the loading were due to
Code, Section VIII, the equation rs extemal pressure, all directions of loadings would be reversed, but the effective
stresses on the ring would be the same. If external pressure were applied to the

-
-'
vM"
(10.32)
head, it would have to be examined for compressive buckling that might set the
thickness.
T2B

butY = (A + B)/(A - B),so

Example 10.14. A spherically dished head is to be bolted to the welding neck
flange described in Example 10.9. The dished head is to b€ attached at the upper
inside comer with the outside surface even with the ring's outside (see Fig.
"= c^;(*=)
(10.33)
10.23). What is the minimum required thickness of the flange ring when the
Combining the circumferential and the tangential stresses
spherical head is dished to a radius of I= 28?
in the ring grves

s, = s" + r, = r4@-=F- *- ( u"\(e _,

* n\
4r e= n \f,ri1, ) (to.34\

I€t

r = PBldt=E
8S(A - 8)
-^^ ,_ Mo(A + B)
(10.3s)
s8(A _ B)
Then

s,=f<n * fiut (10.36) Fisure 10.23 Dimgnsioni of sphericolly-di.hed heod in

Ex. 10.14.
329 tuND traNots, covtR phTrs, aND H.ANotS IO.I5 SPHERICAI.I"Y DISHED COVERS

Solutlon. From the geometry of Example 10.9, t-oad Arm Moment

A= 26.5; a= 10.75; L=28=2(10.75\:21.5 IIp = 11, ho = 0.5(C - 8) : 5.875 Mp : H6hp : 480,000

: 8l,700
He = Hp he = 0.5(C - G) : 3.729 Mc = H6h6 = 934,000
D€termine the minimum required head thickness as follows: :250,600
Hr = 336,100 hr = 0.5(R'r g'l h6) M7 = H7h7 : 1,614,000
, =t# =*ffii = 2.560 in.; use2.625 in. = 4.8O2
Hn = 336,1.0O -hn : -O.5(T - t) Ma = Hnhn : - 168,050r
From geometry calculations
: -0'5T + 1.313 +441,300
Mo: Mp + MG + Mr + M, : 3,469,60 - 168'050f
L'=L+l:r.r.t*?@
The minimum thickness at gasket seating condition is
L' = 22.813 in.
22.8t3)z -
(10.75 (2,613,0W)1?!ll_!!JI)_ ?,,
cos p1 = =0.972; h=13.626" F=u and r: (nJ:00xmj5)(26i - l0J5):=
rt'orv
Rsn
2(22.813)
T: F + \/F' + J = *2-s5o = 5.732 in.
Membrane force in the head due io pressure is
The minimum thickness at operating condition is

'r':pL
-n- -(25mV2l'sl
:2r,s" =lo'zolb '" _
(2s00x10.75)y'4f11.8 I tP-:-(l0l75f = o 54o
8(17,500x26.5 - 10.75)

Horizontal force = F' cos p1 = GO,24O)(0.972\ = 9950 lb If we assume T = 5.75 and M0 : 2,503,000,
Vertical force = F' sin Br = O0,'2,40)(.236) = ?A2O lb
r :32.8so =
Total horizontal force
:
= a(10.75)(9950) : 336,000 'ffi;ffi 31.467

Total vedical force zr(10.75)(Z4ZO) : 91,76 T = 0.540 + + (3r.467): 6.175 in.

Moment at gasket seating condition is If we assume T = 6.25 and Mo = 2,419,000,

I=32.850"?*i:# =ro4tl
Load furn
T = 0.52+0 * y'1g5a0t + (30'4lD = 6.081 in.
Moment
He = W. = 700,800 ho = 0.5(C - G) : 3.729 Mo = H6h6: 2,613,000

The minimum thickness is approximately 6.108 in. Although exact thickness

Moment at operating condition is can be determined , T = 6.25 in. is satisfactory. I
330 EuND frANOrs, covER ptAlrs, AND FtANGTS NOMENCTATURE 33I

l'robhms NOMENCTATURT

10.13 A spherically dished flange with an outside diameter ofA = 36 in. and
: lndividual nomenclature is used throughout Chapter 10. It is usually noted near
an inside diameter ofB l8in. is subjected to a gasket seating momenr
of 3,500,000 in.lb. The allowable tensile stress of the flangi material to where used. The following list gives some of the general nomenclature.
is 15,000 psi. What is the minimum required thickness at the gasket
seating condition? A : outside diameter of flange (in.)
I = inside diameter of flange (in.)
Answer: t^n = 6.24 in.
C = diameter of bolt circle (in.)

10.14 For the flange in Problem 10. 13, what is the maximum allowable flanse E : weld joint efficiency
moment if the allowable tensile stress is increased to 17,500 psi and tie G : diameter of gasket reaction (in.)
flange thickness is set at 6.25 in. ?
1u' : gasket seating width (in.)

Answer: M51o* = 4,|O2,NO in. lbs./in. circumference N-6 = minimum gasket width (in.)
P = total load 0b)
R = spherical radius of gasket surface (in.)
S = allowable tensile stress (psi)
S. : allowable bolt stress, room temperature (psi)
56 : allowable bolt stress, design temperature (psi)
design pressure (psi)

nominal thickness of head (in.)

effective diameler of flat head (in.)
minimum requircd thickness (in.)
Yory = seating stress of gasket material (psi)
E, = modulus of elasticity (psi)
W^t = flange loading for design condition (lb)
Wz = flange loading for bolt-up condition (lb)
bn = basic gasket seating width (in.)
b = effective gasket seating width (in.)
OD = outside diameter of gasket (in.)
ID = inside diameter of gasket (in.)
= actual bolt area (in.'z)
Ms : flange moment for design conditions (in.lb)
332 tuNO fl-ANOts, COVTR PLATES, AND lt-ANOts S|EUOORAPHY 333

Mn flange momcnt for bolt-up condition (in.-lb) BIBTIOGRAPHY

maximum bending stress (psi)
m dmum deflection (in.) Bhch, A. E., and A. Bazergui, "M€thods of Analysis of Bolted, FlaDged Connections-A Re-
view," Ecolc Pol)4echnique, Monti€al, Camda, Jaluary 1981.
0* maximum rotation (radians) InterprEtive Study on the Design of Notr-Circular Flaoges and Flanges with Extemal Loads" (a
o, or : tangential stess (psi) private report to PVRC , May 23 , 1979 .)
Rrut, H. D., A. Bazeigui aod L. Marchand, 'Casket l€akage Trends" (A private report to PVRC),
o, ai = radial stress (psi) April 1981.
Rodsbaugh, E. C., atrd S. E. Moore, "Evaluation of the Bolting and Flarges of ANSI 816.5
a" a6 = circumferential sness (psi) Flarged Joints-ASME Part A Design Rules," ORNUSub-2913-3, Oak Ridge National Labo-
poisson's ratio ratory, Oak Ridge, TeDn., Septenb€r 30, 1976.
lL
Timo$henko, 5., Theory of Plates and S&ells, McGraw-Hill, New Yo*, 1940.

REFERENCES

ASME Boiler atrd Pressure Veso€l Code, Section VIII, Division I, Pressure Vessels,
ANSVASME BPV-Vn-I, Amedcan Society of Me.hanical Engine€$, New Yo*, 1983.
ASME Boiler ard Pressure Vessel Code, S@ton I, Pover Boilcrs, ANSVASME BPV-I,
American Society of Mechadcal Engineers, New York, 1983.
Wate$, E. O., D. B. Wesstiom, D. B. Rossheim, and F. S. G. Williams, "Formulas for
Sft€sses in Bolted Flanged Connections," f/dns. ASME, vol. 59, 1931, pp. 16l-169.
Wate$, E. O., D, B, Rossheim, D. B, Wesstrom, aDd F. S. G. Wilham's, Development of
General Formulas for Bohed Flaryes, Taylor Forge atrd Pipe Works, Chicago, 1949.
Waters, E. O., and R. W. Schneider, "Derivation of ASME Code Formulas for lhe Design
of Reverse Flanges," WeldittS Research Council, Bulletin 262, October 1980, pp. 2-9.
ANSI Standard 816.5, "Pipe Flatrges and Flanged Fittings," American NatioMl Srzndards
hstitute. New York.
', API St ndard 605, lzrge Diametcr Carbon Stee, FrarSer, ANSVAPI Std. 605, Americatr
Petroleum ltrstitute, Washington, D,C.
ANSI Staftlard B16.24, 'Bronze Flanges ard Fittings, 150 aod 300 lb," America! National
Standatds Institute, New Yo*.
Rossheim, D, 8,, and A. R, C. Markl, "Gasket Irading Con$tants," Mechanical Eb
gi ceri g, Vol. 65, September 1943, W. 647-648.
Raut, H. D., and G. F. Iron, "Report of Oasket Factor Tests," Welding Research Council,
Bulleti! 233. New Yort. De.ember 1977,
11. Modern Flange Design, Bulleth 502, Tttt ed, , G aDd W Taylor-Bomey Division, Southfield,
Mich.
12. Roark, R. J,, FormnJas for Stress and Strain,3d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954.
13. Water$, E. O,, 'Dedvatior of Code Fordulas for Part B Flanges," WeUinB Research
Coun il, Bnlletin 166, October 1971, pp. n47.
14, Schneider, R. W., and E. O. Waters, "The Backgrcund of ASME Code Cas€ 1828: A
Simplified Metbod of Analyzing Part B Flanges," Tranr, ASME, Jounal of Presrure Vessel
Technology, Vol. 100, No. 2, Mt! 1978, pp. 215-219.
Schneide., R. W, and E, O, Wate$, "The Application of ASME Code Case 1828," Irarr,
ASME, lournal of Pressure Vewel Technology, Vol. 101, No. I, February 1979, pp.87-94,
 CHAPTER ll
OPENINGS, NOZZLES, AND
EXTERNAL LOADINGS

334 335
336 OPENINGS, NOZZIES, AND EXTERNAI' LOADINOS
I I .I GENERAL
All process vessels require openings to get the contents in and out For somc
vessels, where the conients miy be large or some of the intemal parts may need
frequent changing, access is made through large openings in which the entirc
heai or a secioriof the shell is removed. However, for most process vessels,
the contents enter and exit through openings in the heads and shell to which
nozzles and piping are attached. In addition to these openings others may be
required, suCh- as those for personnel entering the vessel through a manway
opining. Other openings rnay be necessary for inspecting the vessel ftom the
outside-thmugh a handhole opening , and still others may be required-for cleaning
or draining tie vessel. Thesl openings do not always have a nozzle located at
the openin!. Sometimes the closure may be a manway cover o-r handhole cover
that ii eithlr directly welded or attached to the vessel or a built-up
pad area by
bolts.
For some nozzles, additional loading to the iniernal or extemal pressure may
be innoduced from dead loads ftom equipment and piping and ftom thermal
expansion flexibility loadings from the piping and equipment motions' This
Ml
f-
F^l
figura tl.l Applied Pras$rre ond externol loodings on noz-zle'
I I.I OENERAI,
additional loading may require compensation as well as what is necessary to
rcsist the internal and external pressure loadings, as shown in Fig. 1l.l'
Openings and nozzles similar to those occurring in pressure vessels also occur
in piping. This is the case where a branch run is attached to the main run of
piping. The branch-to-run intersection is subjected to the same pressure and
ihermal expansion loadings as those applied to a vessel nozzle. Although the
nozzles have a similar construction, usually an important difference lies in the
relationship between the ratio of the nozzle diameter to the vessel diameter and
the branch diameter to the run diameter. For pressure vessels, this ratio d/D is
much less than for piping. In many piping systems, this ratio may be very close
to 1:1, as as shown in Fig. 11.2.
In designing openings and nozzles for resisting loadings from internal and
extemal pressures and from external loadings, two types of stress conditions are
important. Fkst, the primary rnembrane stresses in the vessel or run pipe, that
is, the necessary stresses mahtaining static equilibrium must be kept within the
limits set by the allowable tensile stresses. Second, the peak stresses caused by
abrupt changes in the geometry at the nozzle-to-shell comer and cause stress
concentrations must be kept within acceptable limits. These peak stresses are
important in a fatigue evaluation where the design life of the nozzle and the other
FigurG ll.2 Voriotion in d/D rotio of nozzles ond piping.
 OPININOS, NOZZICS, AND EXTERNAI TOADINOS I I.2 STRESS€S AND TOADINGS AT OPTNINOS

vcss€l parts or piping system are established. A slight change in the details at tho
intersection may enable the vessel to operate through many more cycles of
pressure and temperature loadings.
Detailed rules for designing vessels and piping to accommodale the primary
membrane stresses and loadings from intemal and external pressures are given
in codes and regulations such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codel
and the ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31.'z In addition, some design rulcs
are given in the more advanced sections of these codes to permit considering
shess intensity factors (SIF) and stress concentration factors (SCF) in deter-
mining peak stresses. The peak stresses are used to determine the design fatigue
life of the vessel. Other codes do not mention peak stresses or fatigue evaluations
and leave the latter as the designer's responsibility. At the present time, none of
these codes contains detailed design rules for the consideration of extemal
loadings from either dead loadings or piping expansion loadings.

I1,2 Stresses ond Loodings ot Openings

Both single and multiple openings require calculations that show that the stresses
and loadings in the shell and head are kept within acceptable limits. Single
openings are calculated by the reinforcement method, whereas multiple open-
ings are calculated by either the reinforcement method or the ligament efficiency
method. In both cases, the primary stresses are effectively kept less than the
allowable stress by replacing the area removed for openings.
For a single circular opening in a flat plate with infinite boundaries in two
directions (not through the thickness) that is subjected to applied forces and
stresses along opposite edges of the plate, stresses are increased above the
nominal applied stress in the unperforated plate. The stresses decrease away
from the opening until the nominal stress in the plate is obtained. The ratio of
the stress at the examined point divided by the nominal stess is the stress
intensity factor.
The shess intensity around an opening may be expressed either in general
terms of applied stresses and geometry or in location of the considered point. The Figure ll.3 Two-direction'lood combinorio's on flot Plote with circ"ldr oPening'

basic equation at an opening may be represenied in terms of o and 0, with the

angle of the considered point measured from the loading axis.r For the loading
shown in Fig. 11.3a, the or is axial and 0 = rl2 at the maximum sfiess loca- The basic equation for the maximum stress at the edge of the opening in terms
tion. ForFig. ll.3b,lhe q is axial and 0:
rl2 atthe maximum stress location of the component of stresses in each direction is
and, o2:0.5or is at right angles to a1 and 0 : 0 at the maximum stress
location. For Fig. 11.3c, the a1 is axial and o2 : o1 is at right angles to o1. o^o:3o1 - o2 (1r.2)
Values of 0 are the same as for the cylinder. When two loadings or stresses are
involved, the effects at the maximum stress location are added. The basic where the values of or ?rd oz include plus and minus signs depending upon
couation for direct s[ess is whether the applied stress is tension or compression. The stress intensity factor
at the edge oi circular openings for various ratios of applied edge stresses is
siven in Table 11. l.
=
" Zl'. (;)'] - i [' -' '(;)'] *' '' (11 . l)
The stress intensity factor for various combinations of stresses is maximum
 l l.2 STRESSES AND IOAOINOS AT OPININOS 341
340 OPININO5, NOZZLES, AND EXTERNAT IOADINOS

intemal pressure-the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is found by
Tqble I I.l Streu Inlenally
combinine the effects of sfesses in two directions according to Eq. l I l:
Foctors for Vorious Rolios of
Applied Stress

Stress Ratio ",,

: Zl'. .
G)l - ; t' '(;)']
cos 20 where o = I
cos 20 = -1
1:0(axialonly) 3.00
2:I
I:I
(cylinder)
(sphere)
2.50
2.00
* =; i' . (;)'] -i['-':0']*'ze where 0 = 0

cos 20 = + 1

The general equation is the summation of the two stresses and

at the edge of the opening and decreases away from the opening until the stress
r - 3fr)'+ r + (r)'- t- rf:)'l
4L- /r)'*
=Ilz*
approaches a nominal shess factor close to 1.0.
Using the following nomenclature, various formulas for different combina- ", \r/ \x/ \r/ u/ I
tions of applied stresses are developed:

", =ilo.
,(')' . ,(;)'] (l l.s)
r = radius of circular opening in plate (in.)
r: distance from centerline to point of SIF (in.) At the edge of the opening, the sffess intensity factor is determined from Eq'
1 1.2 assuming cr : or vnd 02 = 0.5or so that
For applied stress ratio of 1 : 0-the condition of an axial tension load
only-the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is obtained by solving Eq. c* = 3or -O.5or = 2.5oot (1 l.6)
1l.l with 0 = rl2 wherc cos 20 = -1, giving
Substituting various values of r for.r in Eq' 11.5, stress intensity factors at various

"' = Zl'. (;)l - i l' -''0']t-'r distances from the edge of the opening are

',:ilr. (;)'-,(;)l (1 1.3)

r
2r
2 5oor
l.23at
At the edge of the opening, the stress iniensity factor is determined from Eq. 31 1.09or
ll.2 assuming that o1 = or and or = 6' 4r l.05or
o^:3or-0=3.00or (r 1.4)
For an applied stress ratio of 1 : 1 in a spherical shell or hemispherical head
under internal pressure, the basic equation for the stress intensity factor is
Substituting various values of r for x in Eq. 1 I .3, stress intensity factors at
resolved by combining effects of stesses in two directions accoding to Eq. 11.1
various distances from the edge of the opening are
that gives

r
21
3.00sr
1.15ar
'=t*$' (l l.7)

At the edge of the opening, the stress intensity factor is determined from Eq' 1 I .2
3r l.Mo1
assuming that at = or dllrd cz: 6t as given by
4r l.O4o1
c*:3c1 - ar=200or (11.8)
For an applied stress ratio of 2 : l-the condition of a cylindrical shell under
 oPlNrNoS, l{onfis, AND ExftRNAr toAD|NOS I I.3 THEOTY OF REINfORCID OPENINOS

Substituting vsrious vulucs ol'r li)r r in Lq. 11.7, stress intensity tactors at
I'roblems
dislances lrom the edge ol'the opening are

II .1 What is the stress intensity factors for a plate under a stress ratio of 2 : - I
for the vessel given in Example 1 1.1 at the edge of the opening and at
r 2.O0oy distances of 2r,3r, and 4r?
2r l.25or
Answeri Incat\on SIF
31 1.11o1
41 1.06s, r 3.50
21 1.2O

Exarnple 11,1 A vertical vessel under intemal pressure and dead load contains 31 1.05
an opening that is qubjected to applied stresses. The dead load stress is equal to 41 1.Oz
the circumferential pressure shess. For this stress condition, what is the basic
equation for the stress intensity factor at any location from the center of the 11.2 In the ASME Code, VIII-2, a local stress regionis one in which the stress
opening? intensity of 1.15, does not extend more than VRt In terms of the radius
of the oiening r, how far ftom the edge of the opening in-a hemispherical
head under iniernal pressure is required to have a stress of 1' 15. assuming
Solutian. The applied stress in the circumferential direction is o1, whereas in
the longitudinal direction it is the longitudinal pressure stress minus the longi- S^ = o1?

tudinal dead load shess. This equals oy, =

IO.5o1 and c2DL: -or and the
Answert Ttrc SIF becomes equal to 1.1S. at a distance of 2'66r from
summation equals -0.5o;. Using Eq. 11.1, the basic equations are
the edge of the oPening.

",=url,. (t'] -;[' /r\

+31:l
\r/l
4l
lcos 20 where 0 = "
2
11.3 As in Problem 11.2, what is the distance from the edge of the opening
along the longitudinal axis in a cylindrical shell under intemal pressure
cos 20 = -l if required to have a stress of 1. lS,?
oa: --lof /r\21 -l
l+l-l
4L V/l l+ 4L _ll+ *' 2o where o: tr Answerz T\e SIF becomes equal to l.lS. at a distance of 2'90r from
G): the edge of the opening along the longitudinal axis'
cos 20: *l
,, :
"ol,
+ rG)' +,.'(:) -' - (")'.' ., (r'] I I,3 THEORY OF REINFORCED OPENINGS

,, ="olo. (;)' .'(')'] . AsdescribedinSectionll'2,thereisanincreaseinbasicshessesatanopenlng

in aflat plate or shell under edge loadings due to the discontinuous
pathway for
from one side of the opening to the other side'
the loms (anO stresses) to pasJ
Exarnple 11.2 For the vessel described in Example 11.1. what is the max- to be established- in.order to keep the
When this happens, otler pathways have
imum stress at the edge of the opening according to Eq. I 1.2? orimarv sresies at an acce-ptable level. The basic theory of reinforced openings
region of the opening to
-ttt"with additional material in the
ir to suppty pathways
tiJ ioud. Uy opening. In designing process equipment and other
Soltttion. Assuming that or = o1 and o, = -0.5 rr, the equation for max- "u.ty
pr"s*r" u".t"l., tiis pattrway iJ supptied by the thickening of the basic shell or
imum stress at the edge of the opening is given by Eq. 11.2 as material such as a pad, as shown in Fig' l1'4'
iozzle material and Uy adding
placement of the additional material is important. It must be sufficiently near
o,o^: 3oy - oz = 3ot - (-0.5ar) : 3.50ar I the opening to be effective; and yet, it must be added with caution to
prevent
 OPININOS, NO2IIES, AND TXTENNAI I.OADINOS

Tn

\,i:
.r!, \:;i*
T

figure I L5 Reiniorcemsnl od&d to outside of oPening'

Figt re I
From Fis.
L,4 ,{€lhods of odding r6inforc€msnt moteriol. (Court*y Arnericon Socisry
UM6.l of the ASr'tE Code, Vlll-l)

another problem such as high thermal stresses. Investigations by the pVRCa and
others indicate that the placement or location of the reinforcement is important.
of it€chonicol Engine€rc,

T
5
l
On most pressure vessels, the reinforcement is added to the outside as shown in
Fig. 11.5. However, on some vessels the reinforcement is added on the inside
as in Fig. 11.6; and on still others, some of the reinforcehent material may be
added !o both the outside and the inside as in Fig. 11.7. The best arrangement \tl.t
for reinforcement is the so-called balanced reinforcement which consists of
about 35-407o of the area on the inside and about ffi-C|Vo of the area on the
outsidg. On many designs, it is difficult to place any reinforcement on the inside Figur€ I1.6 R€infor.€ment odded to intid. of op€ning'

345
t.l6 OPININOS, NOZZTES, AND IXTIRNAI. I.OADINOS
I I.4 RTINFORCEMENT TIMITS

ular to the surt'ace of the shell. These are set at a point at which it is l'elt that the
added reinforcement within the limits is effectively helping to replace the metal
removed at the opening.
Tn
Two formulas are used for setting the limits measured from. the opening
c9!!er!!e3!91g.1@g!qg".jg@f, with--th" t-c*
offlre two inswEis used.
The first answer is equal to the diam6fer of the opening d. The second limit equal
tothesumof ?l + T^+ O.5d. AsshowninFig. 11.8, the thickness ofthe nozzle
wall usually determines which of the two limits controls. At a distance d from
the centerline without reinforcement added, Eq. 1 1.5 for a cylinder gives a SIF
of 1.23or and Eq. 11.7 for a sphere gives a SIF of 1.25 q.
With additional
\i,:'l reinforcement material, the nominal stress is reduced close to that in an un-
{.a \i-;.jl:i perforated plate.
If z nozzle is attached at the opening, it also offers reinforcement arca
T
available for replacing that area removed from the vessel at the opening.lU-
@iruegAUC!.d9l4bl9-lgled on the wave
I
damping length of a beam on an elastic foundation. For a cylindrical shell, this
length is a function of l/B, where B for a poisson's ratio of 0.3 is equal to
1.285 /Y rt .

The vertical limit was set in the ASME Code as 2.5 [

many years ago when
an assumption was made that r/r of 10 was to be usEif-This limit is about right
for an internal pressure p of 1200 psi and S :
12,000 psi. The development of
Figore I I .7 R€inlorc6manr odded to bofi insid€ ond o'rrside. 2.5 T" is

either because it is not accessible or it interferes with flow or drainage. The _l\/, \/o.tv
balanced reinforcement is often used at manway and inspection openings where
- p r.285 1.285
= O.246r = 2.46t

no nozzle is attached.
For applications in design problems, where the reinforcement requirements For code application, the number was rounded off to 2.5 f. With the wide range
are established, the method of replacing areas is chosen rather than a method that of r/t ratios, which are currently used in process vessel construction, some of
balances loads or stresses . An area at the opening for carrying primary loads and the codes are setting this reinforcement limit in the vertical direction by
shesses is removed. Thus this required area must be replaced by another area
adjacent to the opening that is not used for that purpose. It is desirable to replace L= O.7S !r-I" ( 11.e)
that area required for primary loads by an adjacent reinforcement area. Within
the reinforcement limits, the reinforcement areas are assumed to have the same where L = reinforcement limit perpendicular to shell (in.)
load-carrying capabilities as the area removed for the opening. Consequently, /, = mean radius of nozzle opening in shell (in.)
when the reinforcement areas are equal to or exceed the required area, primary
stresses have been restored to as near the unperforated plate as possible. 4, : nominal thickness of nozzle (in.)

Each pressure vessel and piping code treats the calculation of the reinforce-
I I.4 REINFOR.CEMENT LIMITS
ment area somewhat differently and establishes both parallel and perpendicular
limits in different ways. A discussion of the reinforcement requirements for
As described in Section I 1.2 , the stress intensity factor for an opening in a shell several different codes follows.
or head is highest at the edge of the opening and decreases away from the
opening (based on a shell wall with constant thickness). When the effective
thickness is increased, as happens with added reinforcement material, the ever-
Example 11.3 A cylindrical pressure vessel that is 60-in. ID by 6-in. thick
contains a nozzle that is 12-in. ID by 3-in. thick. What is the stress intensity
age stresses are lowered. Limits of reinforcement are set parallel and perpendic-
factor at the reinforcing limit that is parallel to the surface of the vessel?
 I r.4 RqNtoRctMENT tlMlrs

Solution. The two horizontal limits are set by the larger of

d:12in.
0r

T, + T^ + O.5d =6+3+ 0.5(12) : 15 in'

The limit is set by the 15 in. from the nozzle centerline.

The stress intensity factor is obtained by using Eq' 11.5 to give

",:Xlo. '(*)' . '(iJl = l rkn I

Problams

11.4 If the new reinforcement limit in the vertical direction were based on
r/r = 5 instead of r/r = l0 that was used to obtain the present limit of
2.5T,, what is this multiplying factor in terms of T^ for r/t = 5?

Ans*ert The vertical limit is 1.74?1, based on the limit of r/t = 5'
11.5 For an allowable stress of 15,000 psi, what is the maximum design
pressure permitted for an rft = 5 based on the circumferential stress
formula given in the ASME Code, VtrI-l?

Answer: Based on the circumferential stress, the maximum design

pressure is 3260 Psi.

i t.l. t Reinforcemenl Rules for ASME, Section I

The rules for reinforced openings in ASME, Section l, Power Boikrs, permlt
using the replacement of both area and ligament efficiency provided certain
limits are met. Ligament rules may be used for repeating pattems of openings
provided the maximum diameter of any hole in the pattern does not exceed a
diameter determined from Fig. PG-32 of Section I. This figure is a plot of the
following equation with limiting values of K between 0.5 and 0.99:

Ti+Tn+o,td
a,,, =z.ts{WJr-x) (11.10)

with the limits of 0.5 < K < 0.99.

Figur. I1.8 Reintorcomsnt limits porollsl to she'l sur{o.6. p= intemal design pressure of maximum allowable working pressure
(psi)
348
3IO OPTNINOS, NOZZTES, AND TXTERNAI. TOADINGS I I.4 RTINFORCEMENT TIMITS 35I

4nn" : msximum alkrwable diameter of opening (in.) 3. Except for hemispherical heads, formed heads have dlD
= 0.25 Bnd
d^* : 2-in. NPS, which is the same as for cylindrical shells.
D, = outside diameter of shell (in.) 4. For hemispherical heads, the actual center-to-center distance in item I is
fl = nominal thickness of shell (in.) met. The value of K is one-half the value of 1( as determined bv Eo.
11. 14.
S= allowable tensile stress (psi)
5. For formed heads, d,- of Eq. 11.10 is met.
For shelfs designed to PG-27.2.2.1 of Section I,
Size and. Shape of Openings
K:
- 1.6 s?iP?' (1 l. l1)
The shape of the opening when these rules are applicable is limited to circular,
elliptical, or obround where the ratio of the large-to-small dimension is < 2.0.
For shells designed to PG-27 .2.2 of Section I, When the ratio is ) 2.0, special requirements may be necessary to resist any
twisting moment. For shapes other than those above, a special analysis or proof
test is required.
r=
-- PD" (t|.r2)
1.82 St No limitations are set on the size of an opening by Section I rules. However,
the rules in the text are limited to the following sizes:
N o Reintorcement Re quhe d
l. For vessels 60 in. and less in diameler, the opening shall not exceed
The rules for openings in Section I contain proyisions for single openings when 0.5 D or 20 in.
no calculations are required to prove the adequacy of the shell. No calculations 2. For vessels over 60 in. in diameter, the opening shall not exceed 0.33 D
are needed for a cylindrical shell when either of the following is met: or 40 in.

l. d /D < O.25 arrd d^* = 2-in. NPS. When these sizes are exceeded, suggested rules place the available reinforcing
2. d* = maximum diameter using Fig. PG-32. area close to the opening.

For openings in forrned heads, no calculations are required to prove the ade-
quacy if all of the following are met: Required Area of Reinforcemenl

The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the
1. Actual center-to-cenier distance between openings is less than I where
center of an opening is given by

A+B
L= 2(r (11.13) A = dt,F (r1.15)
+ K)
where d = diameter of opening (in.)
r = --!2:-
-- (1 1.14)
1.82 S?: t, = minimum required thickness of seamless shell (in.)

A and B : diameiers of adjacent openings (in.) f = 1.0 except that Fig. PG-33 may be used for integrally reinforced
openings, where permitted,
D, = outside diameter of formed head (in.)
F=0.5(cos'z0+l) (11.16)
{ = nominal thickness of formed head (in.)
Other terms are the same as for Eq. 1 1. 10. For torispherical heads when the opening and its reinforcement are within the
spherical part t, is the minimum required thickness for a hemispherical head
2. The edge of one opening is no closer than I to the edge of the adjacent when the radius is equal to that of the spherical part of the torispherical head.
opening. For a 2 : I ellipsoidal head when the opening and its reinforcement are within
352 OPININOS, NOZTLES, AND EXTERNAT I.OADINGS I I.4 REINFORCEMENT IIMITS 353

ucirclc of 0.8 D, ,. is the nrinimum required thickness fbr a hemispherical heud

when the radius is equal to 0.9 D.

Limit of Reinforcement Parallel to Shell

The limit of reinforcement parallel to the shell measured on each side of the
opening centerline is the greater of (1) / or (2) T, + T, + 0.5d.

Limil of Reinforcement Perpendicular to Shell

The limit of reinforcement perpendicular to the shell measured either inward or

outward from the surface is the smaller of (l) 2.5 T, or (2) 2.5 T" + T".

Available Area of Reinforcement

If the thicknesses of the shell and nozzle are uniform and the reinforcement area
does not extend beyond this uniform thickness, the following formulas may be
used for determining the available area of reinforcement. However, if the open-
ing and its reinforcement extend into areas with different nominal thicknesses Figorc tt.9 binfo.cing requirom6nb for mlltiple oPnings. (courles), Americdn so.i6tv of r{e.honicdl
and different minimum required thicknesses, these formulas are not applicable. Ensin€€rs, Froh fig. PG-38 of the ASME Code, S€crion l)

1. Area available in shell wall is the ereater of Example 11.4

Figure 11.10 shows a 66-in. ID steam drum containing five
different diameters and two types of nozzles. What are the nozzle reinforcement
At=(EL-Ft,)(zd-d) (11. l7) requirements? The design data are
or
Design pressure = 2875 psi.
At=z(EtT'- Ft,)(T'+n) (11.18)
Design iemperature : saturation at design pressure approximately 689'F.
2, Area available in nozzle walT is the smaller of Materials 70,000 psi UfS drum plate.
Allowable stress at safiiration temperature : 16,800 psi.
Az=2(T"-t,)(2.57,f (11.19) Weld joint efficiency is E : 0.95.
Nozzles are 3+in., 4 in., 5 in., 63 in., nd 24-in. ID.

Az: 2(7" - t^)(2.57, + T) (r 1.20)

Solution.

When two or more openings are spaced so that theil limits of reinforcement
1. Minimum required thickness of shell at E : 0.95 is
overlap, the combined area is used and counted only once. The spacing between
any two openings is to be not less than 1.33 4". For a series of openings in a x 33
PR 2875
pattern, the area between any two openings equals 0.7f' of the area obtained by ' sE - 0.6p 16.800 x 0.95 - 0.6 x 2875 .- -
multiplying the center-to-center distance by the required thickness as shown in
Fie. 11.9. use 6i in. plate
 I I.4 RIINFORCEMENT I.IMITS 355

a Using Eq. I L 10, the maximum diameter is

d
T"l d-^:2.75 \rr3t675x(i-r0.9 = 4.814 in.

--
b EX
The only single openings are 5 in. and 6{ in.;others are not considered
T^
single. Consequendy, all nozzles have the reinforcement area calculated
x x (see Table 11.2).
2X 6. All nozzles except the 24-in. ID nozzle are "set-on" type and calculated
together.
A B( D=LIMIT OF REINFORCEMENT 7 Reinforcement area required by Eq. 11.15 is

A, = dt,F : d(6.294)(1.0) = 6.294 d

8. Limit parallel to shell is greater of

d or T,+7,+ O.5d:6.75 + T.+ r

9. Limit normal to shell is smaller of

2.57, = 2.5(6.75) = 16.875 in. or 2.57,

10. Area available in shell wall is

ABCD-LlMll OF REINFORC EMENT

A, = (2x - d)(r" - t) = (2x - d)(6.7s - 6.294)
11.10 .,S.t-on,, ,,3€t-in,,
Figurc ond nozzles. A1 =(2X-dX0.456)

11. Area available in nozzle wall rs

2, Minimum required thickness of seamless shell is
Az:2Y(T^-t^)
PR 2875 x 33
' sE - o.6P t6.800 - 0.6 x 2875 =61!rrn
Tqble ll.2 Reinforcement Cqlculqtions for 3| in.,4 in.,5 in., ond 6f in.
3. Minimun required thickness of nozzle is Nozzles on o 66 in. /D Steom Drum

Pr rR75 r ,X= parallel Y= normal

'' sE - 0.6P 16,800 - 0.6 x 2875 6.'75 +
d A, T"
d T"+r 2.57, 2.5T, t,^ At Az A,
4, Maxirnum diameter of a single uffeinforced opening is determined as
3.5 22.03 1.8'75 3.s 10.375 4.688 t6.87s 0.334 7.8'7 t4.44 22.31
D, = 66 + 2(6.75y = 79.5 in. 4.0 25.18 2.125 4.O 10.875 s.313 16.875 0.381 8.09 18.53 26.62
5.0 31.47 2.5 5.0 11.75 6.25 t6.8'75 0.477 8.44 25.29 33.73
287 5 x 79.5
:
K from Eq. tt.tZ ls
,*, ,r-32r- l3 -ffifi;Js= r'tur 6.875 43.27 3.O 6.875 13.188 7.5 16.875 0.656 8.89 35.16 ,t4.05

K'- = 0'99 Area available is greater than atea requied and values of 4 that were assumed arc correct.

354
116 OPININOS, NOIZI.Is. AND EXTERNAT IOADINOS I I,4 REINIORCEMENT IIMITS 357

12. A 24-in. lD downcomer has "set-in" nozzle and calculates d/D =

Dattem of three fows on 3-in. centers and 4 5-in. longitudinal spacing, as shown
24/66 = 0.36 exceeds limit of 0.33D for vessels over 60 in. ID. Alter- in Fig. I l.l l. The design pressure is 500 psi at 700"F design temperature The
nate rules are also recommended.
allowable stress is 16,600 psi There is no corosion.
13, Minimum required thickness of a downcomer nozzle is
Solution
t- = 0.lm(12) : 2.289 in. use ?i : 5l in.
l. The minimum required thickness of the cylindrical shell is
14, Reinforcement area required is
PR 500 x l8 : 0.552 in.
A, = 6.294(24) = 151.06 in.2 " sE - o.6P 16,600 - 0.6 x 500
Limit parallel to shell is greater of 2. The minimum required thickness of the nozzle is

d: 24 in. or T,'t T, + O.sd = 6.75 + 5.25 + 12 = 24 n. 500 x 1.125 : 0.035 in.

16. Limit normal to shell is smaller of
sE - 0.6P 16,600 - 0.6 x 500

3. Deiermine the reinforcement limits based on Ts = 1.125 in' and f,. =

16.875 in. or 2.5/5.25't: 13.125 in.
0.188 in. Limit parallel to shell surface = X = 2.25 in. or (1.125 +
1.125 + 0.188) = 2.438 in., use 2.438 in.
t7. Area available in shell wall is
The limit normal to shell surface :
y = 2.57" = 2.812 in. ot 2 5n =
At = (2 x U- 12)(0.456) = 5.47 in.2
0.469 in., use 0.469 in.

18. Area available in r:r.rrzzle wall; wall extends inward for 6j in. as full
reinforcing limit oulward:

At = 2(t3.t25)(5.25 - 2.289) : 77.73 in.'2

Azz : 2(6.5)(5.25 - o) : 68.25 in.'?

2.25" diameter
19. Total area available is

At = Ar r A21 I A22 = 151.45 in.2 > A, of 151.06 in.2

20. Also, check 'tlose-in" limit. Determine limit parallel io shell as the
greater of

0.75d: 0.75(24) = 18 in. or T" + T^ +r= 24 in.

Because the parallellimit is the same for the "close-in" limit, the area
required of 0.674, is also satisfied without further calculations. I

Exrmple 11.5. Determine the minimum required thickness of a 36-in. ID

cylindrical shell based upon reinforcement requirements. The nozzles are
through-welded as shown in Fig. 11.9c and have 2.25-in ID on a staggered Fisur€ I l.l I Muliiple op€ninss in cylindricol lhell.
358 OPININOS, NOZILIS, AND EXTIRNAI. I.OADINGS I I,4 REINFORCEMENT IIMITS 359

4. Exnminc thc longitudinal plane l-2. Actual spacing = 4.5 in. parallcl ll.7 For triangular anangement of openings shown in Fig. I l.l I with oPen-
limits without overlap = 2x = :
2(2.438) 4.875 in., exceeds actual ings that are 2.25-in.lD, what is the minimum side length of a spacing
spacing. Therefore, limits ovedap and special rules apply. that forms a series of equilateral triangles?

A,= dt,F = (2.2s)(0.552)(1.0) = 1.242in.2 Ans#sr.' Minimum lensth of side is 4.631 in.

Ar = (?i - r)(spacins d) = (r.tZs - 0.552X4.5 - z.z5) =

Ar = 1.289 in.z I1.4.2 Reinforcemenl Rules for ASME, Section Vlll, Division I

Az - t^)(2Y) : (0.188 -
= (7, 0.035)(2 x 0.469) : 0.143 in., The rules for reinforced openings in ASME Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure
A' = A1 t Az = 1.432 in.z Vessek, arc similar to those for ASME Section L However, the rules for
reinforcernent are given as the main choice, with ligament rules used only as an
Asa = (0.552)(4.5X0.7 x 1.0) = 1.739 in.2 alt€rnative for repeating pattems of openings. Rules iue contained in both the
iext and the appendices. They are given for both internal pressure and extemal
A561s: (l.125)(4.5 - 2.25') = 2.531 n.2 > 1.739 in.2
pressure. The rules are essentially the same except that only 50% of the replace-
5. Examine the diagonal plane, 2-3. With a row-to-row spacing of 3 in. and ment area is required for extemal pressure assuming that the minimum required
thickness in each case is based on the appropriate formula and design rules for
a longitudinal spacing of 4.5 in., the diagonal spacing is + \,tr ZB
: 3.75in.,0 = tan-' 3/2.25.0 = 53.13.. With a spacing of 3.75in., both intemal and extemal pressures.
the parallel limit of 4.875 in. exceeds the actual spacing; therefore, the
limits overlap and the special rules apply. From Eq. 11.16, N o Reintorcement Re quiNed
F:0.5(cos2 0 + l) = 0.68 for g = 53.t3'.
Single openings in vessels that are not subjected to special applied loadings, such
A, = dt,F : (2.2s)(0.ss2)(0.68) = 6.30r
.n.,
as cyclic loading, do not require reinforcement calculations if the openings do
Ar = (4 not exceed the following size limits.
- r'r,)(spacing - d) = (1.125 - 0.68 x 0.552)
(3.75 - 2.25) = 1.124 in.2 1. In plate thickness of $in. or less, d,,. = 3-in. NPS.
A: = 0.143 in.'z 2. In plate thickness greater than;i"., d* = 2-in. NPS.
A, = A1 ! Az = 1.267 in.2 > 0.845 in.2
Size anl Shape of Openings
A14a: (0,552)(3.7 5)(O.7 x 0.68) : 0.985 in.,
The nrles apply to openings that are circular, elliptical, or obround. The latter
4567s = 0.125)(3.75 - 2.25) = 1.688.in., > 0.985 in.,
shapes often result from an opening in a curved surface or from a nonradial
6. The assumed values of T, = 1.125 in. and ?i = 0.188 in. are satis- nozzle. However, other shapes arc permitted when considered according to
factory. I u-2(e).
For openings in cylindrical shells, the rules in the text are limited to openings
Problzms of the following size limits:

11.6 What is the minimum required wall thickness (rounded uo to the next 1. For shells 60-in. and less in diameter, the opening is not to exceed 0'5 D
l/8 in.) of a t2 3/4-in. ID nozzle atrached to a 60-in. by 3.75-in. or 20 in.,
d
thick drum? The allowable stess of both the shell and nozzle material is 2. For shells over 60 in. in diameter, the opening is not to exceed 0.33 D
15.0 ksi. The nozzle is attached by a full penetration weld with comer or 210-in.
fillet welds with a throat of 0.7 ?i. The design pressure if 1400 psi at room
@mperature. When these size limits are exceeded, in addition to the rules in tle text, the rules
in Appendix l-7 are also to be met. These additional rules may require some
Answer: t-in = 2.50 in. reinforcement to be placed closer to the opening than required by the rules in the
360 oP!N|NOS, NOZZUS, AND CXTEnNAL tOADINOS II ,4 RETNIORCEMINT TIMITS 361

text. l.'tlr opcnings in sphcrical shells and lbrmed heads, the text rures are mer
by considering the use of reverse curves and conical sections where possible.
There are no specific limitations on size and shape of openings in spherical shells
and formed heads.

Required Area of Reintorceme nt

The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the
center of an opening is given by

A: dt,F (ll.2l)
where d = the diameter of the opening on the longitudinal plane of a
cylindrical shell or any plane of a spherical shell or formed head
(in.)
F : conection factor for pressure stress on plane being examined with
respect to longitudinal axis, as shown in Fig. 11.12. This factor is
applicable only to nozzles with integral reinforcement,
t, = minimum requked thickness of a seamless shell based on the
circumferential stress (longitudinal plane) or of a seamless formed
head with the following additional provisions:

1 When the opening and its reinforcement are totally within the spherical
part of a torispherical head, l. is determined using the hemispherical head
formula with both E and M = 1.0 (see Fig. t1.l3a).
2. When the opening and its reinforcement are in a cone, r, is the required
thickness of a seamless cone.
3. When the opening and its reinforcement are in an ellipsoidal head and
o" r;o 2oo so" aoo loo coo loo loo
Atb
eoP
Arrelr ol Pt.na wlih Loneitldltral
within a circle that is equal to 8070 of the shell diameter, r, is determined Fisur€Il.l2 Charr tor der€rmins F. (Courreiy Amsricon Socistv of l'lechonicol Ensine€rs, From Fis UG-37
using the hemispherical head formula for a seamless shell of radius K1 D , of d's ASME Code, Vlll-l .)
where D is the shell diameter and K1 is obtained.from Table 1 1 . 3 and as
shown in Fig. 11.130.
Limit o! Reinforcement Perpendicular to Shell
The value of t, obtained from any of the methods given above is used only
to determine the required area of reinforcement. The value of t" used to set the The limit of reinforcement p€rpendicular or normal to the shell measured either
minimum required thickness of the shell or head is based on the thickness inward or outward from the surface of the shell is the smaller of (1) 2.57' or (2'S
fbrmulas that consider all the design loadings and weld joint efficiencies. 2.5n+ L.

Limit of Reintorcement Parallel ta Shell Surlace Avaibble Area of Reinforcement

When the size of tle opening is within the limits in the text, the limits of When the reinforcement limits do not extend outside the zone of nominal wall
reintbrcement parallel to the shell surface measured on each side of the center- thickness of the shell and nozzle, the area available for reinforcement may be
line are the larger of (l) d or (2) T" + Tn + 0.5d. calculated by the following formulas:
 t62 OPININO!, NO! T!3, AND TXTIRNAT TOADINGS I I.4 REINTORCTMENT TIMITS

Tqble I 1.3'

D /2h 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.O

Kr l 36 1.27 l.l8 1.08 0.99 0.90
D /2h 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 l 0
KI 0.81 o.73 0.65 0.57 0.50
Required Area of Reinforcement
(a) rimits for forisphericat Head
The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the
center of an opening using rules l-7 is given by
0.8D = sneci
'1
A : 0.67 dt,F (l l.26)

Limit of Reinforcement Parallel to SheA

The limit of reinforcement parallel to the shell measured on each side of the
opening centerline is the greater of (1) 0.75 d or (2) T, + T, + 0.5d.

Limil of Reinforcement Perpendicular n Shell

The limit is set exactly the same way as for a nozzle that is within the rules of
(b) Limits for Etlipsoidaf Head
the text.
Figt r€ I L I 3 Dorerminorion of sp€ciol limirs ior determing t, to u!€ in roinfior€€rnenr colculations. Wlen any two adjacent openings are spaced so that their reinforcement
overlaps, the combined area is used, but is evaluated only once in the combined
area. The preferred spacing is at least 1.5d"", with 507o of the area required
between the two openings.
1. Area available in shell wall is the greater of
Example 11.6. Determine the reinforcement requirements of an 8 in. 1D
nozzle that is centrally located in a 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head. The inside diameter
41 =(2"d._d)(ET,_Ft) (11.22) of the head skirt is 41.75 in. The allowable shess of both the head and nozzle
or material is 17.5 ksi. The design pressure is 700 psi and the design temperature
is 500'F. There is no corrosion and the weld joint efficiency is E : 1.0. See Fig.
tu = 2(7" + T^ + 0.5 d) - d(ET, - Ft,) (r1.23) 11. 13. 1 for details of a nozzle.

2. Area available in nozzle wall is the smaller of

A,=(sDQ.-h) (r1.24)
+^' o.taq"
- T^r t'6

A2= 6n+2.5t"\(7.-t,) (11.2s)

When the size of the opening exceeds the limits in which
the rules in the text
apply' the supplemental rules in r-7 are used in addition to
the text rules. These
additional requirements follow.
Fisure I l.l3.l Deroils of nozzle in exomple I L6.
t6a oPtNtNo3, NOZZII3, AND tXTrRNAt" LOAD|NGS I t.4 RHNFORCEMENT UMI1S 365

Solullon ll. Total reinforcement available from head and nozzle is

l. The minimum required thickness of aZ: I ellipsoidal head without an A,: A1 'r Az: 1.960 + 4'805 : 6 765 in''
opening is determined from UG-32(d) of the A3ME Code, VIII-I as
Area provided = 6.765 in.z > area required = 6.040 in.'? If additional
PD 7oo (41'751 area is needed, use fillet weld area. I
zSE =-
- 0.2P= 2(17,sn x 1.0) - 0.2(700)
= 0.838 in.;

use 1.0 in. Example 11.7. Determine the reinforcement requirements for a l2-in.
x 16-in. manway opening. The l2-in. dimension lies along the longitudinal axis
t As noied in the definition of r, ro use with Eq. 11.20 and shown in Fig. of the cylindrical shell. The manway cover seals against the outside surface of
11.13.1, when an opening and its reinforcement are located in an ellio_ the opening so that the opening nozzle is under intemal pressure' The ID of the
soidal head and within a circle equal to 80Zo of the shell diameter, ,. to shell is 41.875 in. Both the shell and manway material have an allowable tensile
be used in reinforcement calculations is the thickness required for a stress of 17,500 psi. The design pressure is 700 psi at a design temperature of
seamless sphere of radius K1D, where D is the shell ID and E for a 2 : I 500'F. There is no corrosion and the joint efficiency is E = 1.0' Details are
ellipsoidal head is 0.9 frorn Table 11.3. For this head, the opening and shown in Fig. 11.14.
reinforcement are within 0.8 D = 0.8(41.75) = 33.4 in.
3. Using the spherical shell radius of R = K tD = 0.9(41.7 5) = 37 .57 5 n. Solution
in the hemispherical head formula gives
1. The minimum rcquired thickness of the shell is found from
!' = = PR = -
PR 7oo (37.575)
= u. /f)
2SE - 0.2p x _ rn. 700 (20.938)
2(17,500 1.0) 0.2(700)
-t=-=sE -PR0.6P (17,500 x 1.0) - (0.6 x
":'::-
700)
= 0.858 in.:
4. The minimum required thickness of the nozzle is use 1 ln.

,^= PR' 7OO (4) 2. The minimum required thickness of the nozzle is obtained as
'- sE - 0_6P = (17,500
x 1.0) - 0.6(700)
= 0.164 in.
700 (6)
!. Limits paraUel to head surface = X = d or (T, + T, + r), whichever rs ', : --!lo-
sE - o.6P
= (17,500 x 1.0)
- (0.6 x 700)
= 0.246 in.:
larger. X = 8 in. or (4 + | + t.125 = 6.125 in.); use 8 in. use 1 i in.
6. Lirnits perpendicular to head surface i s y = 2.57, or 2.52,, whichever rs
smaller. y = 2.5(1) = 2.5 in. or 2.5(1.125) = 2.813 in.; use 2.5 in.
,|
Because the limit of 2X = 2(8): 16 in. is less ihan 33.4 in. of item 2
above, the provision of the spherical head may be used.
E. Reinforcement area required following Eq. 11.20 is

A, = d+F = 8(0.7s5)(1.0) = 6.040 in.,

-a-
9, Reinforcement area available in head according to Eq. 11.21 is

A1 = (ET, - Ft)(U - d) = (1.0 - 0.755X16 - 8) = 1.960 in.,

10. Reinforcement area available in nozzle according to Eq. 11.23 is

ABCD=Limit of Reinf
Az= 57"(7, - tJ = 5(1.0X1.r25 - 0.164) = 4.805 in., Figure ll.l,1 12 x 16 Monwoy op€nins detoils for exompl€ l l 7.
 OPININOS, NOZZUS, AND TXTERNAI. I,OADINOS I r.4 RflNFORCTMENT UMTTS 367

3. Uxuntinution ol thc longitudinal planc where t' = | .0 is determined tiom is 70O psi at a design temperature of 500'F. All joints are fully radiographed with
Fig. l l.12. t joint efficiency of E : 1.0. There is no corrosion.
Limits parallel to shell, whichever is larger:
Solutinn
d: 12 in.
+ T, + 0.5d : 6+ 1. The minimum required thickness of the cylindrical shell from Example
T, 1 + 1* = S+in. 11.7 is
Limits perpendicular to shell, whichever is smaller:
t= 0.858 in.: usel in.
2iT, = 2.5(r) = 2.5 in. 2. The minimum required thickness of the head is
2+r": z.s(1.25) = 3.125 in.
PL 700 x 20.938
O.zP 2x x 1- = 0.420 in.;
Reinforcement area required by Eq. 11.20 is zSE - 17,500 0.2 x 7W
A,: dt,F : use I in.
12 (0.858X1.0) = 10.296 in.2

Reinforcement area available in shell by Eq. 11.21 is 3. The minimum reouired thickness of the nozzle is

Ar = (ET" - Ft)(2x d) = (r Pr 700x3

- - 0.85sX24 - r2) = 1.7s4.o.2 t =-=
" 17,500x1-0.6x700 =
0.123 in.;
sE - o.6P
Reinforcement area available jn nozzle wall by Eq. 11.23 use o! in.

At = 57,(7, - t,,) = S(t)(1.2s - 0.246) = 5.020 in., 4. Limits parallel to vessel surface, whichever is the larger of
Azz = 57,(7, - t^) = 5(1)(1.2s - 0) = 6.256 ;n.z
d. = 6in.
Total reinforcement area available:
or
At = At + A^ + An = 1.704 + 5.020 + 6.25O-_ 12.974 in.2 T, + T, + 0.5d= I + 0.75 + 3 = 4.75in.; use6in.

Area provided of 12.974 in.2 ) area required of 10.296 in.2 5. Limits perpendicular to vessel surface, whichever is the smaller of
4. Examination of circumferential plane where F = 0.5 from Fig. 11.12
gives the reinforcement area required by Eq. 11.20 as 2.5T, = 2.5(1\ = 2.5 in.
or
A,: dt,F = 16 (0.858)(0.s) : 6.864 in.2
2.5f": 2.519.'lt, = l'875 in.; use 1.875 in.
If the arc length of l6.4in. is used,A, = 7.036 in., Either of these areas
is less than A. in item 3 and does not control. The longitudinal plane 6. Reinforcement area requhed by Eq. 11.20 is
conhols. I
A, = dt,F = 6(0.858X1.0) = 5.148 in.'z
Example 11.8. Determine the reinforcement requirements for a 6-in.
ID noz_ ,1
Reinforcement area available in shell and head by Eq. 11.21 is
zle that is located at the junction of a cylindrical shell and a hemispherical
head.
The entire opening is in the cylindrical shell, but ttre reinforcemlni
extends in
Dotn drectlons-some into the head and some into the shell.
The ID of the shell
At = (ET" - - 0.8s8X6 - 3) = 0.852 in.'?
Ft,, = (1
is 41.875 in. The allowable shess of all material is 17.5 ksi. The design pressure Arz = (ETt, - Fil = (l - 0.420X6 - 3) = 1.740 in.2
3e0 oPlNlNos, NOZZ|tS. AND TXTEnNAT TOAD|NGS I 1.4 REINFORCIMINT LlMlTs 369

E. Reinlorccnrcnt urea available in nozzle wall by Eq. I 1.23 is

Limilalions on Dimensians and Shape of Openings
Az: 5T,(T, - t') = 5(0.75)(0.75 - 0.123) :
.2.351
in.2 'fhe rules are applicable to circular and elliptical openings and to shapes of
,ft" iti of circular and elliptical cross-sectional nozzles' In
9. Total reinforcement available from shell. head. and nozzle is "p*i"gt "i "rsection
addition, the following limits also apply:
A, = Ar * Ao + A2 = 4.943 in.2, not enough 1. The ratio of the large to the small dimension of the opening is
limited to
1.5.
L0. Reinforcement area available in attachment fillet weld assuming leg
dimension of 0.5 in. is
2. d/D <0.5o.
3. Arc length between centerlines of openings is limited to no less than
43 = (0.5)'? : 0.250 in.'z (a) Three times the sum of the radii for formed heads and the longitudinal
axis of cylinders.
ll. Total including attachment fillet welds is (b) Two iimes the sum of the radii for the circumferential axrs
4, The rules shall be satisfied for all planes'
At = 5.193 in.z ) A, = 5.148 in.'? I limitations'
For all dimensions and shapes of openings that are not within these
design-by-analYsis is used.
Problems
Openings Not Requiring Reinlorcement Calculations
11.8 What is the minimum required thickness of the nozzle wall (rounded up
to the next ] in.) of an opening whose reinforcement is based on an Provisions are given for circular openings not requinng reinforcement
calcu-
available area from both the shell and the nozzle? The opening has a lations when ali the following requirements are satisfied:
15-in. diameter and is located in a cylindrical shell of 22-in. diameter.
The design pressure is 450 psi, the design temperature is 450'F, and the 1. Single openings with d*, = 0'2 V]4r and two or more openings within
allowable iensile stress is S : 15,000 psi. There is no corrosion. a clide- with a diameter < z 5 \/fu , the sum of the diameters is
< 0.25 \/Rt .
Azswer.' Required nozzle wall th'ickness is I in. Center-to-center spacing > 1.5( + d)'
2.
Center-to-edge of another local stressed area, where Pr is
greater than
11.9 Assume the nozzle in Example 11.6 is not centrally located in the 2 : I
3.
1. 1S-, is : 2.5 \/Rt .
ellipsoidal head. Instead, some of the reinforcement area extends into the
knuckle region. Is the available reinforcement area sufficient for this
condition? If not, how thick does the nozzle have to be?
Required Ana of Reinforcement

Azsrer.' Required nozzle thickness is ?, : 1.25 tn.

Thetotalcross-sectionalareaofreinforcementrequiredforanyplaneisgivenby

A: dt,F (1r.27)
I 1.4.3 Reinforcement Rules for ASME, Section Vlll, Division 2
where t, = minimum required thickness by either internal or external pressure
The rules for reinforced openings in Section VtrI, Division 2, are similar to those rules, as aPPlicable, (in.)
for Division 1 ; but there are some differences . Reinforcement limits and spacing F = factor depending upon the plane under consideration' 1 0 for
are based on the damping length of a beam on an elastic foundation. The rules formed heads and on the longitudinal plane' For nonintegral
are for either intemal or external pressure with no specific rules given for connections, F = 1.0 for all Planes'
extemal loadings or for fatigue. However, there are stress inlensity factors that
can be combined with the intemal pressure stresses to indicate the peak stresses
One-half of the required area of reinforcement is placed on each side of an
for fatieue. opemng.
 T7O OPlNINO8, NOZZ!Is, AND IXTERNAI" I,OADINGS

Llmll of Relqforcement Along Vessel lVall

The limit of reinforcement along the vessel wall measured

on each side of the
openrng when 10070 of the required area of reinforcement is
needed is the larger
of (l) d or (2) T, + T" + 0.54.
The limit of reinforcement along the vessel wall measured
on each side of the ,- 90 dca.
opening when two-thirds of the required area of reinforcement
is needed is the
larger of (1) r + 0.5 \Ar or (2) T" + f, + 0.5d.

Limil of Reinforcement Normal to Vesset Walt

The limit of reinforcement norrnal to the vessel wall measured

from the vessel
surface is equal to the following:

f. 11.15a and b, it is the larger of (0.5 \/riI, +

fo1-FiS.
(1.73x+2.5b+ n < 2.57, and, < L + 2.5t, n or
2. For Fig. 11.15c, when 45 degrees 2 0 > 30 Jegrees, it is rhe largerof
0.5 \Gn or Z.Stp) < 2.57,.
(L' +
. 30 degrees, it is the larger of .5 \/ffi +
Y"if 0 or e.73x 2.5t0)

3. For Fig. ll.15d, it is the targer of (0.5 \/r^I, + te) or (2.57., + t)

= 2.57".
In both expressions above, t" is not to exceed 1.5[ or 1.7317 where
I7 = width of added reinforcing pad.

For all cases, the terms and definitions are:

*= slope offset distance (in.)

0: amgle from vertical
I' : vertical length of tapered section
r^=r+0.57:
Metal Availablz for Reinforcement

The metal available for reinforcement is obtained from the

following areas
within the limits established:

l. Excess vessel wall thickness

1Lt
2. Excess nozzle wall thickness which is integral or attached by full_
penetration welds
3. Weld metal in fillet welds
ll.l5
Figur€ Deioil! for limir of r€inlorc€monr normol to vesrel woll. (Courtesy Anericon Soci6ty of
4. Pad attachment welds (where permitted) ,i..honi.ol Engin€€is: From Fis. AD-5,{0.1 of the ASME Code, Vlll-2.)

371
 OPININOS, NOZZTES. AND EXTIRNAI IOADINOS I I.4 REINFORCEMENT TIMITS 373

Pads (where permitted) Required Area of Reintorcement

6. Metal from items 2, 3, and 4 meets the following:
The required minimum area of reinforcement 4., is
l(aR - o.ilTl < 0.0008 (11.28)
Nozzles in Spherical
Value of
where rri = mean coefficient of expansion of reinforcing metal at design dl\/Rt, Nozzles in Cylinders Vessels and Formed Heads
temperature (in./in./'F)
<o.20 None, except 12 required None, except 12 required
av = mean coefficient of expansion of vessel metal at design >0.20 and 14.os(d/\/-k)1tz ls.40(d/\/RDt/2
temperature (in./in./'F)
< 0.40 - 1.811dt, - 2.41fdt,
Af = temperature range from 70'F to design iemperature or lowest to >0.40 0.75 dt, dt, cos g, O = sin-\(d/D)
highest temperature, if greater ('F)

Limits or Reinforcing Zone

Strength of Reinforcement Metal
Reinforcing zone limits and reinforcing area are given in Fig' 1.1'16' Figure
1. 1.0 > &/,tv > 0.80.
11.17 shois the acceptable transition details. In order to use this altemative
2. Adjust area by S./Sn not to exceed 1.0 method of determining the reinforcing area, all provisions of the procedure are
met,
where S, = allowable stress of nozzle material at design temperature (psi)
Sy : allowable stress of vessel material at design temperature (psi) Example 11.9. Determine the reinforcement requirements of an.8-in- ID noz-
zle tha:t is centrally located in a 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head. The inside diameter of the
Alternative Rules for Noule Design head skirt is 41.73 in. The allowable stress of the head material is 20'5 ksi and
of the nozzle material is 21.6 ksi. The design pressure is 70O psi and the design
As the result of an extensive study for the PVRC5, it was determined that within temperatme is 50OoF. There is no corrosion. See Fig. 11 18 for details ofnozzle'
the restrictive limits and rules that follow, a nozzle can be designed that does not
have 100% replacernent of an area but has the nominal strbss essentially main-
tained. Solutinn

1. The minimum required thickness of the 2 : 1 ellipsoidal head using Fig'

Limitations AD-2O4.1 of the ASME Code, VIII-2, is determined as follows:

1. Circular cross section is perpendicular to surface.

which siue. : o.ozt
2. All integral construction use specified comer radii. ; = ;* = 0.034 |
3. Edge+o-edge of openings - 2.5 \/Fi. I = 0.9D = 0.9(a1.75) = 37 575 in.
4. Material has tfslfs > 1.5.
5. Design is within the following dimensional limits:
t = O.OLLL = O.o2l(37 .575) = 0.789 in.;
use 1.O-in. thickness
Formed Heads
Limit Cylinders and Spheres t Using AD-201(a) of the ASME Code, VtrI-2, the minimum required
thickness of the nozzle is
D/t 10-200 l0-250
d/D 0.33 max. 0.50 max. P 700x 4
= 0.132 in.; use 1{ in. thickness
d/\/Dt 0.80 max. 0.80 max. s - 0.5P 21,600 - 0.700
 374 oP!N|NOS, NOZZ|tS, AND [XT!RNA| TOAD|NOS

v.x.r 416, Nod.r

bl A.inlo.d.r Zar. Li'ir

ltl Lc- OSas li / RPI3R
fo. nozrld in cylin l.ic.l.h.th

l2l La ' 128 k./ 213|Bh/a+g.'tI

for notrl.3 in h.dt

(3) Th. c.ni.r or l. or L, i! .r llr. ionct!.. ot rh. ourrldr

rorl.clr ol th! .hdl r.d .02116 of rhicknt.r, ...nd a',

{a) l. condrudioff whr. th. .o.. bosfthry p.$6 rhrollh

. unilorm rhictn!3r mll r.gh.nr, th! .on. born.Lry m.y !a
.on3id.r!d.31. o.l, through !h. thi.ln'.i
Cylindric.l Sh.llr

lll H.lch.d'..3 r.pr .nt !{.il.blc rlinlorc.hanrr..,a.. rr = o.ltro 0.5.

| > rh. tfEer ot r.41 \/A; o. tn
l2l M?r.l .1.. whhin rh. ronc bou..hry, in |rc.$ ot tha.raa '
torhcd bV ri. inr.rildion ot th. b.!ic rh.[r, rh.l ba conrida.ad n ) the tz,sr otl.,/E7i6li,z] or lol9oltn
.! conrrabutin! ro th. ..qut.rl &.., Ar, Th! b.jc th.[!.,r rr ) rtre targe. of I t - JitEil x 1.41 \,6
drtimd .r h.vi.g iniid. r.di!! ,, thictn rt a, inrkt! r..liv. ,,
or tl - l0l90,1 x l./21
= {0' /90)r
l3l Th. .vriltbl. r.'nldc.rn.nt .rx,4. ih.|tl b. .r t..tr
.qo.l to I,/2 on ..ch rid. ol rh. norrlaornr.r ti...nd in rvaw 0 " <45deg.
end0'
d.m co.r.iniq rh. nor2l..tir.

{.1

Fisurc ll.t6 Limits of reintorcine zone. (Courrely Amgrkon Sociory of rnechonicot Ensine€rs: From Fis. Figuro I I . I 7 Nozzlo d6tqil. 60r u3€ of olr€rnorive rul€t. (Courl$v Arnericon Soci€ry of tn€chonicol Engineers'
560.,{-l of the ASME Code, V t-2.} From Fig. AD-560.IJ of {'s ASME Code. Vlll2.)

3. Limits parallel to head surface are:

(a) For 1007o or required reinforcement area:

X=d or (f, + f" + r) whichever is larger

X=8in. or (4 + 1+ 1.125) = 6.125in.; useX:8in.
(b) For two-thirds required reinforcement area is the larger of: T-1.o"
- o.'1a1"
X' = r ! 0.5 \/ R^t or (T + T, + O.sd)
X' : 4 + 0.5 \,{3S.07sXD = 7.085 in. or 6.125 in.;
use X' : 7.085 in. Fisure tl.l8 Detcils o{ 2,1 ellipsoidol haod os givm in exomPl€ ll.9'

375
116 OPININOS, NOZZTES, AND EXTERNAT IOADINOS
I I.4 REIN'ORCEMENT I.IMITS 377

4. Linrits nonlul to hcud surlucc, the lurgcr ol'

Fig. I l tor
and the design temperature is 500"F. There is no conosion. See 19

Y:0.5\/r^h + K or 1.73-r + 2.5rr,+ K.< details.

2.57, and < L + 2.5h Solutian

v = o.s r{+s6rttll25) + 0.25 = 1.383 in. or
1. Strength ratio is, = D.a/?-0.5 = 0.946.
= 0 + 2.5(1.125) + O.25:3.063 in. < 2. Using AD-201(a) of the ASME Code, VIII-2, the minimum required
2.5(l) : 2.5 in. and < 4 + 2.5(1.125) = 6.813 in.; thickness of the shell is

usel=2.5in. pR 700 x 29.93_8_ -

t= S:ojp 20-500 -T3o00)- ''''o in..
-= 0.728 "'" use
""'
I in.
5. Reinforcement area required for

: : 3. Using AD-201(a) of the ASME Code, VIII-2, the minimum required

1ffi7o: A, dt,F 8(0.789X1) = 6.312 in.'z thickness of the nozzle is
?: A, : ?(6.312) : 4.208 in.2
Pr ,1oo I 9 =.=, :- u.zzu
o.22o\n.: u5 1| in.
6. Reinforcement available with 1007o limit is
,., = _ g.5p =
s lt70d= oJCdO ',r., use
A1 = (r, - t)(2x - dr: (1.0 - 0.789)(16 - 8) = 1.688 in.'? 4. Examination of the longitudinal plane gives limits parallel to shell sur-
face as:
7. Reinforcement available in nozzle wall is (a) For 100% of required reinforcement area:

Az = 2Y(7" - t^) = 2(2.s)(r.rz5 - 0.132) : 4.965 in.2 X= d or (f, + f, + r), whichever is larger
X= l}in. or (6+ 1+ 1.25) = 8.25 in.; useX = 12in'
8. Total reinforcement available form head and nozzle within 1007o rein-
forcement limit is (b) For two-thirds of required reinforcement area,

A, = Ar r,4z = 1.688 + 4.965 = 6.654 in.'? > 6.312 \n.2 X' = r 4 0.5\/R"t or (2, + I" + r) whichever is larger

9. Reinforcement available with two-thtds limit is x' = 6 + 0.5\Cl.438XD = 8.315 in. or 8.25 in.; use

: : (r - X' = 8.315 in.

Ay (7, - Ft)(2X' - d\ 0.789)(2 x 7.085 - 8)

= 1.3O2 in.2

10. Total reinforcement available from head and nozzle usins two-thirds
limit is

A, = Ar r Az = 1.3o2 + 4.965 = 6.267 in.2 > 4.208 in.'? I

Example 11.10. Detemine the reinforcement requirements for a 12-in. x
16-in. rnanway opening. The 12-in. dimension lies along the longitudinal axis
of the vessel. The manway cover seals against the outside surface of the man-
way. The 1D of the shell is 41 .875 in. The allowable stress of the shell material
ABCD=LirDit ot Rei.nforcemerlt
is 20.5 ksi and of the manway material 19.4 ksi. The design pressure is 700 psi
Figure 1t.19 Deloih of 12 x 16 monwoy op€ning in exomPle I1.10.
078 OPII{INOS, NOZZLIS, AND EXTERNAI. TOADINGS I I.4 REINFORCEMENT TIMITS 379

(c) For limits normal to shell surface, the larger of 5. In examining the circumferential plane, reinforcement area required ac-
cording to the ASME Code, VIII-2 is
y=05\/VJ+x or
A,: dt,F : 16 x 0.858 x 0.5 = 6.864 in.2
Y = 1.73x +
+ K Z.ST, and, < L + Z.Stp
=2.5te
y = 0.5\/6.625 x l2s + 0.25 = L698 in. or Using the arc length of 16.4 in., A. = 7.036 in.']Either of thetwo areas
is less than 4, in item 4d and do not control. Longitudinal controls. I
Y : 0 + 2.5(1.25) + 0.25 = 3.375 <
2.5(l) = 2.5 in. and < 3 + 2.5(1.25) = 6.125 in. Problem

usey=2.5in. 11.10 A 10 in. inside diameter nozzle is attached by a full-penetration weld

and comer fillet weld to a 48-in. inside diameter as shown in Figure
(d) Reinforcement area required for 11. 15b. The shell maierial is 5.4-266 Class 1 carbon steel and,the nozzle
material is SA-182 F304 stainless steel. The design pressure is 1250 psi
l0o7o: A,: dt,F + 2t"t,(1
- f) at a design temperature of 500'F. What is the required thickness of the
shell, nozzle, and pad (if required) to satisfy the reinforcement require-
A"=12x0.728x1+2x1.25 x 0.728(1 _ 0.946) ments?
= 8.834 in.,
Answer: shell, { = 2.5 in.
+ A, = 4$.834) = 5.922 in.2

(e) nozzle, To = 0 375 in'

Reinforcement available with 1007o limit:
Pad' t" = l'375 in'
A1 = (1 - 0.728)(24 - 12) = 3.264 in.2
I 1.4.4 Reinforcement Rules for ANSI/ASME 83l. I
(f) Reinforcement available in nozzle wall:
Ruies for welded, reinforced connections according to ANSVASME 831.1,
outward: 421 = 2(2.5)(1.25 - O.2n)e.946) = 4.872 in.z Power Piping, are similar to the rules for reinforced openings in the ASME
inward: A22 = 2(2.5)(1.25)(0.946) = 5.9t2 in.2 Code, I and VIII-I. The following requirements give the basic considerations.

(g) Total reinforcement with l00qo limit is N o Reintorcement C altulalians Re quired

A, = A1 * Ar + A:z= 3.2& + 4.872 + 5.912 = 14.048 in., No calculations for reinforcement are required when the following limits
are met:
At = 14.M8 > A, = 8.834 in.,

(h) Reinforcement available in shell with two-thftds limit:

1. Connections made from fittings that have a standard pressure/temper-
ature rating established.

A' = (l - x 2. d^:2-in. NPS with tn6 > Schedule 160 pipe.

0.728r(2 8.315 - 12) = 1.259 in.2
3. d/D < 0.25.
(i) Total reinforcement with two-thftds limit is 4. Standard fittings of extra heavy or Class 3000 rating.
At = At + Aa + An = 1.259 + 4.972 + 5.912 = t2.O4O in.z Limitations. Angle between branch and run or nozzle and shell is between 45
A, = lz.MO > A, = 5.922 in.2 and 90 deerees.
 r.4 llMlt3 3tl
3t0 optt{r],tot, NoTztlt, aND txrrRNAl loADlNos
r RHNFORCIMINI

Notatlons and Dsnnltlons. (Sce Fig. 11.20)

a = angle between nozzle and shell (degrees)

D, = outside diameter of run or header (in.)
d1 = (D" - 27,) /sin o(in.)
dz = horizontal limit of each side of centerline, which is the larger of dy or
T, + T, + 0.5/, but not more than D, (in.)
1 = perpndicular limit : 2.54 + t, (in.)
Required Area of Reinlorcement

The lotal cross-sectional area of reinforcement required for any plane through the
center of an opening is given by

A,: l.o7t^hdlz - sin d) (rr.29,

which for a : 90' is

A, = l.o1t*dl (1 1.30)

Avoi.lable Area of Reinforcement

The total area available for reinforcement is the sum ofAl + A2 + A3 + A4 +

45 where each area is determined as follows:

Ar=(2dz-d)(7,*t,,t)
t, I

. zl(n - t'h)
(11.31)
T;
A1 ---------1-- (rr.32)

A3
=

= area
sm(I
of fillet welds
-T
Aa : arca of reinforcing rings, pads, and so on.

A5 = area of saddles
i a Ar.! A3 - rilld *ld dll't
F.di6d 6lnro6m..t.r!.
Reinlorcement Zone N^N jml[mt a& A4 - ncor In rin!, prd. or Ini.s.l
N' a6. at -.rc6wdl l. h.!d. dinro,c.d.nr tNol! {2ll
br.nch l@' ar. 45 - m'ttt in td'!t doc tun
f Au A2 -.rcF wttl in
The limits of reinforcement are formed by a parallelogram with sides of d2 on B3l l (Coud$v Americon Soci€tv of rn€chonicol
fislr6 I I .20 Dim€nlions ond not'otions for ANSI/ASME
each side of the nozzle centerline and an altitude of Z perpendicular to the shell
Ensinosru, From Fis. 1O'1.3.1D of ASMBANSI B3l'l )
surface.
2. Try to limit centerline spacing to 1 54" with at least 50% of area

Multiple Openings between oPenings.

Example 11.11 A steam pipe has a 24-in' inside diameter with

a design
The following should be applied: tem-
oressul of Z5OO psi and an allowable stress of 14,500 psi at the design
pera$re. A branch ptpe wtrn an rnside diameter of 8 in connects at an angle of
l. Overlapping area shall be counted only one time.
 | 1,4 RflNloRclMlt{T tl,ulTs lu
980 OPININO!. NOZZ[!S, AND IXTIRNAI toADlNos

Notatlone and Deffnltlons. (See Fig. 11.20)

a = angle between nozzle and shell (degrees)

D" = outside diameter of run or header (in')
dy = (D. - 24,)/sin o(in.)
dz = horizontal limit of each side of centedine, which is the larger of d1 or
T, + T, + 0.5d, but not more than D, (in.)
1, : perpendicular limit = 2.5T^ + te (in.)

Required Area of Reinforcement

The total cross-sectional area of reinforcement re4uired for any plane tbrough the
center of an opening is given bY

A, = l.o7t,,hdt(2 - sin d) (1r.29)

which for a= 90o is

A, = l.olt*dr (11.30)

Avaihble Area of Reinforcenent

The total area available for reinforcement is the sum ofAl + A2 + & + +
45 where each area is determined as follows:

At=Qlz-d)(T"-t*)
^
(11.31) ;rI
t,
. zL\T, - t*)
Ar- = -_---:--

A3
sln a

= a'.ea of fillet welds

(rr.32)
-T
A+ = nrea of reinforcing rings, pads, and so on.
A5 = arca of saddles
rNvFr.diDdorntor6n.nr.n!iaa..!43-lilltt'|'!ldm'itl
Nv 4llD!l!II' eor aa - nrot in ri.s, p.d, or l.t trl
Reintorcement Zone N' a6. a1 -.'..sEll i. h..rL dinror.m.nr lNoa {2,1
42 -.r6.Mlt an bEnch
l@' atle a5 _htnt innddttdd!run
f aE
The limits of reinforcement are formed by a parallelogram with sides of d2 on Figur. I I.20 Dimaffions ond nolotions for ANSVASME B3l l
(Court$y Americon Soci€tv oI tt€chonicol
cach side of the nozzle centerline and an altitude ofl perpendicular to the shell Ensim€rs. From Fig. 104.3.1D of ASME/ANSI B3l'l )

surl'rce.
2. Try to limit centerline spacing to l 54" with at least 5070 of area
between opemngs.
Mulliple Openings
a design
Thc folkrwing should be aPPlied:
Example 11.11 A steam Plpe has a 24-in' inside diameter with
psi stress of 14,500 psi at the design tem-
-"r.ui" of 2500 and an-ailowable
an angle of
l. Ovcrlapping area shall be counted only one time' ;;;;;.; ;;-.fi pipe with an inside diameter of 8 in' connects at
?82 OPININOS, NOZZITS, AND EXTERNAI. TOADINGS I I.4 REINFORCEMENT IIMITS 383

o = 75'.'l'ho br&nch is &ttached by a lull-penctrutit)n wcld that is radiographed

Padrequirement: l7-in. OD ring x 0 75 in thick
so that E = 1.0. Determine the thickness and reintbrcement requirements.
Nozzle attached to shell and pad by full-penetration welds' I
Solutinn
Problem
l. Determine the minimum required thickness of the run pipe as follows:
ll.lllfthenozzlewereattachedattt=g}",whatthicknessisrequiredfor
PR 25oo x tr the pad, if anY?
t', = = 2.308 in.: use 4 : 2.5 in.
Sf=-06p Answer: I in. thick Pad

2. Determine the minimum required thickness of the branch pipe as follows:

I I.4.5 Reinforcemenl Rules for ANSI/ASME 83l '3

t* Pr 2500 x 4.0 Plant and

=
Sn _ oSt, = 0.769 in.: use 4, = 2.0 in. The reinforcement requirements for ANSI/ASME B31 3, Chemical
Petroleum Refinery Piping, are similar to the requirements for ANSVASME
S31. t and for Section Vtri, Dini.ion 1. Rules are given for branch
connections'
3. Area required for reinforcement according to Eq. 11.29 is
oi no""l"., which are attached to run piping, or headers' Differing ftom other
,"info.""."nt minimum requiled thickness of the branch piping
, the
A,: 1.07(2.308\(8X2 - sin 75') : 29.43s't.z is measured on the outside thickness of the piping' The area
"ul"ulations
anJ tne tun piping
thickness as
4, available foi riiniorcement is the remainder of the piping's nominal
Horizontal limits of reinforcement are the larger of
shown in Fig. 11.21.
d=8in. or 4+ nI r = 2.5 + 2.O + 4 = 8.5in.; use8.5in.
Limilations of Geomew
5. Perpendicular limit of reinforcement is as follows: Assume a 0.75 in.
thick pad is added and attached by full penetration welds that are exam- The angle between the nozzle and header is restricted to those intersections
ined. where tle acute intersection angle B is equal to 45" or more'

L = O'75 in' Limitalion When No Reinforcement Calculatians Are Required

L= 2.s7i, + t" = 2.5(2) + 0.75 : 5.75 in. 1. Standard fittings that have pressure/temperature ratings determined'
2. Standard fittings not exceeding 2-in. NPS that have d/D
< O'25 and a
6. Area available for reinforcement is
pressure rating of 2000 lb or more.
: 3. Integrally reinforced connections that have been proved adequate by
Ar (2x8.5 - 8X2.5 - 2.308) = 2.880 in.,
tests, calculations, and use.
2(5.75\(2 :-o 7691
4, =
sln /J-
= 14.656 n.,
Nomenclature
A, = (0.5)'z= 0.250 in.'?
ra = (2x8.5 - 8 - 4)(0.75) : 3.750 in.,
4 = opening size in run or header (in')
dz : horizontal limit on one side measured from the centedine of the open-
A, = At * A2 + A3 + Ac = 21.536 n.' > A, = 20.430 in.2 ing (in.)

Shell requirement: 24-:lr.. ID x 2.5 in. thick l+ : vertical limit perpendicular to header surface (in')
Nozzle requirement: 8-in. ID x 2.0 in. thick F: acute angle at intersection (degrees)
Fillet weld requirements: 2 with 0.5 in. legs required thickness of header (in.)
,,, =
 I L4 RllNrgRcltllllr I Llmlrt

g--t:- Requireil Area of Reinforcement At

For intemal Pressure,

(1 1.33)
6
'o Ar = ttdrQ - sin F)

For extemal Pressure'

E

. thd(z - sin B)
ar: (11.34)
-----T-
\,
3 The horizontal limits on each side of the centerline
of the
E Horizontal Limits.
nozzle is the larger of
t2 '6- 1
6!l ic d1 or T1+4+05dI
t;- I
i.- I
12
ie: I

<{ but not more than D1,.

IaE
:;e
fa
---{--J_ 9a the shell is
g'E Vertical Limits. The vertical limit measured from the surface of
E'6
l *r i
I
the smaller of
E-i (in')
I (t E8 2.5T, or 2.57b + 4, where 4= pad thickness

96 Areas Available for Reinforcement A2, Aj, and Aa

En
i +i
s9 Excess thickness in header or run ,42 is
5a
z6 (11.3s)
A2: (2d2 - d)(Th - th)
q:
I
Excess thickness in nozzle or branch A3 is
9i
ii'6
.
a^
2L4(Tb - tb) (11.36)
=
sin P
.l
metal is weaker than
In other metals available within limits Aa, if reinforcement
;;r-;i;;,J,,h" area available for rcinforcement
- is reduced by Sn/Su'

Reinforcement Zone. Excess area within the following is considered accept-

-iii:,
4 = nominal thickness of header (in.) ut La, wtrl.;e La is measured perpendicular to shell surface'
"
t6 = required thickness of branch (in.) to be followed:
Muttipte Openings. The following cautionary rules are
?i = nominal thickness of branch (in.)
D6 = outside diameter of branch (in.)
1. Center-to-center distance of at least 1'5du"'
2. At least 5O9o of the total required area between the openings'
D,, = outside diameter of header (in.)
384
rrc optt{tNot, t{ont|t, AND tXTlRt{Ar toADtNOS
I I.5 TIGAMENT EFFICICNCY OF OPENINGS IN SHCLI.S 3A7

Oxnmplc I l. 12. An tt in. NpS Scherlule g0 bronch (nozzle) is attached

at right
angle to a 20-in. NPS Schedule 40 run (header) with a full penetration
weld with
5. Determine the areas of reinforcement as fbllows:
fillet weld cover. The allowable stress is 13.l ksi. Design pressure is 600 psi Excess in run (header):
at
a.design temperature of 900.F. Determine the reinforcin-g requirements
size, if required.
and pad
Ar : (?.125)t0.519 - 0.450) = 0 492 in'z

Sohrtion Excess in branch (nozzle):

l. Determine actual and minimum required sizes at the branch run inter- Ar = 2(1.095)(0.438 - 0.194) = 0.534 in '
section as follows:
In fillet welds:
4= (0.s93)(0.875) = 0.519 in.
Ao = 2(r()2: 0.063 in.2
{, = (0.s00)(0.875) : 0.438 in.
th: PD/2(SE + py) = (600 x 20)/2(13,100 + 0.4 x 600) Excess area in Azr Az + Ao = 1.939 in'2 This is less than '4r; con-
sequently, a pad shall be provided. Determine the thickness of pad based
= 0.450 in. on the pid extending to the horizontal limits of reilforcement'
b= Pd/2(SE + PY): (600 x 8.625)/2(13,100 + 0.4 x 600) Il
(7.r25)H = 3.206 - 1.089; = 0.297 in.
= 0.194 in.
Assuming f, = 5116 in. determine minimum pad width'
Fillet weld size is the lesser of 0.7?i or i in.;

0.7(0.438)
(2w - 7'r2s)(0'3125) = 2'117
= 0.306 in.; use fillet weld,ir" = | in.
W = 6.95 in. Use 14 in. x 5/ 16 in. pad.
2. Determine the horizontal limits of reinforcement from the following,
whichever is the greater: 45 = (14 - 7.125X0.3125) = 2 148in2
d1 = (8 - 2 x 438)/sin 90" = 7.125_in. opening size Available area of reinforcement in A2 + A3 + A4 + As = 3 '237 in''
dz = (0.519) + (0.433) + 0.5(7.125) : 4.519 in. or This is greater than A1 and therefore is satisfactory'

d2 = it : 7.125 in.; use d, : 7.125 in. It may be possible to obtain more refinement and a thinner or narrower plate by
reevaiuating the vertical limits by setting T,
: 0 312 in and by including the
3. Determine the vertical limits outer fillet;elds if they lie within the horizontal reinforcement limits' This
of reinforcement from the following, recalculation may reduce the pad thickness and/or the pad width However, a
whichever is less:
14-in. by 5/16-in. pad is satisfactory. I
L4 : 2.5(0.519) = 1.298 in. Problem

or 11,12 For the construction in Example 11 . 12, what is the maximum allowable
working pressure when the allowable stress is increased to l8'8 ksi?
Lq = 2.5(0.438) +0: 1.095 in.; use Za = 1.095 in,
Ansper.' MAWP = 880 Psi
4. Determine the reinforcing area required according to Eq. 11.33 as fol_
lows: I 1.5 Ligomenf Efficiency of Openings in Shells

In addition to the method of reinforced openings for compensating for metal

41 = (0.450)(7.125)(2 - sin 90.) = 3.206 in.,
removed at openings in shells, there is the method of ligament efficiency The
318 oP!N|NOS, NOZZUS, AND TXTTRNAL TOAD|NGS I I.5 TIOAMENT EIFICIENCY OT OPENINGS IN SHEITS 389

cos2 0 + I
(11.37)
ligoment el'licienoy method considers the loarJ-carrying ability of the area bc- intensity of tension on any plane
tween two points in relationship to the load-carrying ability of the ligament
reTltlilg when the two points become the centers of two openings. In thc : sin d cos d
intensity of shear on any plane ( l 1.38)
ASME Code, only the shell plate is considered; however, Lloyd;s Rulis6 permit
some help from integrally attached nozzles.
The basic method of diagonal ligament efficiency for application in thc total rension _ cos, g + l(p,4) (11.39)
ASME Code was developed in 1915 by Black and Jones oiihe Babcock & z
Wilcox Company, which was published in 1920 in the Marine Engineer's A. ,-,
sin A cos
Handbook.T ln 1975. a limit design analysis was used to examine suesses ln a rotaf shear: *\p'T,) ( 11.40)
perforated cylindrical shell.8 This limit analysis was further developed for
ASME Code application and used to update the original code rules. The rules
and curves are still given in several sections of the ASME Code and several The stress factor for tension for any section of the ligament is obtained by
foreign codes that determine the ligament efficiency used in the cylindrical shell dividing the total tension by the cross-sectional area of the ligament. The shess
formulas. factor for bending for any section of the ligament is obtained by dividing the
The ligament efficiency curves apply only to cylindrical pressure vessels bending moment of the section by the modulus of the section. The bending
where the circumferential lension (stress) has twice the inbnsity of the longi- moment is the product of the total shear multiplied by the distance between the
tudinal tension (stress). Once this was established, Rankine's Eilipse of Streis section considered and the point of contraflexure, which is the plane passing
was used to determine the iniensity of lension and of shear on any diagonal through the centers of the openings. The distance is Y in Fig. 11 22'
ligament. This is shown in Fig. 11.22. The total tension and the total shear are
ottained by multiplying the intensity of tension and of shear, respectively, by length of ligament : L = P' - \/F=4 (11.41)
the diagonal pitch between openings and by the shell thickness, as ixpressed by (rr.42)
bending moment = (6161 shear)(I)
the following equations:

section modulus :+:tg-P (11.43)

The stess factor fot tension is determined as follows:

cos20+ 1 (p'T,\
"'^ 2 lp'-\/d2-4Y'z)T,
(11.44)

The stess factor for bending is determined as follows:

sin 0 cos 0 (11.45)

Sa=
Ie' - t/F - +-qv'f la
The total stress factor for both tension and bending is the sum of the stress factors
for tension and for bending. When the curve was originally developed for the
ASME Code, the maximum total stress factor was found by tial by calculating
the shess factor at several sections between the sections through the centers of
the two openings to the plane that is tangent to the edge of the openings. Table
I1.4 shows a sample of this calculation to determine the maximum factor for a
particular angle ;ith the longitudinal axis 0 values of p' /d and a shell plate
Figur. I1.22 Diogonol ligoment!. thickness I.
390 OPININOS, NOZZITS, AND EXTERNAI IOAOINOS I I.5 TIGAMTNT Eff ICIENCY OF OPENINGS IN SHEIIS 39I

Undcr the sponsorship of the Pressure Vessel Research Committee, an exten- The lowest factor is used to calculate the minimum efficiency for the angle 0
sive limit design analysis of perforated cylindrical shells with uniform patterns being examined.
ofopenings was completed. This limit design analysis was used to determine the
upper and lower bounds of limit pressure. A 2 : 1 ratio of stress field was
considered and the shell plate curvature was not included. From this analysis, efficiency : -l- = O'437 : 43 7vo
2.29
the basic lower bound equation was develooed into
Examplell,l3. Determine the minimum required thickness of the shell given
I + cos2, - d/P\4 +-5io?n in Example 11.5 using the ligament efficiency rules.
PLqb = 2 (11.46)
1+3cos20
Solution
For application in the ASME Code, the equation was rearranged so that the
diagonal efficiency term was expressed as p' /d, a number equal to or greater 1. Determine the longitudinal efficiency based on the longitudinal spacing
than 1.0, and the efficiency was expressed as a whole number. The equation for of 4.5 in.:
code use is
I'= A\-2)5
E=r ^'- -:::------:j::: O {0f)
/"-^ a\ p' 4.5
sec2 o + I - I "':;YI\A + sd2-7
-'- \P /d|
0.015 + 0.005 sec2 0
(1r.47) 2. Determine the equivalent longitudinal efficiency from the diagonal effi-
ciency using Eq. 11.47 as follows:

Calculations of minimum ligament efficiency was determined by examining

various planes between openings at different distances of I as shown on Fig- 0=53.13" d=2.25 l=w sec0:1.667
I1.22. An exanple of the calculations based on the original ASME Code work
is given below. It has io be repeated for different values ofp ,/d and for various sec2 53.13' + 1 - (sec 53.13)/1.67\,6 + s-7 51ly
EVo =
angles 0:
(1.667)2 +| - (r.667 / r.6T\/t + Q.667f
known data: d= 4 in.; s = 6in.;0= 35.;I = 1in. EVo =
@ = 47 .59?o

calculated dnt^: p': s/cos d = 6/cos 0 = i.32-in.f; =ffi = t.AZ

3. Determine the minimum requAed thickness using the equation of UG-
27(c)(l) from the ASME Code, VI[-l, as follows:
ToblE | 1.4
t = sE PR
500 x 18 :
- oip =
r'164 m'
I,ength C3oo;04i6 -10=.ox-500
and Total Section Total Bending Tension Bending Total
Area Tension Modulus Shear Moment Factor Factor Factor This thickness of , = 1. 184 in. is based on the shell thickness only with
no contribution from the nozzle. I
o 3.32 6.12 1.84 l.'t2 r.E4 I .84
0.50 3.45 6.12 1.98 1.72 0.86 r.77 o.43 2.20 Problems
0.75 3.62 6.12 z.t8 |.72 1ro 1.69 0.59 2.28
0.90 3.'15 6.12 2.34 1.72 1.55 1.63 0.66 2.29 11.13 What must the angle between two openings for the longitudinal and
d be
1.00 3.86 6.12 2.48 1.72 1.72 1.59 0.69 2.28 diagonal efficiencies to be equal when the longitudinal spacing is 4.5 in.
1.50 4.68 6.12 3.65 t.'72 2.58 1.31 0.'t I 2.O2 and the opening diameter is 2.25 in.?
2.00 7 .32 6-12 8.93 1.72 3.44 0.84 0.39 1.23
Answer: Angle with longitudinal axis is 0 = 54.1'
 I I.6 IATIGUE EVAI,UATION Of NOZZTES UNDIR INTERNAI PRISSURI 393
392 OPININOS. NOZZIES, AND EXTERNAI. TOADINGS

ll.l4 ln Problem ll.l3, what is the circumt'erential spacing for the samc
where R = inside radius of shell or head (in)
conliguration'l r = inside radius of nozzle (in)
Answer: The circumferential spacing is 3.108 in. 4 = nominal thickness of shell or head (in)
D. : mean radius of shell or head (in) = 2q * t
P = intemal design pressure or pressure range (psi)
I I.6 FATIGUE EVALUATION OF NOZTES UNDER INTERNAL
PRESSURE I : stress index for various locations (see Table 11'5)
o, = normal stress in plane being examined (psi)
When a fatigue evaluation is required, it is necessary to determine the peak
stesses around the openings. The current methods are the stress index method, or = tangential stress in plane being examined (psi)
experimental 0ests and measurements, or a theoretical analysis procedure such o, = radial stress in plane being examined (psi)
as a finite element analysis. The stress index method is the easiest method and
is allowed by the ASME Code, III-1 and VIII-2. The stress index method was 11.14. A cylindrical shell that is 36-in ID by 2'5-in' thick contains
Example
developed from reviewing a large amount of experimental and analytical data that is 4-in. ID by 0 75-in thick' The design pressure is
a perpindicutar nozzle
determined in a program conducted by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee .
td00psi at a design temperature of 450'F. The vessel is subjected to cyclic
The stress index method pennits easy calculation of peak stresses at the analysis is requircd' Peak stresses and- str-ess concen-
operation and a faiigue
nozzle-shell or nozzle-head intersection without resorting to any complex anal- noi known for the specific geometry to be used' What method
dation factors are
ysis. The stress index method gives conservative results; and if the exact multi- peak stresses for a fatigue analysis?
can be used to evaluate the
pliers for a specific geometry are known, they should be used. Essentially, the
nominal stress in the shell or head is multiplied by the stress indices and the peak
Solutian. At the intersection of the nozzle to the shell, peak stresses are
shesses are obtained.
obtained according to Eq' 11.48. The nominal stress is determined
as
The peak stresses are determined from the following equations where the
shess index I is multiplied times the nominal shess. PD^ + 2.5)
_ : _ 1900(36
= 14.630 psi
For spherical shells and formed heads: " 2T, 2(2'5)

.PD. (11.48) The peak stresses are determined as follows using the factorc for stress
index I
from Table 1 1.5:
For cylindrical shells: Longitudinal Plane Transverse Plane

Outside Inside Outside

o= t.PD. (11.49)
Stress (psi) Inside
n Hoop stress +45,350 + t7 ,560 ,630
+ t4 +30 ,720

lrngitudinal stress - t q10 + 14,630 - 2,930 +38,040

Toble I1.5 Stress lndex / Radial stress - 1,900 0 - 1,900 0

must be
These values are the peak stresses due to intemal pressure only and
Cylindrical Shells
Spherical Shells and on the shell for
Formed Heads LongitudinalPlane TransversePlane combined with other peak stresses occurring at the same location
a.fatigue evaluation. I
Problem
- (r/R)
2.0 2.o - (r/R) 3.I 1.2 1.0 a1
-o.2 2.O - (r/R) -0.2 1.0 -o.2 z,o 11,15 A reactor vessel is 5 ft. 0 in. inside diameter with hemispherical heads'
qr -4r"/D^ 0 -2r"/D^ 0 -27"/D. 0
: The design pressure is 450 psi at 650'F The allowable stress of the
 OPININCS, NOIZI-TS, AND IXTtRNAt TOADINGS
I I.7 TXTTRNAL IOADINGS

vcsscl is 17,5(X) psi. l'hc hcatl and shcll rrc nradc ol.rrinirnurn
thickncss
r)alcritl roundod up to (hc ncxt I in. Thc vessel is operated undcr ir Extcmal loadings cunsidered by W/?Cl arc longitudinal nx)r)lcnt, tr nsvcrse
r)lorncnt. torsional moment. and axial fbrce. Stresses at various locations on thc
cycling conditkrn.so.that a fatigue analysis is n"""r.ury. It is necessary
inside and outside surfaces are obtained by combining the stresses from variuus
to place an 8-in. inside diameter by l-in. thick nozzle, in the vessel.
Is offects. This involves considerable "bookkeeping" that WRC 107 developed t<r
the peak stress less in the head or in the shell at the nozzle junction
and help alleviate. Once the stresses are obtained according to WRC, they must be
what are the values ofpeak shesses at the maximum location in
ttre treaa combined with intemal pressure stresses to determine the overall stresses.
and shell? Thin-wall equations are used.
Bijlaard's original problem was finding the effects of structural supports on
a cylindrical shell. This initial work considered the radial loads and moments
Answers: oFar = +48,510 psi in shell over a flexible, rectangular loading surface. The initial treatment of nozzles was
an approximation based on a rigid attachment without the effects of nozzle wall
o''.*, = +27,220 psi in head
flexibility. Bijlaard extended this work to spherical shells based on a shallow
shell theory and considered both solid (rigid) attachments and nozzles with
I I.7 EXTERNAT LOADINGS flexibility parameters. Usage of the rules is generally limited to D/, between 10
and 200 for cylinders and between l0 and 250 for spheres. Usage is also limited
When extemal loadings are applied to nozzles or branch piping, local saesses to d/D oI about 0.33 for cylinders and 0.50 for spheres. However, depending
are generated at the nozzle-shell intersection. Several typis of ioading upon other parameters, the value of d/D nay go as high as 0.60 for some
may be
applied, such as sustained loadings, transient loadings,- ind thermal cylinders. A limit of 0.80 is also applied to the value of d/YD^T for both
flexibility loadings. Sustained loadings are continuorisly applied and "*paniion cylinders and spheres.
combined
with iniernal pressure, such as dead Ioads. Transient loadings are applied for The curves in WRC 107 are related to certain parameters at the intersection.
a
short period of time, such as earthquake and wind loadinls, pressure fluctu_ The two important parameters are the shell parameter and the attachment param-
ations, and water hammer loadings. The thermal expansion Ioadlngs are eter. The different applications on spherical and cylindrical shells follow.
caused
by potential axial growth of piping from temperature expansion.
-the
. When external loadings are applied to nozzles,
the nozzle and the shell or
stresses are generated in both Spherieal Shells
head. Although the stresses in thJ nozzle are both
membrane stresses, which are acting upon the entire nozzle cross The shell oarameter is
sectlon, and
local membrane stresses, which are aciing through the nozzle wall thickness,
present analysis procedures are available only for the general
stresses without r0
resorting to some procedure such as a finite element -analysis. These general
procedures usually have a way of applying a stress intensihcation
facto; (SIF)
"
:t :
..fn;r (11.s0)

that predicts the local stresses in the nozzle. The stresses generated in
the shell
or head adjacent to the nozzle are-focal stresses. A proce-<lure for determining
For a square attachment, the shell parameter is
the_se local stresses is given in detail in Welding Reseirch
Cor,rncji, Bulletin Nol
ttJ7 "
c1
It
"= (l1.sl)
| | .7.1 Locol Stresses in the Shell or Heod o.875\-RJ
Although a considerable amount of theoretical development work on local
strosses in shells from external loadings was conducted ind reported by p. p. In the attachment parameter for all solid attachments, no parameter is needed.
iiJyalff'r in the early 1950s, it was not until rhe Welding Risearch Councit For a hollow cylinder (nozzle),
ff
IlulldinNo. 107 was issued that all the miscellaneous inforriation from Bijlaard
and others was put into a concise form for easy use. The range of (11.52)
usige is
rcslricted by limitations on various parameters,'but it is infinitily better
than
t
anything before WRC 107 was issued. Currently, experimental and
theoretical T
work is being conducted to extend its useful ranse. (1 1.53)
I
396 OPIN|NOS, NOZZLES, AND EXTERNAI I.OADINGS I t.7 EXTERNAT T.OAOINGS 397

l.br a hollow squure, proper values must be read carefully because it may be necessary to interPolate
not only from line-to-line but from curve to curve. The values on adjacent charts
(11.54) do not always increase or decrease in a consistent direction. Computation sheets
0.875t are given for:

T Figure 11.23. Solid attachment to a spherical shell

(r 1.ss)
't
Cylindrical Shells

The shell parameter is

v, ._ to. '- ,/l;r =-
p
1:: (1 1.56) t,/Ri =-

The attachment parameter for both solid and hollow is for a cylinder

e=o8i:. (r 1.57)

For a square,

= where cr (1 1.58)
*g
For a rectangle

C!
F, R.
c2
B, R^

If

t,, u=
f' -*(f; -'),' - n)\/e,k 01.5e)

If
Co}.IOIN,jD S?RESS INTDNSII1 - S

t. r,
l ) Hhcn r I o, s - I rrI:L-lL!j-$-c--[.!qi it u r" 4f 4ith:r \
K))\/e,e, s - l/2 lox+oy ! llox - ay)2 | at2 Jot r'tax - oyl' ' 4r'
u=
[' - i(' - f;),' -
(1r 60)
2) r,then t = o, s = largest absolur. ndgnitudc of either
s - dr, oy or (ox - oy)
Using these parameters and the curves given in WRC 107, stresses may be Figure 1'1.23 Computotion sh€.t for rigid onochment to.Phericol shell. (Courr.sy Welding Reseorch Council,
calculated at the inside and outside surfaces due to the various loadinss. The WRC Sulloiin lO7. A',s'Et 1965,)

I;
 F-igure 11.25. All attachments to a cylinclrical shell
Figure 11.24. Hollow attachment to a spherical shell T

Mt
Mc
GF6atfia Pc?omalcra M" o
L Appliod Lootir'
p 't T=- Rh v!
g.;=
Rodiol looC,
CirG. l5h. hl, ROUND
Long. Xolttl, |lL:-i6. lb.
-15. ATTACHMENT
l. Appl,cd Loodr'
e=-lb.
3. Gemrtric Poromctcrr
Tonica f,oronl. lr =-_i^.
vc -- -in.fb. lb.
lb. P to.orsr*.-
Rod,ol Lood,
Shror Loqd, vt2_lr. . z .*
"_ : =- thocr Lccd,
Slcr Lcod, VL --lb.
v, r -
an.lb.. 02
Shcor Lood,
Ovc.terning Mom.nr, M, '- 2. Goaary
OvGrturhrng Moarcnt,
lorrronol Momcnt, i: -lb'.- ,'j# =- Vorrrl thicllorr,
Arccharat rt,dlur,
T,
aCg 'NOTE: Enrrr cll fcrco volvcr in
-
-if.lbr: 4. 5t.a3r ConcGnt.oiion
dua lcl
Focfora Yorrol odior. Rn: -an.
-rn.
a^. cccordoncr rilh aign co'vcition

SfngSSfS - il locd i. cPgotilc

CYLINDRICAL SHELL
rhot ;ho-n, t'9nr 3hM
- "vc?t'
rncnbrono lcod, ;,, rL 8L Cu CL DL
=- Fig lor rlrarr ohd anlar tlagll ' Eu
bending lood, Kb a-
NOTE: Entc. oll torcc voluor in 3c or x6_ (n /Nd\
t- rh /l
?

occsrdoncc wrth rign convGnlion cc ?/2,a \?/ lnl =

STRESSES - il lood ii cpporilG rhor rhown, rcvcrtc tignr rhorn lC or ro f,b |
/rd\ 6P
t l- +
Frcm Rcod <urv Conpvtc obtolvtc volcer ol
2C- I F- -
I
l2 =
fr g.

5P-l to l0 Xrl
lor alicrr cnd antar ratull ' AU L 8u BL €u CL Ds
!A
,.0
t ta^26 -
_ -"(""ft)'#= f t-

F *^ (s,')'? = rd t- t-
IA
rc/ tnE
T *'(ts)' *l= F + + f -^(-#)'#
N,r\r/E;T\
ta -= xo
IL,/ tra6l
= I P
5r4- | ro l0 N,rfiiT
ilt ^'\T/ /
'' r r

= f + I I or
It-r
r9
IL/ trlt
/ 16\
t5l-l
\nzr-B /
6fL
r-Prr - + +

x.r/T;T la.lili \ 6*{, Adi rlgoltiolly

\ M, /i'- r.y'nnl =
xb t- f + of { rroror.od
|.. .r6dro
*

@ / x,rlr/ffii\ r,
+ +
3C or
-g-
? t?,a
.. (*,)' -! r
Ht \ t 7'ii7ffi= ac -

u.y'Ti.'i 1r-,{ffi \ 6M:

lc-1 rr (3).8 ta =
+ f I
+ or 2C F r/ \

Add olgcbroicolly
tt \
lo, .ummol;on of r, r,
rr /
I :
fr{R6f
I +
ffiE'
ir
*(#)'#?' I t
t At \ +
lP- I ro l0
+ /xvT\
\ P /
?
T?
2A
tr
J.c/l,aP
xr\;ta,B-'l' 6l{c
itffi
IL
=
I

It
T -'(+) ';l ' # + + t a
_E! r
rL/litp '"("-fo)' ;;EF - t +
., +
3lr-l to l0 xyrr/if
Bl
-"\T/'iffi=
xrr,r/-.i\
7 r,
f .t-
---{a
2t-l
A- olgrleially
rllrrp -
f.t D.-tl-
"(""+-r'#= +

ol | $tott.lCt €
xyrr/EiT
r.,
+ f 5br lror
ro l*rio, I
Jo
rrlr < {rP ' =
l{t
2nc2o' + ? r f + t F t-
xrr/F;-i //Nrry'nhr \ r,
xt ""\--*l-/.ffi= .l- + lh-r dr.. ar.
ro ld, Yc T,+ =
"F
+ F

f
xv1fiiT
r *'\;;_/.ffi=
7xyffii \ 6tr
f {- llorr rtnrr &r
r. l-4. YL
Trd =
YL
;;T
+

Add olgebroicolly lor rumnofion of rr Ala f-.*tl6

^halnlollt
at rb-r rtroaaar,ft
Sh.or.t..r.
ro lod. Yr
de.
fr t I r -s
=,+ of eithEl
Sh.o..tr..r de.
r, ofr7 f 1) o, s = lar@itudg
tJtren 'E I t
s = l/2 fo**o* ! /to* - o0)2 + 4t2 )or r'(ox - o4)d +
ro lood, Yt {- 4T-
:h.cr !tr.!. d!.
li --,7t- :*+- t r + + + + + I
2) Wtren T = O, S = largest absolute magnitude of either
Add ofgrbrorcolly lo' rua^ot,oa ol t . a
S = olr oO or (O* - 06)
COMBINED STRESS I}ITENSITY - S
(Courtesy Welding Reseqrch Council,
Figure I1.25 Computotion sheei for qfiqchmenis to cylindricol shell'
" 1"1",),* t3; -'", 1",1fifffi;?l'5'll'lli#,Fa WRC Bullefin 107, August 1965.)
2) Hhen t = Or S = largcst .,rbsolute rnagnitudc of either
S .' O-r qv or (o- - g.l .

Figvre 11.21 Computotion sheet for hollow otiochmenl to sphericol shell. (Courtesy Welding Reseorch
Council, WRC Bullerin 107, August 1965.)
399
398
4OO OPTNINOS, NOTZIIS, AND TXTTRNAL IOADINGS I I.7 IXTERNAL TOADINGS 40I

In addition tt) thc linritllions ()n tlrc gcorlrctty in thc anitlysis in MiC, thctc

arc othcr lirnitations. 'Ihis analysis detennines only the stresses in the shell or
head due to the extemal loadings and thus those from intemal pressure must bc
added to them. Because no nozzle stresses are determined by this method, they
must be determined by a separate analysis. However, engineers felt that when
the extemal loadings are applied to a relatively thin-walled nozzle, the highest
stresses may be in the nozzle. For thick-walled nozzles, it appears that defor-
mation is similar to a solid attachment and maximum stresses will occur in the
shell or head adjacent to the nozzle. Bijlaard's method indicated that for a
longitudinal moment, the maximum stress occurs on the longitudinal axis.
However, experimental results obtained in PVRC tests indicate that for larger
nozzles with ad/D = O.5 or larger, the maximum stress may lie somewhat off
from the longitudinal axis. Thus adjustments have been made to some of the
curves in l\lfiC Bulletin 107. In spite of these shortcomings, a reasonable
estimate of the stresses due to the external loadings is obtained by following
wRC lo7 .
Recendy, in considering certain PYRC work to extend the ueful range of
WRC 1O7 , J. L. Mershon concluded that within the range of its applicability, the
curves for loadings on a cylindrical shell could be reduced, for all practical
purposes, to an easier-to-use set of curves given in Appendix K. This set of
simplified curves practically eliminates the need to interpolate between various
curves in WRC 107 to determine the factors used to calculate the stresses. When
the simplified curves are used, it will still be necessary to combine the internal
pressure stresses and to develop a method of "bookkeeping" for the signs of the
various stresses due to different loadings.
The sign convention used with the Mershon method is identical to that of
WRC lO7, as shown in Fig. 11.25. The figure shows that stresses may be
obtained at the same locations. The relationship of the curves given in WRC and
the Mershon curves given in Appendix K is as follows:
^: -+L:
VD,"T
where d, = diameter of opening in shell (in.)
D^ : rnean diameter of shell (in.)
? = nominal thickness of shell (in.)
Because the ASME Code, VI[-l, has neither an acceptance criterion nor a
rnethod to classify stresses, the designer has to establish a method that is
acceptable to the Authorized Inspector. For guidance, the method in the ASME
Cod;, VU-2, may be followed by considering the differences in stress theory
and allowable stresses between the methods in VIII-I and VIII-2 This method
permits the designer to assign stresses into such categories as primary stresses'
iecondary stres;s, and peak stresses depending upon what loadings are in-
cluded.
Example 11.15, shell that is 84-in. ID by 1'0-in nominal
A cylindrical
thicknLss contains a nozzle S-in. ID by 1.0-in. nominal thickness' The design
pressure is 400 psi and the allowable stress of the material is 17.5 ksi' The nozzle
is subjected to an inward radial loading of 12,000 lb and an applied moment in
the longitudinal directionof 150,000 in.lb. What are the combined sttesses on
the lon-gitudinal axis due to these two extemal loadings using the Mershon
metfodand the curves in Appendix K? The vessel is not subjected to cyclic
loadiqg, and therefore no stress concentration factors need be considered'
Solution
1. The shell parameter is

Appendix K Figure WRC 107 Figures d^ _--:l0

A = ----:
yD^T = r.uo
K.1 11-,2A V(85X1)
K.2 3A, 4A t Using this parameter, the constants from the radial loading on the longi-
K.3 18, 18-1,28,28-l tudinal axis are:
K.4 38, 48
K.5 1C, 1C-l From Fig. K.5 M'/P = 0.127
K.6 2C,zc-l From Fig. K.6 Mo/P : 0.086
K.7 3c(l),4c(1)
From Fig. K.8 N,I/P = 0.160
K.8 3C(2),4C(2\
From Fig. K.8 N6T/P = 0.176
tor the simplified method, only one parameter is required in using the curves-
3. Using these constants, the stresses due to the radial loading are deter-
the opening-shell parameter of ,\, which is determined as follows:
mined as follows:
 OPTNINOS, NOZZTIS, AND IXTERNAI. TOADINGS
I t.7 EXTERNAT TOADINOS 403

as shown in Table I I .5. However, exact values may be used if available.

M, rrom p (bending) = 0 rr?[A18gu] : nrro o,' For this geomefy, assume the following values were determined:

M6 from p(bending) : 0 0861@5!qE] : oreo n,i

Lonsitudinal Axis

Membrane Bending Membrane Bending

N, rrom p (membrane) = 0.160142!9E] = uzo n,i u,( = oo, 1.40 +0.20 o"( = a) 0.70 -r-0.35

o'( = o) 0.80 +o.lo o,( = a4) 0.85 -f 0.55

N4 from p (membrane) : 0 1?6[%P] = zrro nri

400 x 85
s' =PD^ -
2T 2xl = l/'wuPsl
Using the parameter in item (1), the constants from the applied longi-
tudinal moment on the longitudinal axis are determined as follows:
E. The total cornbined shesses from htemal pressure and extemal loadings
are grven in Table 11.9. I
From Fig. rc.2 u,ft= o.tto
Example 11.16. For the cylindrical shell given in Example 11.15, determine
the stresses due to iniemal pressure and applied extemal loading by the method
From Fig. r.z uoft= o.tu in WRC Bulletin lO7 .

Solution
From Fig. K.4 N,H = 0.076
1. For the WRC method, the following shell-nozzle parameters are required:
FromFig. K.4 N6H:0.260
,5
B:0.875f;= 0.875 x a2r=
o.roz
Using these constants, the stresses due to the longitudinal moment are
R^ 42.5
determined as follows:
Y=;=i= 42's

M, ftom M2@ending) : o r?o =,r,r*

l(ffi#] 0,, The constants below are determined from various figures in ITRC and the
stesses determined as follows:
M5from M1(bendins) : 0 r04lqx!ggg] = e:oo n,i
From Fig. 4C l.l * J244- = 2060 psi
No/e/R^) =
N, ffom M L(membrane) = o.oze f !J!9'0{ll = | lao psi
L (luxrr I From Fig. zc-r M6/P = 0.088 x
q#"'q = 6340 psi
N5from M1 (membrane) = o.roof$lqll : :eoo pri
From Fig. 38 N6/@L/R,^B) = 4.5 x
@#ftffi--
Summaries of membrane stresses, bending shesses, and combined
stresses at various locations for external loadings are given in Tables = 3630 psi
I1.6. 11.7. and 11.8. M6 =or}4sx 6x 150,000
From Fig. 1B
(MJR^p) ""'"' (42.sxo.lo3XlF
_

n In addition to the stresses from the extemal loadings, the stresses from
internal pressue must b€ combined. These stresses may be determined = 9250 psi
 898 Y|56 88S s"qaR
-..i --t & oi ,.i 6 I \ct .d
I

+-: I
all+
f
I

O\FF'
8833
ldui di -i ,.i d
t':+
-t-
i++l

REB :5t516;6
O\:O
..r --i ..i
ttl +'++

s:8 €98
a" +- v1 \
\o^ v1 ..!
-i -i .i
ttl t$.1 +ll

o
e88
1o\\
o\ \o ar
o
.9 t++ +tl J +tl
o ,9
t o o
o o
2
o
t O\\OF = F:o\
o .9 o'
o t++ q
l++ +++ c..l | -! ol

o o o
ao 6
tt o 6 s
o f
aa B
o :H5 E
o
o oi ..i 'd o
tll c o
-o
o
t -o
o {,
o
ao
=o o =o o
t iO\Q F
q 1 ."1 vl b
o
b
o
NINI
c ttl tt.: t.icjtl
t f
I

in
f )
9 \ q
o
o.: \s @

o -g
Eonr

-o I9E
AF,.Y
-9
-o
o eeE -o
F
q
zlaF o
l-
::c-fi:
>oA.F
F

M 405
406 oPlNlNOs, NOZUuS, ANO EXTERNAT tOAD|NOS | 1.7 EXTIRNAI LOADINOS 407

Probhms
From Fig. t" h= 6.6 * -l?41 = l6eo psi
11.16 For the same vessel described in Example 11'15, what are the stresses on
the transverse plane when the applied moment is changed from a longi-
From Fig. tc-t + = 0.12s x
ai?rq = e000 psi tudinal rnoment to a transverse moment M": 150'000 in'lb and the
radial loading remains at 12,000 lb using the method in Appendix F?
150,000
4B
FrornFig.
Mfu= 1.3 x (42.5),(0.103X1) Answer: o6: Cu = -8180 Psi
1050 psi Cr. = +30,460 psi
6 x 150,000
From Fig. 28 M,/(ML/R^O = 0.072 x
(42.5X0.103X1F
Du = +33,280 psi
Dt = -6200 Psi
= 14,800 psi
4t Cu = -3550 Psi
3. Using the intemal pressure stresses determined for Example 11.15 and
combining then with these stresses gives: Cr' : + 19'970 Psi

oO
Du = +23,030 Psi

A7 BU BL
Dt = +47O Psi

Pressure mernbrane +23,800 +23,800 + 23,800 +23,800 11.17 What are the same results using WRC l0'l?
Pressure bending + 3,400 + 3,400
Answer: o4:' Cu : -7730
-3,400 -3,400
P membrane Psi
- 1,690 - I,690 - 1,690 - l,690
P bending - 9,000 + 9,000 -9,000 + 9,000 = + 31,150 Psi
C.
M1 membrane -3,630 -3,630 +3,630 +3,630
Du = +34'670 Psr
M1 bending -9,250 +9,250 +9,250 -9,250
Totals -880 +37,100 +24,880 +25,860 Dr. = -7050 Psi

o': Ct) = -2620 Psi

Cr = + 19,240 psi

or Du = +21.820 Psi

AU AL BU B1 Dz: +920 psi

hessure membrane + 13,600 + 13,600 + 13,600 + 13,600

Pressure bending I1.7.2 Stresses in ihe Nozzle
+ 1,700 - I,700 + 1,700 - 1,700
P membrane -2,060 -2,060 -2,060 -2,060 in the nozzle are calculated using the basic
The general membrane stresses
P bending -6,340 +6,340 -6,340 +6,340 equaUon
Mr. membrane - 1,050 - 1,050 + I,050 + 1,050
M1 bending - 14,800 + 14,800 + 14,800 - 14,800 _.P,M,,7"
_ (1 1.61)
Totals - 11,240 +32,960 +20,4ffi +5,460 A_ I J
4OO OPININOS, NOZILCS, AND EXTIRNAI I.OADINOS I r.7 txTCRNAt LOADINGS 409
Howcvcr, to utiempt to make some correction fbr local eflbcts, the bending
Example 11.17. A l2-in. NPS Schedule 160 branch and run pipe are attached
moments are adjusted by a stress intensification thctor. For piping thermal
to oneinother. The design pressure is 2200 psi. The allowable stress at ambient
expansion flexibility stresses in both the ANSI B3l.l and ANSI 831.3 Codes,
temperature is & = 17.5 ksi and at design temperature is Sl = 12'0 ksi' In
the procedure is as follows:
addition to the intemal pressure, the branch is subjected to externally applied
The sfess range, SE, is calculated by
forces and moments ftom thermal expansion of connecting piping. These mo-
ments and force are Mi = 600,000 in.-lb; M, = 900,000 in.-lbiMt = 750 '00,0
se - t/il a aP (0r.62)
in.lb; and F*iur = 90,000 lb. The nozzle is designed for 20,000 cycles Using
: the design procedure ofthe ASME-ANSI B31 I Code, what is the total applied
where S' M'/22 @si) stress and what is the allowable stress?
Mr= torsional moment (in.-lb)
Z= section modulus of nozzle (in.3)
Solution

Properties of 12-in. NPS Schedule 160 are D, : 12.75 in.; inside

and 56, the resultant bending moment, is
1.
itM)" + (i"M.)
ard : 80.5 in.2; metal area = 47.14in.z;z = 122.6in.3; t^ = 1'312
(11.63) ln.
z
where i1 : in-plane SIF from Table 11.10
i, = outplane SIF from Table 11.10
Mi : in-plane bending moment, (in-lb) 100
80
Flexibility {actor
M, = outplane bending moment (in.Jb) 60 'for elbows i = 1.65/i
40 ' Flexibilitv factor
lor miterc k = 1.52/h5t6
The allowable shess range 51 is 30 '
Stress intensif ication
'
lactor i =O.9lh2t3
x -Z 'Stress
r .r ||
20
lo =/(1.255" + 0.255/,) (11.64) N intensi{ication

where S" : allowable stress at ambient (cold) temperature (psi)

15

10
x 'tactor t = O-75/h213
l|
8
51 = allowable sfress at design temperature (psi)
.9
/ = reduction factor from Table 11.11 based on number of cycles
3
.\
The design is acceptable when S5 < 51. 2
\
lrngitudinal stesses Sa due to sustained loadings, such as pressure and dead
loading, shall not exceed S7,. When 51 ) .[, the difference may be added to the
t! 1.5

I
cl
I I
tf.
term 0.2551 in Eq. 11.57. This gives 1.00
0.75
,So :/[1.255" + 0.255, + (Sr - Sz)] 0.50 1 end flanged cr = i]
o.375 2 ends flanged c1 =i1l3
or o.25
s.t EE
oo E
o e
q:33 33:
o o
sA =/[1.25(s" + s) _.ir.l (11.6s) Characteristic t

which may be used in place of Eq. 11.64.

 rlr s
ll
,:f F "-
, |r
F_r .l rI. 1f
tLh
-Ill r$' rir. ,l
-ll- | I .!
IFH
.a',-n
lF.. tS
1r -1
frn-T|
I

1l't I (
rs -lf't I s
q
lms
t)t
ill,\
N ili@
o

W ilM
lIrJ H
g
e't rFi I rF,ls
E€o *lh :l {.- Jl{
rr-,.|s
#E .RIG
-i-
EIN
9l'
+l r,-rs
<f
+
It\
tFr
c adl
\t
rr-. | {
It\ l'> (,)l *l =r
rr.., I .n

+ -l- +
€'\ l< o\ l{ o\l{ o, lE
9X <i lt ol\ e l"t <i l!
o
g.F
o
oF. (.:9
dltli
o\ t{ o'lQ l{ o
dl\lt
o. o.
E
o !.) qli o.
ctl\
lE. o. o. lQ
ctl\ ..tF ct l\ ct lt cil\ c]
o rt) ot{
=
o

'=ll
E x .!s 9I's !a
€lsl;'
vr
i I'q
l;
rn
!
o

o
o !>r
c --&-
!-
E}?
3bX
.:
g E EE J{ A
-o
x
'Eo
61!.
lee
d0
E €E E"*ii"Eq
"E Ea
o
E S '^c
i 'r::

0 - TE 35F i - gSEFe"gE
;
d
F: €: 9€
eE -dsF Fi;-
€ ^.,* <;
e .i ltt

Es
-9
-o
B sY HH.t g;Ill
it .E
&,
I .bv
trl Fr' EtIigEtEEEFf
4r0 4ll
 illr€ tr I h

E;3
Ei E =
{
5
E

g
F"
5
Eg E E ; B*
3E
€;E 7
€r t €9c
i
E
g9
613
hF
2A

;: i gHE
E; r i.Ex*,+
€
p,B
'E I
E€ E Z.E.gEE }F €t

Es E E.F*€E
>!!
P.2
'*6
EOEE{ EE g E:.gCi
g.E E ssso; .E
gq 2-\
eltt-,
,-->
\tRl
ac a
sb E l!";:5 g
EE
€ra
E.Ets
E--R
q
+
o
E
Eg
{>r E
'{
9
5
E ir-a
c
o
o .9.
-E .s
EE EO E .9 -EE
6 F!
Jg; ET
di >, a.- o
9'x E
.E
>, *!€
.z .-' i'
o
o AE€ !E' * q
E *E €
E*c c$F ;
*;
.i;i ao .-' >i >-:--
,S I E .l- =6
E 3.3 €t
.i -t FF E e
c t\ 5fi
d"
at)
.9
o
ll'6 ?EH E:E ; t
'E
:H Hfr R H6 {lrF.
-e;
E
co Fei i:€ E g €
e; a 5 E --:-\
E9 d o o { la-

;BE iE; g i "a

E9 sg.E ".9 +
.s
p 5fi
;t €t
:€
sEd
Ec
6
--=-
t, $ig E iE, $*c :I gE E\€
*HE 3.8
E E$ €:
o
o r ;€ E E E
e
o *,t..tc 3b: s
E ; EE € 5 !
F
,s
5 ei
e 'Eq
o
o)
al €6fr
;$H;
igg'EiEiiiE€s A;EI iE€
I - .eE E E f
'EE ri E FBa ! L' ll.,l I l. $E
o x

.g
o
p
.EE Bfl
gESF EE€EI
F
.3 FE.E
Eg
?A EFs€ggg
412 4t3
1t1 ollt{lt{ol, f{ollt|t, AND rxil${ r KTAD|NO3 NO'rltNCtATURt 4lt
Tobb ll,ll Strcr-Rongr Rrductlon 7. Determine allowable stress range S,r:
Focl,oru ( f)
Cycles, rV Factor, / / = 0.8 for 20,000 cycles

7000 and less 1.0 Se = 0.8[1.25(17,500 + 12,000) - 3760] = 26,490 psi

Over 7000 to 14,000 0.9 Ss < S,{ design is acceptable.
Over 14,000 to 22,000 0.8
Over 22,m fi 45,ON 0.7
Over 45,0m b 100,000 0.6 Problpm
Over 100,000 0.5
11.1E An 8-in. NPS Schedule 160 branch pipe is attached to a 16-in. NPS
Courtgoy American Society of M€chanical En- pipe. The design pressure is 2000 psi, the allowable
gioeers.
Schedule 160 run
stress cold is S, = 17.5 ksi, and the allowable sfress at design tem-
perature is 12.0 ksi. The maximum allowable torsional moment is
450,000 in.-lb. The pipe is designed for 10,000 cycles. Maximum
2. Data at juncture from Table 11.6: allowable bending moments are set as equal, ff rounded up to the next
even 1(X) in.lb, what is the value of M. md Mi2

n=4 __ 1.312
R, 5.719 =n,r"n Answer: M. = Mr = 331,400 in.-lb

u:H=z.qo
n-'-
t = o.75i" + i = o.7s(2.$) + 0.25 = 2.05 (
3. Determine torsional stess:

NOMENCTATURE
s,=E=ffi=*oo.t
4. Determine the bending shess: Individual nomenclature is used throughout Chapter 11 and usually noted close
to where used. The following gives some general nomenclature:
2.05 x 600,000), + (2.40 x 900,000
Sa= : 20,770 psi p, or P = intemal design prcssure or maximum allowable working pressure
122.6 (psi)

5. Determine the stess range: F" : extemally applied axial force (lb)
n : extemally applied horizontal force (lb)
s" - !*|14 = \/Ao,nTT4@ - 2t,t7o psi
M6 = extemally applied bending moment (in.-lb)
6. Determine sustained longitudinal stress:
OT = total local stess at opening (psi)
s : allowable tensile stress (psi)
sL: ezu) nl4i: 3760 psi
:
D inside diameter of shell (in.)
 BIBI.IOGRAPHY 417
4 t6 OPTNINOS, NOZZtTS. AND TXTTRNAT I.OADINGS

"strcsscs liorl Radial Loads aDd Lxlonl l MoDrcnls in Cylintlrical I'r'cssttrc Vcs
d = insidc dianrctcr ol nozzle (in.) scls," Wtltlint: Journal, Vol. 34, Rcsearch Supplcncnt, pp 601ts-617s, 1955
: inside radius of opening (in.) -, "Computation of the Sbesses ftom Local Loads in Sphcrical Prcssurc Vcsscls or
Pressure vessel Heads," Wewing Research Council, Bulletin No. 34, New York, March
= distance from center of opening to point being examined (in.) ,l 195't.
-, "Local Stresses irr Spherical Shells from Radial or Moment Loadings," Weklirg
r, : nominal thickness of shell (in.)
14.
Joumal, Vol. 36, Research Supplement, pp. 24ls-243s, 1957.
T^ = nominal thickness of nozzle (in.) -, "Sresses in a Spherical vessel from Radial l,oads Acting on a Pipe," weldinS
Research Council, Bulletin No. 49, New Yo*, April 1959
= minimum required thickness of shell (in.)
-, "Stresses in a Spherical Vessel from Extemal Moments Acting on a Pipe," ibid , pp
3t-62.
= minimum required thickness of nozzle (in.)
17. "Influence of a Reinforcing Pad on the Stresses in a Spherical Vessel under Local
-,
l-oading," ibid., pp. 63-?3.

-, , "stresses in Spherical Vessels from Local Loads Transfe.red by ^ Pipe," Weditq

Research Council, No,50, pp. 1-9, May 1959.

- , "Additional Data on Stresses in Cylindrical Shells under Local Loading," ibid., pp.
l0-50.
-

REFERENCES

1. 'ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code," ANSVASME BPV, American Society of Me-
chanical Enginee$, New York, 1983.
2. 'ANSI/ASME Code for Pressure Piping B3l" ANSI/ASME 831, American Society of BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1980.
3. Harvey, J. F., Theory and Design of Modern Pressure Vessels, 2nd ed., Van Nostland
Reinhold, hinc€ton, N.J., 1974.
4, Rodabaugh, E. C., and R. C. Gwaltney, "Inside Versus Outside Reinforcing of Nozzles in
Ellyin, F., "An Experimental Study of Elasto-Plastic Response of Branch-Pipe Tee Connections
Subjected to lntemal hessure, Extemal Couples, and Combined lrading," wRC BulletinNo
Spherical Shells with Pressure Loading," Phase Report 117-7, January 1974, Battelle-
230, Welding Research Council, New York, September 1977.
Columbus Inboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Ellyin, F., "Elastic Stresses Near a Skewed Hole in a FIat Plate and Applications to Oblique Nozzle
5. Rodabaugh, E. C., "Proposed Altemate Rules for Use in ASME Codes," Phase Report 117-3,
in Shells," WRC 8llrrerln No. 153, Welding Research Council, New York,
Attachments
August 1969, Battelle-Columbus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio,
August 1970.
6, Rules and Regulations for the Classifcatior o/SiDJ, Lloyd's Register of Shipping, Irndon,
l98l. Ellyin F., "Experimental Investigation of Limit lnads of Nozzles in Cylinddcal Vessels"' wRc
BulletinNo.2lg, welding Research Council, New York, September 1976
7. Sterling, F. W ,, Marine E gi eers Handbook, McCtraw-Hill, New York, 1920.
Eringen, A. C., A. K. Naghdi, S. S. Mahmood, C. C. Thiel, and T. Ariman, "Stress Concen-
E. Porowski, J. S., W, J. O'Donnell, and J. R. Fan, "Limit Design of Perforated Cylindrical
trations in Two Normatly Intersecting Cylindrical Shells Subject to lntemal hessure," WRC
Shells per ASME Code," Jounal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Vol. 99, Sedes J, No. 4,
Bulletin No. 139, welding Research Council, New York, April 1969.
November 197?.
q- Fidler, R., "A Photoelastic Analysis of Oblique Cylinder In&fiections Subjected to Intemal
Wichman, K. R., A. G. Hopper, and J. L. Mershon, "Local Stresses in Spherical and Ptesslure," WRC Bulletin No. 153, Welding Research Council, New York, August 1970.
Cylindrical Shells due to Extemal lradings," Welding Research Council, Bulletin No. 107,
Ncw York, August 1965. Findlay, G. E. and J. spenc€, "Bending ofPipe Bends with Elliptic Cross Sections," I/Rc B!.rletin
No. 164, Welding Research Council, New York, August 1971.
lll. Bijlaad, P. P., "Shesses from Local Loadings in Cylindrical Pressure Vessels," T/ans.
I.\ME, Vol. 77. pp. 805-816. 1955. Gwaltney, R. C., and J. M. Corum, "An Analytical Study of Inside and Outside Compact
Reinforcement for Radial Nozzles in Spherical Sheus," ORNL 4732, June 1974, Oak Ridge
ll. _, "Stresses ftom Radial Loads in Cylindrical Pressue Vessels," Welding .loutnal,
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
vol. 33, Research Supplement, pp. 6l5s-623s, 1954.
al! oPlNtt{ot, t{ozz[3, aNo rxTaRNAt r,oAotNos BIEIIOORAPHY 4I9

Kruus, H., "A Rcvlcw dnd llvlluution of Computcr Program6 for thc Analysis of Strcsscs in the Conelation of Photoelestic and Stcel Model Data for Nozzlc Con'
SellcrB. F., "A Note on
PrcBsun Vc$scls," MtC BulletinNo. 108, Wclding Research Couocil, New York, September ne.tions in Cylindrical Shells," WRC Blt eri, No l39, Welding Resealch Council, Ncw
1965.
Yo!k, April 1969.
teveD, M. M., "Photoelastic Determination of the Sftesses at Oblique Openings in Plates and
Taylor, C. E,, and N. C. Lind, "Photo€lastic Study of the Stresses neat Operdngs in hcssure
Shells," WftC Bunettu No. 153, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, August 1970.
Vessels," WRC Burkr,t No. ll3, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, April 1966'
teven, M. M., "Phoioelastic Determination of thc Shesses in Reinforced Openings in hessure
Tso, F. K. W., J. w. Bryson, R. A weed, and S. E. Moore' "Stress Analysis of Cylindrical
Pressure Vessels with Closely Spaced Nozzles by the Fhit€ Element Melhod"'in Vol l'
Vessels," WRC Bulletirr No. ll3, Welding Resea.ch Council, New York, April 1 6.
Lind, N. C., A. N. Sherboume, F. Ellyin, and J. Dainora, "Plastic Tests of Two Branch-pipe Stres! Analysis of vessels with Two Closely Spaced Nozzles under Intemlrl Pressure'
Connections," lyRC trrrerir No. 164, Welditrg Research Council, New York, August 1971. oRNL/NUIiEG-18/vl, November 1977, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, oak Ridge, Tenn'
Marwell, R. L., atrd R. W. Holland, 'collaps€ Test of a Thin-Walled Cylin&ical Pressue Vesscl
with Radially Attached Nozzle," WRC Bulletin No. 230, Welding Research CouDcil, New
Yort, September 1977.
Mershon, J. L. , "Intetpretive Repoit orr Obliqle Nozzle Connections in hessure Vessel Heads and
Shells udder Ifternal Pres$ur€ tading," WXC Sarr?rrn No. 153, Welding Research Council,
New Yort, August 1970.
Mershon J. L., "Preliminary Evaluation of PVRC Photoelastic Test Data on Reinforced Openings
in Pressur€ Vessels," WRC Bullain No. I13, Welding Research Council, New York, April
1966.
Raju, P. P., '"Tbre€-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45" Lateral Model | (tl/D = 0.08,
D/T = lO, under External i&Plarc MomeDt lrading," TR-3984-2, Teledyne Engin€edng
Services, Waltham. Mass. December 1980.
Raju, P. P,, "Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45"I-ateral Modelz(d/D :0.5,
D/f : n) under Int€rtral hessur€ and Extemal in-Plane Moment Loading," TR-3984-1,
T€lcdyne Engineeriry Services, Waltham, Mass., December 1980.
Raju, P, P., "Tbree-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of 45" Lareral Model l(d/D = 0.08,
D/T = lO) under Internal Pressure and Extemal in-Plane Moment Loadings," TR-3X9-1,
revis€d A, Teledyne Engineering Services, Waltham, Mass., January 1980.
Riley, W, F., "Experime al Detennination of Stress Disributioni in Thin-Walled Cylindrical and
Spherical Pressure Vess€ls wilh Ciltula. Nozzles," WRC BulletinNo. 108, Welding Research l
Council, New York, September 1965.
Rodabaugh, E. C., "Elastic Stesses in Nozzles iD Pressue Vessels with Intemal Pressue Load-
itr8," Phas€ Repoft ll7-1, April 1969, Battelle-Colubus Laboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Rodabaugh, E. C., "Review of Service Experietrc€ atrd Test Data on q)ening$ in Pressure Vessels
with Non-I egral ReiDforcidg," WRC Bulletin No. 166, Weldiog Research Council, New
York, October 1971.
Rodabaugh, E. C. , and R. C. Gwahiey, 'Additional Data on Elastic Stresses in Nozzles in Pre$sulE
Vessels with Intemal Pressure loading," Phase Report ll7-2, December 1971, Battelle-
Columbus kboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Rodabaugh, E. C,, aDd R. C. cwaltoey, "Elastic Stsesses at Reinforced Nozzles ir Spherical Shells
with Pressur€ and Moment Loadiog," Phase Report ll?-gR, September 1976, Battelle-
Columbus Iaboratory, Columbus, Ohio.
Rodabaugh, E, C,, and S. E. Moore, "Evaluation of the Plastic Characte.istics of Piping hoducts
in Relation to ASME Code Cdteiia," NUREC/CR-0261 ORNI-/Sub-2913/8, Oak Ridge
National Inboratory, Oak Ridge, TeIm., July 1978.
Schroeder, J., K. R. Srinivasaiah, and P, Graham, "Analysis of Test Data on Bmnch Connections
Expos€d to Intemal Pressure and/or Extemal Coluples," WRC Bulk,n No. 200, Welding
Research Council. New York. Novemb€r 1974.
Schoeder, t.,
and P, Tugcu, "Plastic Stability of Pipes and Te€s Exposed to Extemal Couples,"
WRC Bullctin No, 238, Welding Research Couucil, New York, June 1978.
 CHAPTER 12
VESSEL SUPPORTS

Ditfereni v$sel supporis. (Courresy of the Noofer Corporotion: St. touir, Mo.)
421
420
412 VISSfl" SUPPORTS I2.2 SKIRT AND BASE RING DESIGN

I2.I INTRODUCTION
I.'igure 12. lc shows an alternate design where the lcgs irLre attached to lugs that
in tum are welded to the vessel. The bending stiffness of the shell and its ability
Process equipment is normally supported by one of the following methods: to resist the moments adequately, must be considered. The cross-bracing ol the
legs may be needed to minimize lateral and torsional movements.
1. Skirts
Vessels supported by ring girders, (Fig. 12.1d), are usually placed within a
2. Support legs structural frame. The ring girder has the advantage of supporting torsional and
3. Support lugs a;. bending moments resulting from the transfer of loads from the vessel wall to the
4, Ring girders supports.
5. Saddles Horizontal vessels, (Fig. l2.le), Ne normally supported by saddles. Stiff-
ening rings may be required if the shell is too thin to transfer the loads to the
Most vertical vessels are supported by skirts, as shown in Fig. 12.Ic. Skirts saddles. The problem of thermal expansion must also be considered.
are-economical because they generally transfer the loads from the vessel by shear
action. They also hansfer the loads to the foundation through anchor bolts and
bearing plates. I2,2 SKIRT AND BASE RING DESIGN
I*g-supported vessels are normally lightweight and the legs provide easy
access to the bottom of the vessel. An economic design is shown in Fig. 12. lb, Design of the skirt consists of first determining the dead weight of the vessel W
where the legs attach directly to the vessel and the loads are transferredby shear and bending moment M due to wind and earthquake forces (see Chapter I 6) . The
action. stress in the skirt is then determined from

(f = -w -+-Mc (r2.r)
^ I

In most practical applications, the ratio R/t ) 10. Hence, the area A and the
moment of inertia I is exPressed as

A : 2rRt
I: rR3 t

and the equation for the stress in a skirt becomes

(a) Sklrt (b) Leg (c) L!s
, = #'#, 0z.z)

where o: axial stress in skirt

W= weight of vessel
M= moment due to wind or earthquake forces
R : radius of skirt
r = thickness of skirt

(d) Because the compressive stress is larger than the tensile stress, it usually
Rins Gl rder (e) Saddtes
controls the skirt design and is kept below the skirt's allowable axial com-
Figur€ l2.l Vessel supporrs.
pressive stress as given by Eq. 8.15.
 VESSIt SUPPORTS
Toble 12.2 Bolt Dimensions ond Cleorqnces Bolting Dqtd
Atlcr the thickncss of the skirt r is determined, the next step is designing the
anchor bolts. For a given number of bolts Nthe total bolt area can be expressed Nut Dimensions
as NA where A is the area of one bolt. The moment of inertia of bolts about the
vessel's neutral axis is I = NAR2/2.'fhtts, Eq. 12.1 is Bolt No. of Root Across Across Bolt Radial Edge Wrench
Size Thrcads Arca (in.'?) Flats Corners Spacing Distance Distance Diameter
B RE a,

,_-w2M N -NR (r2.3) z li .t? r ti

arJ o.126 0.969 16a
d rr o.202 rr_6 1.1'7 5 l!2 !!1 ri
where P = load/bolt o1 10 o.302 1.383 z 7F,
rt
17 : weight of vessel ;e 0.419 rr_6 1.589
t5
L1

' 18 0.551 ra- t.'796 L7 L'

N = number ofbolts l* 8 o.728 ri3 2.002 zc
R = radius of bolt chcle li 8 o.929 2 2.209

M= bending moment 1"1 8 1. 155 .16 2.4t6 3*l

ll 8 1.405 L1 2.622 J7
The maximum load/bolt is based on the allowable stress and conesponding lt 8 1.608 2.828 4
area given in Table 12.1. The allowable stress depends on the type of boli li 8 1.980 ^3 3.035 J; +7
fumished. Table 12.2 shows various properties and required dimensions for 1"2 8 2.304 -15 4 +i
bolts with different diameters. 28 2.652 Ja- 3.449 1!
2i8 3.423 3.862 1Z zi Lz
Example 12.1. Determine the required skirt thickness and the number of bolts 2i8 4.292 Ji 4.2't5 ^ I
J-6 ^3
ZE
needed in a vessel with an outside radius R = 7 .0 ft. IIJI empty weight 2i8 5.259 +i 4.688 t)a
Wr : 160 kips, weight of contents Wz: l4l;} kips, wind-bending momenr 6.3 5.102 On
,7

M : 1500 ft-kips and temperature = 300. F. Assume A307 bolts and use
Figure 8. 11 for the exiemal pressure chart.
3i8 v 7 .487 5 5.515 tt a= Ji 7i
3i8 8.'749 5.928 '7L 8

Solution 3i8 10.108 6.341 lE +i rt 8j

48 11.566 oi 6.755 8"1 .ri ra 9

Skirt design

Lpt t= 0.375 in. From Eq. 12.2,

Tqble 12. I

Allowable Cross-Sectional
Bolt Tensile Area
Type Stress (ksi) (in.')

tr/^ 0.9743\'
4307 20
t\" - -7rr- 1
4325 40 Nominal
4449 40 Nominal
A.490 54 Nominal

'l{' is number of lhrcads/in. 425

lN Vttilt luPlotTt r2,2 tKlnT aND lA$ RINO DIIION all
160 + 1l|40 1500 x 12 and/or r,esting on a group of piles, it can be assumed that fte intersction
bctwccn
o= - *d
2 r (84 - 0.37 5 / 2)(0.37 5\ r(83.813f(0.375) ttt Uots, bie plaie, c-on"ret" is similar to that of a reinforced
are made:
concrotc

10.28 ksi U"".. fn t"feoit g to Fig. 12.2, the following assumptions

From Eq. 8.15, 1. The contribution of the bolts on the compression side is negligible'
2. The bolts on the tension side are assumed to act as a continuous ring of
0.125 width r", where r" is calculated from the equation
A: RJt
= 0.001 I
,,=4
zrd
(t2.4)

Hence, from Fig. 8.11, A= 12,100 psi OK

l2'1'
3. The allowable stress of steel /" is taken from Table
Boh design

Let N= 12 bolts. From Eq. 12.3,

I-oad/tntr: l@+ 2(15ooxl2)

- t2 12(84)
: 22.4 kips

Frorn Table 12.1,

area requlre{ : 22.4

ld-
= | .12 n.2

From Table 12.2 W l|.-lln. diameter bolts (N' =.S). Thus from Table 12.1,

n." ^-- 0.9743."

*u=Z1r.sD-1-)-
: 1.23 nz > 1.12 OK
7)A
actual shess = J1: : 18.2 ksi
l-25
total furnished area = 12 x 1.23 : 14.8 in.'?

Use l-in. skirt with 12 - l*-in. dianeter bolts. I

Having established the nurnber and size of bolts, the next step is to calculate
thc interaction between the base plate, anchor bolts, and supporting snuchre. If
thc supporting structure is a steel ftame or foundation, then Eq. 12.3 is all that
is necded for designing anchor bolts. On the other hand, if the foundation is deep tigl!.o 12,2
 lrt v||||t turro$t I2.2 SKIRT AND IA3: RINO DTSION 429

Tobb 12.3 Concntr Proprrflcr

Allowable
1=,t" =W=t-2k (12.6)

Compressive Compressive Modulus

Stess (psi) Stress (psi) of Flasticity Gsi) The total force T of the tensile area of the reinforcement can be determined bv
sumrning forces on the tensile side of the neuhal axis which gives
f" = o.4sfl E.: 57,WO\/n Ei /8"
25m 1,t25 2,850,000 lt /,r\( t ll.,r.* yl\ sin + cos 'll
r = f,t,l;l {r--= | [; 7 7l I
3000 1,350 3,120,000 t0 \z/ tr -1- sln 7 L\z / J)
3500 1,575 3,370,000 9
,1000 1,800 3,610,000 8
o|
"E, = 30 x lf psi.
, =r,^(1) *, (r2.7)

4. Concrete on the compression side is assumed to have a width t" that is the
same as the width of the base plate.
The disance between I and the neutral axis expressed by 12 is

6.
The allowable complessive stress of concretel is taken from Table 12.3.
The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete is defined ''t"=4l<r/z+nt't+t.st*t"
2L
n+o
(r/2 * 7) sinT * cosT
f (r2.8)
as n. J

Similarly, the total force C of the compressive area of the concrete is given by
n: .E"
Ec

=f'/e,
f" e"-f"e" f"a"
b=<,,*-{;lls::=;v] (12.e)

In an elastic analysis, the stains in the concrete and steel at any location are the
same. Hence, e" : e, and

c=(t,+*"r\h*
':ti - ,=* The distance /3 between C and the neuhal axis is
Also, from Frg. t2.2c, using similar triangles
, _ dl(n/2 -z)(sin'zy + l/21 - 1.S(sinycosy)'l
f,
d-kd
nf.
kd
"-216]
The relationship between extemal forces M and I7 and the intemal forces I and
C are derived from Fig. 12.2c. He,nce

x,1= lJ2's)
2M"=O
1] 1Jnf"
From these assumptions afr Fig, 12.2, the following relationships are
obtained: M - w(h + h) - r(h + 4) = 0
alo v|lilt lutFom 12,2 SKIRT AND lASl RINO DlllON .ltl
0nd Example 12,2, ln Example 12.1, it was found that l2-lN in. A307 anchor
bolts were needed for a vessel with an outside radius R = 7 ft,Wt = 160 kips,
^t = M-W(\+l)
1ra
(12. r0) M = 1500 ft-kips, and a skht thickness of0.375 in. If/l = 3000 psi, determine
1, the actual stess in the concrete and bolts.

Similarly,
Sohiion. By referring to Fig. 12.3 and Table 12.2, for le-:ff' bolts, the bolt
)r',=o circle can be calculated as

and d = 2(84 + 0.25 + 1.875) = 172.25 in.

C:T+W (12. r 1)
Also
The values of 7, h, h, h, Ks and K2 are given in Table 12.4 for various values
of /c.
,t":2(0.25 + 1.875 + 1.375) + 0.375 = 7.375 n.

Frorn Example 12.1,

Tqble 12.4

2h/d 2t"/d 2h/d Kr Kz = 18.2 ksi

"f,
0.01 78.52 0.98 1.489 0.016 3.1 13 o.267
0.02 73.74 0.96 1.477 0,o32
From Eq. 12.2
3.085 0.378
0.03 70.05 o.94 1.465 0.048 3.059 0.463
0.04 66.93 0.92 1.452 0.064 3.033 0.535 ,=- r2(r.23\
'"
0.05 @.16 0.90 r.439 0.080 3.008 0.599 t(172.25)
0.06 6t.& 0.88 1.426 0.096 2.983 0.657 = 0.0273 in.
0.08 57.t4 0.84 1.400 o.128 2.935 0.160
0.10 53.13 0.80 1.373 0.160 2.887 0.852
0.15 44.43 0.70 1.304 o.239 2.772 1.049
0.20 36.87 0.60 1.233 0.318 2.61 1.218
o.25 30.00 0.50 1.161 0.397 2.551 r.370
0.30 23.58 0.40 1.087 o.475 2.442 1.509
0.35 r7.46 0.30 1.013 0.553 2.333 1.640
0.40 11.54 o.20 0.938 0.631 2.2U r.765
0.45 5.74 0.10 0.862 o.709 2.1t3 1.884
0.50 0.00 0.00 0.785 0.785 2.000 2.000
0.55 -5.74 -0.10 0.709 0.862 1.884 2.113
0.@ -11.54 -0.20 0.631 0.938 t.765 2.2U
0.65 -17.46 -0.30 0.553 1.013 1.ffi 2.333
0.70 -23.5E -0.,m 0.475 1.087 1.509 2.442
o.75 -30.00 -0.50 0.397 1.161 |.3'to 2.551
0.80 -36.8'l -0.60 0.318 t.233 1.218 2.661
0.85 -44.43 -0.70 o.239 1.304 1.049 2.772
Figirr. 12.3
1t2 Vililt tuttottl I2.2 SKIRT AND 8A3I RINO DI3ION 433

From Tablo 12,3

The calculatcd values of/,1 andf, result in a K value of
= 1350 Psi
"f'
n=10 K= r + 9810/(10xr8)
and Eq. 12.5 gives K= 0.43.
: O.O2
From Table 12.4 wirh K= 0.47 ,
which is considerably lower than the assumed value ofl( = 0.43. Hence another
trial is needed with a K value of 0.02. After recalculating values of 7, /", C, and
1=
a
o'.,* /", a new value ofK is obtained and compared with the assumed one. ff both
values are approximately the same, the analysis is completed. If they axe not, a
new analysis is performed. Thus, in this example after a few trials, for
1=
a
o.ssz K = 0.O75, the following values were obtained:

1a = o.srr
:1 = 0.8s
(t
&: 2.157

& = 1.836 --:1.$7

',L

The magnitude of I is obtained ftom Eq. 12.10 as

4d = o.rn
-- _ 1,500,000 x 12(0.892
- 160,000 (0.1{ + 0.678) (172.25) K(:2.e47
+ 0.678)(r72.2s)
: 49,750lb
K) = 0.734
. tr _
T. t5 x ld x t2 - 16 x lff (0.85 + 0.120) (172.25)
The value ofi is determined ftom Eq. 12.7 as -

49,750
:35.230
(0.027 3)(r7 2.2s / 2) (2. 1 s7), 35,230
: 9810 psi
(o.027 3)(t7 2.2s / 2) Q.e 47 )
: 5085 psi
From Eq. 12.1I
C = t95,230
C = 49,750 + 160,000 f"=42psi
:2O9,750lb
and
Equation 12.9 gives
K: : 0.076
2@,750 r+(5085/10+42)
f": lo.on3 + (10x7.37st (t72.2s/2) (r.836)
which is apptoximately the same as the assumed value. Hence;[ = 5085 psi and
= 18 psi
I" =42 psi is the answer. I
 ,4r.tll',t!tf!,t;;

atrt vlSlll tUPPOltl r2,2 SKtRt AND lA3! R|NO Dll|ON 4$

12,2,I Anchor Cholr Dcrlgn

The base ring is designed both for the effect of the concrete-bearing load on the
side of the foundation under compression and for the bblt force on the other side r]--l
of the foundation in tension. On the compressive side, the base ring can bc
assumed as a cantilever beam subjected tol as shown in Fig. 12.4. The required
ls-l
lrl
thickness is obtained from

PARTIAL VIEW
6lj4
C= __V t t: l6It4 OF
\/; BASE RING
(") (b)
Substituting for M the value

M= r!-

the expression for t becomes

---1_r",,
tw (r2.r2)
\/; DEFLECIION

: (,
wherc t required base ring thickness on the compressive side of the neufal
Fisuru 12.5
axis

/" : actud sftess in concete

I : cantilever length of base ring as defined in Fig. 12.5
o : allowable bending stess of base ring
On the tensile side, the thickness of the base ring is conholled by the amount of
bolt force and dimensions shown in Fig. 12.5. The exact analysis for deter-
rnining the maximum bending moment in the base ring is rather complicated
because of the nature of the boundary conditions and the hole. However, an
approximate and conservative solution can be obtained by assuming the ring to
act as a plate simply supported on three sides and free on the fourth side. Using
the yield-line theory,l
external work = intemal work

F(t) = 21,1016 - dr
h + u, (a - fi j
or

__r' Mp=
2[2n /a + a /2t - d(2/a + r/21)']

Using. a load factor of 1.7 and a factor of l.l5 to allow for fleld-line comer
effect,r the equation

^4M
't'
Fi$,r. | 2.a
 lta w||tt tuDotTl I2.2 SKIRT AND !A3! RINO DISION

can bo solvod for tho rcqutrcd thickncss cxpressed as

whcrc o - allowable sness in shell
, = thickness of shell
12.13)
S,l2b /a + a /2t - d 12'/a + t/zq'l (
F = bolt load
where t = required base ring thickness on the tensile side of the neuhal axis Example 12.3. Design the base ring shown in Fig. 12.7a. Stress in the bolts
F : bolt load is 17,500 psi; height of gussets 12 in., and concrete-bearing stress is 100 psi,
: Allowable stress for base ring is 20,000 psi and yield sfress is 36,000 psi.
S, yield shess of base ring

ul Solution. Required base ring thickness due to concrele-bearing stress is ob-

a, b, d, and I re
as defined in Fig. 12.5b.
tained from F4. 12.12 as
The load in the shell is tansferred tothe anchor bolts through the gussets.
An
approximate free-body diagram of the forces is shown in FIg. lZ.O.
Venicat x100x62
torces are transferred as shown in Fig. l2-6a. The resulting unbalanced 20,000
bending
-^_1T:,1i the gussets resulting from the vertical forcei requires equal and
opposrte Thorizontal forces as shown in Fig. 12.6b. These horizontal forces 0.73 in.
induco local sfiesses in the shell that are calculated from the
equation From Table 12.2, tln net area of I l-in. bolts is 1.405 in.'?

(f =
l.5Fb . force F in bolts = 17,500 x 1.405
(12.r4)
ntzh
-:-
= 24,6M lb

(l2) t.l BOLTS

G)vqlrcaL_EaSaEs

u.c)(b4)
'' zzh

(!)HoRtzoNTaL FoRcEs Figur. 12.6

Figw.12.7
all vltllr SuPFol?t t2.3 D!3|ON ol luPPoR? t!o! 4tg " ":''''

From thls trblc, cloarancc for wrcnch diametcr is 3.75 in. Allowing for gusset
flllct wclds, the distance between gussets is as shown in Fig. 12.7i. froi fq. --+--
12.13. /F lor
I t 91 x z4-roo
-- t-i-7
\i-_/
v q
Jtcrta,r
'4-,4

ile- designq tlis point has a choice to make. One can either use a base ring
I1.07
thickness of in., which is controlled
by bolt load, or use a base rin! [Iil-[f[ff]w
thickness of 0.73 in. with anchor chairs, as shown n Fig. 12.7.
The stess in the shell is obtained from Eq. 12.14 as
ruro,
1.5x24.600x6
"- = -1t x oigt n \7V ,,,u,"'r.,
: 10,4O0 psi

This sbess is combined with the axial stress and the total must be less than thre€ Column B in Fig. 12.8 is designed to carry shear in accordance with the equation
tirnes the allowable stess. I
T
-Il=VQ
r
I2,3 DESIGN OF SUPPORT IEGS
I

Support legs are designed to take into consideration axial loads, bendins mo_
ments, and shear forces in tlre vessel. Refering so Fig. 12.g we see that at-cross
section A-A all forces are expressed in terms of M, V, and W. The axial force
W.is canie.d uniformly by all columns. Bending moment M is carried by the
columns away from the neutral axis and the shearing forces v are carried by the
columns closest to the neutral axis as shown in Fie. 12.g.
Column A in Fig. 12.8 is designed by using Eql I2.3 given by
The shearihg force f at the top of columns B causes bending mornent in the
column if no cross-bracing is used. With cross-bracing the force T is resolved
irito axial forces as shown in Example 12.4.
Example 12.4. Determine the forces in columns A and B of the vessel shown
in Fig. 12.9.
Sohtlion. Axial force in colurnns A and B due to W is

P =-w * 2tu1
F= w 240 :30
n{ -NR N8
where P: load per column Axial force in column A due to M is
W = weight of vessel
iV : number of columns
_ 2t4
.NR
R = radius of columns' circle 2x20p,0
M = noment due to wind or earthquake loads
--"--*-"-ry*"trffiffitrufft
t2.3 DIS|ON Ot SUPPOnT uog 4l
rr3t. I'he quantity p of the crosshatched area in this figure is givcn by

a= wo(?,\
\1t /
/= 50k = 2:r2t
M-2aaa8Fr
The force Il is then given by

. V (2r2t) v
(b) "H- (in3t)(zt)- nrt -2V
A

H :;6txSfl = 0.2653 lb/in.

Horizontal force in column B is

a= (o.z6sr)(:3y
/
: 12.50 kips

(d) This force Il is normally resolved into two components as shown in Fig. 12.9d'
X= /2.5 Force U is a r{dial force on the shell and force X is a horizontal force in the plane
of the cross-b\acing.

. u= Hcnt a= 12.5 x 0.414 = 5.18 kips

y'^ = !-a = !-L

sin 0.924
= 13.53 kips
(")
:igur. 12.9 The force X intoduces additional cornpressive force in column B as shown in
Fig. 12.9e. The distance between columns is
total axial load in column =
A -50 - 100 = -150 kip t=2{ =3.en
total axial load in column B =
-50 kip
The shearing stnesses transferred to column A are zero. Those transferred to The apFoximate height of the colurnns is 20 ft. Hence, angle B is about ll
column B are detennined frorn deer€€s and the axial force F in colurnn B is

u=W
h F : kips
#n:6e.61
The moment of inertia I of the whole cross section in Fig. 12.9c is given by force E = = 7O.lt fip.
BA
"n
 vtss suPPokrs
I2,5 RING GIRDTRS

total lirrcc in colunrr : --l5() kip

A lhc shgll duc t() support cccentricity is givcn by

total forcc in column B : -50 - 69.61 : 119.61 kio
total force in bracing : 70.91 kips I
If the cross-bracing is eliminated in Example 12.4, the shear force tends to
cause a bending moment in column B. Assuming the bottom end of the columns
pinned, the horizontal force causes a bending moment at the top of the column
of magnitude 12.5 x 20 ft : 250 k-ft. Thus, without a bracing system, column
B must be designed to withstand a compressive force of 50 kips plus a bending
moment of 250 k-ft rather than a compressive force of 119.61 kips with a bracing
system.
Note that the absence of a cross-bracing causes the tops of the columns to
sway laterally because of reduced rigidity. This can also cause excessive vi-
bration or deformation of the vessel.
M": Fe ( r2. r5)
and the maximum stress in the shell is calculated from reference 2. Both mem-
brane and bending stresses are calculated. Details ofthe required calculations are
well established in reference 2. Further treatment of this topic is unnecessary in
this book.
I2.5 RING GIRDERS
Ring girders (Fig. lz.ld), are common in elevated vessels supported by a
structural frame. An exact analysis of the stresses in a ring girder due to various
loading conditions is very complicated. For a uniform load, the stresses and
forces can be determined easily with the following assumptions:

I2.4 LUG-SUPPORTED VESSETS l. Supports are equally spaced.

2. Vertical deflection at supports is zero.
The main design consideration regarding lug-supported vessels is the stress 3. Slope of ring girder at supports is zero due to symmetry of loads and
magnitude in the shell. Bijlaard's method is usually followed in such a design.2 supports.
It consists of determining the stress in the shell at the vicinity of a support lug 4. Torsion force at supports is zero. This assumes twisting of the girder due
of height 2C2 and width 2C1, as shown in Fig. 12.10. The bending moment in to flexibility of shell.

Based on these assumptions, t}le moments, shears, and torsion at the supports
and in-between supports are given by

M, = Kzwr2 M^ : Kswrz
V, : Ka,wr v^:o (12.16)

r, =0 T^:o
where M,, V,, T" = support moment, shear, and torsion, respectively. Posi
tive direction is shown in Fig. 12.11.
M,, V^, T^ = midspan moment, shear and torsion, respectively

K3 = (t = constants obtained from Table 12.5

\__ w : uniform load

)r-l
t4 1,.,
t
r: radius

The maximum torsional moment occurs at the ansles shown in Table I 2 .5 and
Fisur€ 12.10 is given by
Ifl' Viiiliti,hom f 2,t milo ottDltt 4t
_ In deriving Eqs. 12.16 it is assumed that thc loade and thc rcactions rct
through the neutal axis ofthe girder. In pressure vessels the loads are tansfcrre.d
to the ring girder through the shell. If the ring girder is taken as a channel section
as in Fig, l2.l3a, tben the loads in the sh-ell cause a bending moment in
the
girder because they are not applied through the shear (flexural) center.
This
moment, shown in Frg. l2.l2a, has the magnitude

m=-we
Figuro l2.l I where e is the shear c€nter moment arm, which can be expressed as

: b2d2h
T*" Kewr2 (r2.r7) e=
41,
The moment, shear, and torsion expressions for any given location between
The uniform bending moment m causes tension hoop sbess above the r_axis
supports are obtained ftom
and compression hoop stress below the.x-axis as shown in Fig. l2.l2b. T\e

Me : V,r sin d * M,cos 0 - wr2 (l - cos 01

Ve = V" - wrg (l2.l8)

To = V,r(l - cos d) + M" s:rr,e
-wr.z (e - sn 0)
whete M6, V6, 76 : mornent shear, and torsion at any location
0 = angle as define.d in Fig. 12.11 \ 'r Tr-
Tqble 12.5 Ring Gider Coefficienrs 'l--zt{-
Angle of
Maximum
Angle Torsion
Number Between ftom
of Supports Support
Suppons (degrees) K3 Ka Ks Ka (degrees)

2 180 -1.0000 1.5707 -0.57m -3.307 x l0-r 39.55

J 120 -0.3954 1.0471 -o.2091 -8.278 x 10-, 25.80
90 -0.2146 0.7853 -0.1107 -3.313 x lo-2 D.21
5 72 -0.t351 0.6283 -0.0690 -1.654 x 10-2 15.30
6 60 -0.0931 0.5235 -o.M7l -9.471 x l0-3 12.74
8 45 -0.0519 0.3926 -0.0262 -3.9q x 10-3 9.53
t0 36 -0.0331 0.3141 -0.0166 -2.W x l0-! 7.62
l2 30 -o.o229 0.261'l -0.0115 - 1.154 x 10-3 634
l6 22.5 -0.0128 0.1963 -0.@65 -3.722 x l0-3 4.72
(b)
20 18 -0.0082 0.1570 -0.0042 -2.469 >< l0-" 3.79
Figw. 12,l2
"--*tr*"wffruruilr-
12.5 RINO OtRDlRt Uf
momont and corrorponding strcso can be cxproosod ac

,,
M=-mr= -v,rb2d2h
4L /.tsev-rr * rt
mry
a:
L
(12.19)

wb2d2hry
4I?

where o- = sftess

D = width of flange
d = distance between flanses
ft = flange thickness
I, = rnoment of inertia of girder
r : radius of vessel
r = shell thickness
w = unifonn applied load

At the supports, the reaction eccentricity tends to produce compressive forces (bl
.
in the top flange and tensile forces in the bottom one as shown in Fig.. 12.13c.
(c)
Figurc 12.13
The.top and bottom flanges can be assumed to fansfer the loads as shJwn in Fig,
12.13b. TIla forces are derived as
At the supports, 0 = 0 and

M,:+ ("o,a"otf - 'rr - 3) - t. t .t M,=+(*,;-i)

tt-Ha
= Zco.a
- roo, (t-i.,)
n,=Z---;- (t2.20)
ttt v,:-H
'2
and in-between the supports 0 = a/2
..
,,= -H..
z ---.
i) (a *
t-zi- Mr=
f coo ?
nrl . "- 4
;\sm;
 ''''tit'lttl

H W$tt tupPotll
f 2,6 SADDU tUPPOmt 49
Solutlon
r,_ = .f,| cos a
7_.i
smt w 200
(zXl00) =
0.637 k-in.
fia

v,: +!:!s
a .a
from Table 12.5, with N = 8,
t-z & = -0.0519 Kc= 0.3926
Ks : -0.02.52 K6==3.940x10-3
The positive directions of M1, F1, and % are shown in Fig. 12. l3c.
Maximum torsion occurs at 9.53' ftom support.
Exanp!9 12.5. The ring girder shown in Fig. 12.t4 is supporred at eight
points. If I7 = 200 kips, find the forces in the ring at the supports and at the The forces given by Eqs. 12.16, 12.19, afi 12.?I are detemrined in Table
point of maximum torsional moment. Fig. 12.15 at the supports and at the point of maximum
12.6 and illustrated in
torsion.

I2.6 SADDTE SUPPORTS

Horizontal vessels supported by two saddles (Fig; 12. le) act as simply supported
beams. For vesSels with dished heads (Fig. 12.16a) the equivalent beam lenglh
is taken as .L -l 4H 13 where L is the tangent-to-tangent length of the vessel and

.br (,
At Support At Point of Maximum Torsion
Eq. 12.16
M", M^ -82.65 k-in. 0 k-in.
v", v^ 12.50 k 7.20k
L,T^ 0 6.n k-ln.
Eq. 12.19
M -60.05 k-in. -60.05 k-in.
Eq. 12.2V
Mf +40.54 k-in. -101.50 k-in.
Fr 14.80k 13.58k
lxx = 587.4Inl u -6.13 k -8.50 k
" Ihese equatioas apply at poifis a and D; poirts A and C have opposite signs.
'-. Wk+e'\
_ 200 1.89 + 4
812
= 12.'26'

a==z:45o
6'
Flgure 12.14
 t2.6 SADD!! SUPPORTI 4tl
Il is the depth of the heads. The vertical load on each head is given by
V = 2IIw 13 and is assumed to act at the center of gravity of the head. Thc
horizontal pfessure on the heads due to liquid heads is resist€d by a horizontal
force F acting as shown n Fig. L2.l6b.It is interesting to note that for hemi-
spherical heads where 11 is equal to r, the bending moment at the head{o-shell
junction due to force F and vertical force V is zero. The bending moFent at any
M=60.05 K-in point in the vessel is obtained from statics as shown nFig. n/f6 lL b
The section modulus of the shell between the saddles is I/c and is expressed
as rr2t. At the saddles, the effective section modulus is reduced due to the
dqfonnation of the shell which renders the full cross section less effective.
Research has shown3 that the length of the effective cross section of the shell is
equal to the arc length of the contact angle of the saddle plus one-sixth of the
Fo.f.! or Support. Fotce. tt point ot l rrinr,n
unstiffened shell, as shown in Fig. 12.17. The section modulus of the arc length
Figur. 12.15 that is in t€nsion is expressed as

+
Z: r2t
[4
Thus the maximum longitudinal stress values can be expressed as

01 C1M6 for midspan between supports

,=
o1\ C2M, for unstiffened shells at saddles (r2.22'
or: CrM" for stiffened shells at saddles

L/
,TEI
'(. F=r.w

Fisur. 12.16
450 tigur. 12.17
112 Vllln tuPForTl t2.6 SADDI tUPPOtTt 4t0

whorc or - longltudinal bcnding shoss in shell (ksi) The shearing stress at the saddle area is influenced by the deformation of thc
unstiffened shell above the saddle. Experimental research has shown that the
I7 = weight of vessel plus its contents (kips) shear near the saddle is distributed along an arc length of
t = length of vessel between tangent lines (in.)
r: radius of vessel (in.) t=2,(!+9\
" \z 20)
t= thickness of shell (in.)

c,:
'
J-
,ft't
as shown in Fig. 12.18. The shearing stress can then be calculaied as

a, = CtV (12.24)
^-ll IsinA/A - cosA
"-r4LA+;inE;I-2Giltlfu)l
a
wher€
t=o+E
^
Cr : -;- sin d for saddles away from heads
The shear sress in tlre shell between the saddles is computed by assuming a n\n-d+srnccos)
sinusoidal distribution of the shear forces where the maximum value is at c sinacosa
ihe
- flI6 / -(l + Smdcosc/)
sin
equator, given by for saddles near heads
\n-
o' = I (12.23) where r : radius of vessel
nn 'io
' a: 0/2 + F/20
where @ is measured as shown in Fig. 12.18.
d= ang(e as rneasured in Fig. 12.18
\
h : ngle that varies between z - a and r
o-" = shear sftess
.
Equation l2.Z is also used to check.the stess in the head. In this case the
value of t in the expression for C3 is taken as the thickness of head rather than
shell.
The circumferential stress in lhe shell at the saddle area is calculated by
assuming the shell above the saddle 0o act as a fixed arch subjected to shearing
s&ess as illustated in Fig. 12.19. Using the theory of indeterminate stuctures,
the moment at any point along the arch can be expressed as

wrf - s I
Ma = *anLa | cos {(sin'zB - iFsin2F + 79'z cos2 F)
L
/1 | \
+ dsind(iB'z + osnzB -
sin,9)

I
+ jFcosPQF + sin2p)
. lr | | \1
Flgurc 12,18
-sinp [;B
\4
+ ;o sin 2B + ;+ gcoszllll I
 #a v||l|taultom 12.6 SADDtl SUPPOffg .ltt

160
3.#Pi
"r
o
o
6
o
140 V
.\
s1s
120

-Ut

t@ \
w
2 Fi$rc 12.19
o o.ol o.o2 0.o3 0.o4 0.(E 0.06 0.o7 0.G o.os o.t o.2
Cs ond C6
where
tigw.12,20 Volucr of C5 ond C6 or o tunction oI the loddlo onsl! 0. (R.f. 4, p. 212)

ll
Cc=s111.2|-:^P'-=sn2!.
'24 The maximum circumferential force P at the hom of the saddle is determined
from
The maxirnum value of M6 given by this equation occus at 0: B. Hence
the maximum circumferential bending moment in the shell can be expressed asa
,'= (v)", (12.26)

"r= H*, (r2.25)

where C6 is given by

where C5 is plotted in Fig. 12.20.

, /, Experimental work has shown that the wjdth of the shell that is effective in
..= + l*+ifu - "',8] . #*F (cs - c,)
, / j/resisting the moment in F4, 12.25 can be taken as four times the radius or and
" one-half the length of the shell, whichever is smaller.
It has also been showna that Eq. 12.25 is valid whenA/r is eqgg!-Io lf€reater
than 1.0. For A/r values of 0.5 or less, it is suggEGTll[llvalG-i@1e t, : frf,r,u(t - | "o,n * ) o"ne - le,)
reduced l tfre neaA. nor in-
between values of A/r, a reduction factor (Rf)
- l|rnA + llcosFQP+ sin2B - ssinp + B cosB)]
* = (;i -', 0.5<:<1.0 A plot of the Quantrtt C6 is shown in fi9. 12.20.
When the stess in the shell as calculated from Eq. (12.25) nd 92.?,6) is
excessive, stiffening rings are used at the vicinity of the saddles to carry the
can be used.
bending moment.
.t!6 v|llll luttotTl illuooRAPHY 1r'

NOMENCTATUR,E {, Browncll, L. 8., ald E, H, Young, Procr$ Equlpmcnt Datlgn, John Wiloy, Now York,
1959.

C = compressive force on concreie foundation

F = bolt load BIBTIOGRAPHY

"f" = allowable compressive stress of concrete

Ro8rk, R, J., aodw. C.Yot g, Formulasfor S''ast and Stain,sthed., Mccmw Hill, New York,
f, : allowable lensile stress of steel bolts t915.
Uteful ltdomation ol the Design of Plate Structwes, Steel Plate EnE Bering Data, Vol.2,
* = constant given by Eq. 12.5 American lron ad Steel Institute, New York.
Kr Kz = constants given in Table 12.4
K3 - (u = constants given in Table 12.5
/= length

h - h = lengths as specified by Fig. 12.2

M = bending moment
Ma : bending moment in a ring girder
N = number of bolts
n: f,/f.
R = radius
f: bnsile force on foundation
To = torsion moment in a ring girder
, = thickness
t" : equivalent thickness of anchor bolts
V = shearing force
Ve : shearing force in a ring girder
W : weight
o : shess

REFER,ENCES

l. Wood, R, H, , Pla.rric aal Elattic Design of Slabs 4nd Prater, Ronald hEss, New York, 196l .
t Wichman, K. R. , A. G, Hopper, ad J. L. Mershon, "Local Stiesses ir Spheric€l a|ld Cylin-
&ical Shels due to ErteErl lradings," BAC Barr"ri, 107, Welding Res€arch Council, New
YorL. 1965.
Zic}' L. P., "St€ss€s it Large Horizortal Cylitrdrical Pressur€ Vers€ls otr T\a,o Saddle
Suppons" in Prr$rr" Vesscl dnd Piphb DesigL, Collected Pqert 1m7-1959, lJreicat
Society of Mechanical Elgircers, New York, 1960.
 PART 4
THEORY AND DESIGN
OF SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

459
 ''"' 'rii tir

CHAPTER I3
a
T FLAT BOTTOM TANKS
't

.!
E

I
z5
,l
'b

*
p
g
o

461
 462 fl.At toTIoM TANKS

I3.I INTRODUCTION

Flat bottom tanks are normally constructed according to one of the following 7 F*
F llr.rF.=
four standards: < ld..l oZ zzz
1. API 650. Welded steel tanks for oil storage.
2, API 620. Recommended rules for design and construction of large, @
welded, low-pressure storage tanks. z F- - o.l XXX
3. ANSI 896.1. American National Standard for welded alumrnum_alloy < | 42 -i -i
storage tanks. cl cl
xxx
4, AWWA D 100. Standard for welded steel elevated tanls, standpipes, '6bE
qa- 9- E
and reservoirs for water storage.
:.: txz
Table 13.1 shows a general comparison between the requirements 6
of the various
standards. The values in the table serve as a general comparison;
however, a.l .- q. q.
specific requirements and limitations are obtaiied from the standards \o *9.9-
them_ 9e
selves.
-t tz zz zzz '6
.- Irr ,-
I3.2 API 650 TANKS
J t-z
The requkements of API 6501 are for flat bottom tanks containing
liquids with
litde or no surface pressure. The design criteria are based on simpti"fied F
equations ?
with a minimum amount of analysis.
o
ao
(,)
| 3.2. I Roof Design
o
.+ :.9
XXX ed b
Flat bottom tanks with large diameter and fixed roof normally are
designed with o ERE
E<
column-supported roofs. As the diameter gets smaller, seif_supporting
roofs < txd aa .E e .<
}!'EU
become more economical. Dome and cone ioofs (t \o XXX
-" th" -ort popolar iypes.
The following equation for designing self-supporting do-" .ooi. E
(t
F frR g
9:-?,
is obtained
^ Eq. 9.2b, which is based on a fairor
from ot saiety (FS) four: *.E 6 EE ;
co 5?)XF-
290F
d, <zx-..; .E A.{l
'H€ ^" 3
E H.c ; ::
'^
P=-
0.0625 E
(n111' (13.1) 'o r.)oo
Fe{ife
0 a€EitE
The required thickness is obtained by assuming that the maximum pressure
an a ErEb::e
E r F3::i
consists ofa live load of 25 psf, which is the assumed maximum snow load,
l
o ^\ Es 8.9
E3 E€
.9*
a dead load of a maximum roof thickness of 0.5 in. as allowed by ApI.
and
Hence
o
E e 8-: EE^ gsEEctg
EFsE EEH
v 5t | , ,t g s.2
P : 25 psf live load + 20.4 psf dead load EtrEE Ve
= 0.315 psi o tsFEE ?sEFEfE
4 aa6e
-o
o
F
,= .9
>€ 5 e*ff s trtrtrE
a6.l ttAt lOnOiit IANK!
I3.2 API 650 TANKS

tptting f- 29 X lOi psi, expressing R in fcet, and r in inches, Eq. 13.l is

= /Pncos0\/a\
| -------:- || ^ |
R \ z / \zo/
' 200
(13.2)
DR
= 4t/(P o)
which gives the required thickness of a dome roof. "."
- The roof+o-shell junction has a stiffening ring to provide for the discontinuity
forces shown in Fig. 13.1. Force 1l is
API 650 assumes a maxirnum value of o for head-to-shell rings of 15,000 psi.
u, The value of P can be taken as 0.315 psi. The maximurn value of cos 0 for R
"*pr".rJa
is 0.8D and is equal to 0.909. Expressing R andD in feet andA in square inches,
11 = Ndcos d
the required area is
PR
zcos0 (13.3) .DR
and the required area needed to resist this tensile force is given
^: ux
by API uses the equation
H(D /2)
^_ (13.4) '-
DR
(13.s)
1500

for the required area at dome-to-shell junction.

The required thickness of self-supporting conical roofs is based on Eq. 9.19
and is

P" 2.61(t sin 0/D)25

E- /2D)
FS(L

10..14 /r sin 0\x5

= FS(,* g)\ D
/
Substituting t = 29 x 106 psi and P" : 0.315 psi in this equation and express-
ing D in feet and t in inches results in

. D lcs(tan 0)lo4
'= u" g zza,sq
( 13.6)

Figure 13.2 shows a plot of this equation for various factors of safety. A more
simplified equation used by API is

,: -J
400 sin 0
(13.7)

where 1 : pquired thickness of cone roof (in.)

D : diameter of tank (f0

Fis',.o 13.l
0 = angle between cone and horizontal base (degrees)
 rt,2 Alt $0 rAHKI

-3:sin 0.
A= 2645
API uses the simplified expression

D2
(13.9)
3000 sin 0

for the required area at the cone-to-shell junction where

% A = rcquired area (in.2)
D = diameter of tank (ft)
0 : angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)

For tanks with small intemal pressures, the maximum pressure is limited to that
which does not cause the uplift of the tan} in the ernpty condition. Hence ftom
Fig. 13.3 the upward force due to pressure is equal to the downward force
resulting from weight of shell plus roof:

Pt?2=w.(q)(')
4 r. -.2r. /

Flgure | 3.2

The required area at the cone roof-to-shell junction

_ is obtained from Eq. 13.4.
In this caee, H for a deed load condition is liven Oy

PD
n= 4sin0
and

A=Dz o (13.8)
8c sin 0
Using g: 1.5,000 p€i p = 0.315 psi, and expressing D in feet and.4 in
equare inches, the rcquired area is
tlg0re 13.3
'*""'- *-^ffi**Yffiiffiitnmr
13,2 API 630 TANKT {i60

or
lrtting a = 20,000 psi and I = 490lbfit3, this equation reduces to thc approx-
Imate equation
4
P==6w+h't
- 30,8004tan0
r'N=--2 + ^6th (13.1 1)
where P = intemal pressure (in. of water)
W : weight of shell (lb) where P = intsmal pressure (in. of water)
D: diameter of tank (ft) A = required area at roof-to-shell junction (in.'?)

t/r : thickness of roof plate (in.) = angle as defined in Fig. 13.3

Y- 49o lbttr D= diameter of tank (ft)

4= roof thickness (in.)

The equation for maximum pressure is then
Equation i3.11 may be rewritten to calculate the required junction area -A as
P*":W * t,, (13.10)
. --------:------'-
Dz(P 8t,\
--
A:
30,800 tan 0
(r3.r2)
The stess level at the head+o-shell junction must also be checked. In re-
o Fig. 13.3, vertical force V is given by
ferring
API 650 assumes failure to occur when the stess in the junction area reaches
32,000 psi. This is an increase of 60% over the allowable sness of 20,fi)0 psi
., PD ,D
v=__;__\th.l)-; used in deriving Eq. 13.11. Hence failure pressure can be expressed as

4: r.6P - 4.8r, (r3. l3)

whete P1 : failure pressure (in. of water)

H =J
tan 6
_ =
,P desigp pressure (in. of water)
A= roof thickness (in.)
1 IPD
H: ta'J9L4 -thrDf
4l The sepond tenn in Eq, 13.13 is an adjustment factor that corrslates this equation
with experimental data.
rcquired area is When the roof-to-shell junction is designed so that failure because of exces-
sive surface pressure occurs at the junction rather than the roof or shell, the
, HDlz junction is called frangible. A frangible joint design equation can be derived by
(f substituting Eq. 13.10 into Eq. 13.13, which gives
Dzl\
=#4r-to1 ryY . Bh, = 1.u, - o.r u

^ Mo tan d
r=--jr-+thy .

e=ffi+tt,
 It.2 AFI 610 TANKT ilTl
Sub8titutlng thia oquatlon into Eq, 13.12 givcs
which is the circumferential oeam between courses A and B, This mcthod
considers that the bottom plate on course B stiffens the next course at point X
0.153 W
(r3.14) 0nd the maximum stess occurs at a location higher than X. This location is
30,800 tan 0
arbiharily set at "one foot."
where .4 : required tangible roof-to-shell area (in.2) At point X the hoop stress is given by

17: weight of shell .PD

d: angle of roof with horizontal axis (degrees)
-2t
Note that failure of a frangible roof joint is only possible when or
the wetding is
from one side.
-_Gy(H-t)D
13.2.2 Shell 25
Design

API 650 includes two rnethods for the design of shells. The
Defining y : 62.4 pcf and adding the corrosion allowance to this expression
first is called the gtves
"one-foot method," which consists of calculiting Ae re4uir"O
ttrict<r,"ss of sn"l
course A in Fig. 13.4 based on the hydrostatic pressure
at I ft above point X r)G
t:2.6p(H_- + cA (13. r s)

where CA : corrosion allowance (in.)

D : diameter of tank (ft)
G: specific gravity of liquid
I1 - liquid height (ft)
S= allowable stess (psi)
I= required thickness (in.)

The second method, the 'variable point method," is an extension of the

one-footmethod in that it calculates a more exact location of the maximum stress
near the junction of the bottom or shell courses with differing thickness. In this
case the bottom course is assumed to be hinged at its junction with the bottom
plate. Hence the deflection due to intemal pressure at the junction is equal to the
deflection due to an applied shearing force as shown in Fig, 13.5. From Section
{t 1

4:6p
V PR2
TFo= n

Fisure 13,4
.. ZB3DPR'
'= E-
 ?AI'IKS
'IAT 'OTTOM 13.2 APt 650 TANKS 473

'l'osts have shown that this equation is too conservative because the maximunl
strcss can be many feet away from thejunction where the pressure is reduced and
the stiffness ofthe second course becomes signincant. Accordingly, the equatbn
lirr the desisn of the bottom course is modified to read

( 13. l6)

The thickness of the second course is determined from the following equations;

.2- t, ir +<r.37s
I h. -l
- ,r*--,1 ir l'375 <;;<2'62s
h,
Fieur€ 13,5
t-=t^ + (t. -t^\l
'4/t 7l
-''
.L
The hood stress at any point along the cylinder close to
the junction ls given by
.2- t,. it L-z.ezs (t3.r7)

Na=pR(l_Ca.) where t2 : thickness of first course (in.)

where.c& is given by F{,. 5.23. Taking the derivalion of
this equatlon with
/z= thickness of second course (in.)
respect to .r and equating it to zero gives the point
at
of maximum Nr.'This occurs lz = thickness of second course calculated from the equation for upper
course (in.)

3tr ftr = height of first course (in.)

4p r = radius of shell (in.)
and Design of the upper courses is based on the equation

lr, = rn(r 2.6DlH - x / 1,21G

: ___-
- "n,to "o"3!)
l
s- + L]A (13.18)

= 1.06 PR
where "r is the variable design point that is a function of the thicknesses of layers,
Hence tank radius, and liquid height.
In referring to Fig. 13.6,.r is the minimum value of .r1, -r2, and "r, obtained
from the following equations:
t= Ne/S

_ 1.06 pP q = o.6r{E + 0.32 ch,

s "' x2 = Ch"
or using the terminology of ApI 650 xz = l '22lrt"
where
rr.oor(a!429)
'= t ={.*,(*=-!
I + K\/K
--* nr-Tfflffiffiiifrir r3.2 Apt 6t0 TANKS 47t

_ 2.42E ( (t/o)rt 1
P
locATtot{
Fs (r - *zltte \n /o - o.4s \/;lDl
OF
CF TAN(
or for long cylinders with E : 30 x 106 psi and p = 0.3,
3 TA
VARIAELE \ SHELL
oEstcit Fo[{T

H =77.e2
" ro.#,l/*)"
0.3iI Gh,
'"1-: r" \u/
0.61 fr/ Substituting P", : 25.6 psf and FS : 2.0, this equation becomes

'TnI
(13.19)
/
iflN. Hrr. OF xi
WHEl,l
+'1.o;c-o.xr
,6+j.-l
'll I
v \ where Il = length between stiffeners (ft)
UNRESTRAIT{ED
MDIAL t : thickness of shell (in.)
0..'ffi t D, \ lh,,t1
t.-{// --Et-
GROTIT'TH
GROTITN
D = tank diameler (ft)

The required section modulus of the stiffening ring necessary for resisting the
Figure 13.6 Elo3fic nrov€ment oI rh€ll cour!€. ot girth lateral pressure is obtained from the following classical buckling equation of a
ioint (R€t. 5).
ring:

I *=? ^ 3EI
R3

After establishing the shell thickr

towindroadsm'it*.n*d.ri:;lil:J"-Hfr::3*Tilffi if:#,::;
as 3EI
-:
p = O.00256 " Fs(R)
V2
where
where p = wind pressure (psf)

V = wind velocity (mph) F= PH

Hence
API a__100-mph wind velocity for design purposes unless a higher value is
,yses
specified. Hence
PrlilFS)
3E
P = 25.6 Psf
Because the pressure distribution may cause a vacuum
on part of the shell, the
shell is designed to withstand a yaglum pressure of 25.6 psf.
expression for the buckling of cylindrical s-hells is given
A simplified z= PHD2 FS
(r3.20)
Uy fq. O. tZ as 2AE C/D
 !;rlll.rr{jwlillirfrs
1rt illT tonom ?aNl(t I3,2 APt 650 TANKT 4ll
API arsumca that tho rstio of thc outstanding leg of a stiffener to thc diameter
of the tank is not lcss than 0.015. Hence, C/D = 0.0075. Usins FS : 2.0.
P = 25.6 psf, E = 29 x 106 psi, and expressing D and If in feet,-the equation
for the required section modulus of a stiffening ring is

Z = O.Offit HD2 (r3.21)

where z = requirc.d section modulus of stiffening ring (in.3)
II : height between stiffeners (ft)
D : diameter of ta.nk (ft)

| 3.2.3 Annulor Plqtes

The requircd thickness of the bot8om plate in an ApI 650 tank is given in Table
13.1. At the shell-to-bottom plate junction, the ApI standard requires a butt- ( al
welded annular plate whose thickness varies between 0.25 and 0.15 in. and is
a function of the shess and thickness of the first shell course. The width of the
annular plate nust be adequate to support the column of water on top of it in cas€
of a foundation settlement. By referring to Fig. 13.7,

*=+ ,
lM

Using plastic analysis,

4M (b)
tisut 13.7

where tr : length of annular plate (in.)

L= R
Y; /a : thickness of annular pla0e (in.)
1l: height of liquid (ft)
L= t;fr G: specific gravity of liquid
yGH
"l Exarnple 13.1. The steel tank in Fig. 13.8a contains a liquid at the roof-to-
Letring p = 62.4 pcf, a), = 33,000 psi, and expressing H in fe,et and 4 in
inches, the equation becomes shell junction level. Eesign the various tank components if G = 1.1, CA =
0.0, S = 15,000 psi. Use the "one-foot" method for shell design.
._ 195 tb
- \/GH Sohtian, For the roof design, Eq. l3.l gives

API 650 uses a factor of safety of two for the length. The length of the annular n80
plate is thus expressed as ' 2M -' 2n
' = 0.40 in. Use t : 7116 in. for the dome roof
L= 390 h
Out not less than 24 in.) (r3.22)
\/ GH For the shell design the required thickness for the bottom course is given by Eq.
 ':.!1].:, ., ]''' ',]i!,!r
ata torTors ?A]{t(l r3,2 APt 6!0 ?ANK3 lV'
'ltt
The required inteffiediale stiffener spacing is obtained from Eq. 13'19 ae

I/ = 6(100t)

Usins a conservative value of t : 0.25 in.,

t o:sV
I1 :6(100 x 0.25)

ft
v\s"/
Zroo

= 26.20
(.)
Because this is larger than the height of the tank, no intermediate stiffeners are
needed.
The required area of the roof-to-shell junction from Eq. 13.5 is
Angl€ 4r4xt
,DR
" 1500
_ (80x80) ,

1500
: 4.27 n.2 Use 4 x 4 x 5/8 in. angle with A = 4.61 n.2

For the bottom plate use t = ll4 in. according to Table 13.1.
Assume the annular plate is 1/4 in. thick. Then the width of the armular plate
from Eq. 13.22 is

. 39oh
L = ------_
(b) YGH
Fisur6 | 3.8
-:ffi 390 x 0.25

13. 15 as L : 2JJ79 in.; Use a 24-in. wide annular plate

. 2.6(80\Qo - txl.t) The above details of construction are shown in Fig. 13.8b. I
' 15,m0
Example 13.2. In Example 13.1, determine (a) the maximum allowable inter-
= 0.29 in. Use r = 5/16 in. for the bottom course nal pressure and the maximum failure pressure, (b) the required roof-to-shell
area if a ftangible joint is required, and (c) the thickness of the shell using the
For the top course design conditions of Example 13.1 and the variable point method.

.- _2.6(80X10-1x1.1) Solation
15,000
(a) The maximum pressure that does not cause uplift of the shell is obtained
= 0.14 in. Use t - 1/4 in. for the top course according to Table 13.1
ftom Eq. 13.10:
-'. -*-ry--'fil?Yffiii irrxr
r3,2 APr 630 IANKS 4tl
wctght of eholl = (a0.82)(a)(EO)(tl)(s/16 + U4) h1 l0x12
= 57,800 tb Yrtr v(40 x 12x0.3) -10
. _ 0.245 x 57,800 ^
r'*=--lo-+Ex0.437s indicates that tz :
t2! as given by Eq. 13.17.
Equation 13.18 is based on an iterative process that is initiated by assuming a
value of f2, which can be obtained from the approximate equation
= 5.71 in. of water
: 0.21 psi 2.6H- t)' DG
-'
t":
15,000
The maximum pressure that does not cause excessive
stess ai the head-to-shell
junction is giveo by Eq. 13.11 as _2.6x9x80x1.1
15,000
(30,800x4.61x0.s77)
^ : 0.14 in.

: 16.3 in. of water From Eq.13.19,

= 0.59 psi r. O1n

K=-=1':-;=2.14
t" u. t4
Thus, maximum intemal pressure 0.21 psi. =
The failure pressure from Eq. 13.13 is C : 0,59

Pr: .r, : 0.6tV@l-iZXo5 + 0.32(0.5eX10 x 12)

1.6 P
4.8 A- :29.98
= (1.6)(s.71) _ 4.s(0.437s)
: 7.04 in. of water rz: 0.59(10 x 12)

p1 = 0.25 psi = 70.80

xc = 1.22Y(40 x l2)(0.14)
(b) The frangible joint arca given by Eq. 13.14
is
=10

^ -
0.t53 W
Hence -r : l0 controls and
t"" d
3oSoo

_ 0.153 x 57,800 - x /r2\G

tz=2.6D@ a,-
30,800 x 0.577
A = 0.50 in., 2.6(80X10 - ro/r2)(r.D
15,000
(c) The thickness of the bottom course is calcrilated
from Eq. 13.16 as
= 6.1a
f.
,=(t.*- 0.463 x 80 6x20x80x1. Because this value is the same as the assumed one, the analysis is complete,
m 15,m0 and no additional iteration is needed. Hence. use
: 0.30 in.
h: 5/16 in. for the bottom course
For the top cowse, the quantity
tz: l/4 n. for the top course as govemed by Table 13.1 I
-' -.---ru-*ryffiffiiuffiTtliii . ..2iL$tua
r3,3 APt 620 TANKI 4ts
I3,3 API 620 TANKS

API 620 tanks2 tend to be more complicated in geometry and are generally
:llJ9:Id g hiekr-ilptt^pressu'e than Apr 650 tank;. Accordingly, trr!
r€quirements of API 620 differ significantly fiom those of ApI 650
because the
mrckn€ss of the components is obtained from shess analysis that considers
the
biaxial shess state rather than a set of simplified formulas.
_ The shess analysis procedure in Apl 6t0 is based on Eqs. 6.10 and 6.11.
Equation 6. I I for /Vd can be determined- for any shell configuration
by using the 'l .62,4 pct
summation of forces obtained from a free-body diagram.-The advantage
of a
free-body diagram is that forces other than pressure cair be accountedlor
without
C:inF tryugh T inregration process. Once Nd is determined, the value of ly'e is
obtained ftom Eq. 6.l0 as

l&*&=o (r3.23)
R2 Rr

where Ne = X of forces at a given cross section.

Example 13.3 illustrates the application of

\. 13.23 ro ApI 620 tanks.
Example 13.3. The rower shown in Fig. 13.9 is filled with a liquid whose
Figur6 13.9
specific gravity- is 1,9 rlp to point d. Above point a the tower is subject€d
to a
gas pr9sswe of 5 psi. Determine the forces in the various
components of the
tower disrcgarding the dead weight of the tower.
and fron 84. 13.23 with R1 : Rz = 48 ft,
Solutian
^,
t\o _PR_ 5x576
Roof Forces - 2-
: 1440 lb/in.
The maximum force in the roof is obtained from Fig. 13.10a. Below section a_o,
a 5-psi pressure is needed to balance the pressurJabove sectjon a_a.
Force lVu and the unbalanced force 11. : 1309 lb/in. (inwards).
in the roofhas a vertical component V around the perimeter of the roof. Sum_
mauon ot torces in the vertical direction eives 40-Ft Shell

The maximum force in the shell is at section b-D as shown in Fig. 13.10r. Total
av - ,o,ll o weight of liquid at section D-b is

w
v=!=s"ff
= 600 lb/in. Total pressure at r-, is 5 + =:rr^;*:X,:,o,
(62.4/144)(35).

Hcnce P = 20.17 psi

-=ff;;% Sum of the forces at b-b is equal to zero. Hence,

2,744,s00 - (2O.17)GiQaD' + v1ay480; : 3

V = 600 lb/in.
' -- " -
ffi **ff IYI#iiiSii'ilirr r3.3 API 620 TANKS 4T5
\,4)"1'nr'

(e)

lV:i
c- +-
(c)

c- _c
b- - - .-b
Tfr-{-tT
v

o)

b"-

(d)

Figuro 13.10

----d
and
iV' = 600 lb/in' Figurc 13.10 (Continvod)

In a cylindrical shell R, = oo and Rz = R. Hence Eq. 13.23 becomes

Ne_pR=(n.n)(?/io) V: 600 lb/in.

and
= zt84l lbiin.
-. =
wo
600
Conical Trawition di6
At section b-b force V in the zl0-ft shell rnust equal force V in the cone due to : 849 lb/in.
continuity, as shown in Fig. l3.l0}.
In a conical shell R' = co and iz = R/sin L Hence Eq. 13.23 becomes
'"" -" --ilffi*-"""Tiiftl6ffii'iinn
13,3 APt 620 TANKS 4tt

&=g0=uo?o:!!)
-- srn 0.707
20-Ft Shell

= 6847 lb/in. At section c-c the value of V in the 20-ft shell is the same as V in the cone duc
to continuity. Thus
The horizontal force at trnint b is Ho = 600 lb/in. (inwards) !
Figure 13.10c shows the forc€s at point c. The weight of tiquid N1 = lt : -2777 lbli'..'
in conical
section is ,'1llol,ff^",,,',
*=4rl+R,R,+n3)
At section d-d the liquid weight is given by
_nx62.4 x 10..^" l0
.^
xzo+202) W: j,?rr,9oo + (62.4)(n)(r0)2(zs)
-3
: 457.2100 lb -(Iy+ = 3,692,000 lb

Total liquid weight is and the pressure is calculated as

W : 2,744jffi + 457 ,4n = 3,201,900 lb

/6) A\
P=s+l#l(70)
Pressure at section c-c is 5 + (62.4/ A0@S\. : 35.3 psi
p = ?A.5 psi
From Fig. l3.l0d the summation of forces about d-d is
Sumrning forces at section c-c gives
3,692,W - 35.3(r)(r2o)2 + v(r)(2$): a
('24.s)Gr|(r2o)2 - 3,201,900 - (v)Giea\ = o N6 : l/ = -2177 lblin'
V = -2777 tbtin. which is the same as that at point c.
- The negative sign indicates that the vertical component of iy', is opposite to
that assrrmed in Fig. l3.l0c and is in cornpression Ltner man No: PR = (35.3X120)
6nsion. This is
caused by the^column of liquid above the cone whose :4236lblin. I
weight is greater than the
net pressue force at section c-c.

-.t11'' 13.3.1 Allowqble Stress Criterio

- 0.707
The required thicknrcss of API 620 components in iension is d€termined from the
: -39271blin. (compressive) larger of the values obtained from these two exDressions:
24'5
l/o = RPlsin
' 0= tZOx 0.707
:
-sE
, =N'
4158 lb/in. (13.24)
H. :
.rt{"
3927 lb/in. (inwards) ' ,tE
488 FIAT SOTTOM TANKS 13.3 API 620 TANKS 489

whorc t : rcquircd thickncss ol'componcnt (in.) Compressive Stress with Equal Magniludc in the Meridional and Circum-
Ne = hoop force (lb/in.) lerentinl Dbections
No : meridional force (lbs/in.) The goveming equation is obtained from Eq. 6.35 for the buckling of a spherical
J = allowable tensile stress (psi) shell with a factor of safety of four. Using E : 30,000,000 psi, the equation
becomes
E = joint efficiency similar to discussion in Section 8.1

The API criteria for components in compression are as follows. a= srz,soo(*)

Compressive Stress in the Axial Direction wilh No Stress in the Circum-
ferential Directian which is approximated in API as

The rules for this case are based on the axial buckling of a cylindrical shell as
/.\
r,ooo.oool;l (13.26)
given by Eq. 5.28. With E = 30,000,000 psi and a factor of safety 10, this \^/
equation becomes
This value is 1.8 times smaller than the value given by Eq. 13.25. Accordingly,
,=,.,,,o'(f) ( 13.2s)
the limit ofEq. 13.26 is established as 15,000/1.8 = 8340 psi. Thus oDElc in
Fig . I 3 . I 1 is the criteria used for components having compressive stress of equal
magnitude in the meridional and circumferential directions.
To prevent the stress in Eq. 13.25 from exceeding the allowable tensile stress
of the material, an arbihary value of 15,000 psi is established as the upper limit
Compressive Stress with Unequal Magnitude in the Meridional and Circum-
of the allowable compressive stress. This is shown in Fig. 13.11 as line OABC
where 4-B is a transition line between Eq. l3.ZS and the upper limit of 15,000 terential Directions
psi.
The criteria for this case are based on the following equations:

(larger stress) + 0.8(smaller stress)

shess determined fuom OABC tn
< 1.0 (13.27a)

Fig. 13.11 using R for the larger force

1.8(smaller stress) < 1.0

at (13.27b)
shess determined from OABC in
E
th
Fig. 13.11 using R for the smaller force
o
o Compressive Stress in One Directinn and TensiJe Stress in the Other Direction
o
The criteria are based on the assumption that the capability of a component to
o resist compressive force in a given direction is reduced as the tensile force in the
other direction increases. The goveming relationship is derived as follows. Let

t ,
rrr
- actual comoressive stress
--ii_------:-i--------------
E allowaDle comDresslve sress
Figure l3.ll (Coortesy of the Anericon Perrol€um Inlritute.)
tuom OABC of fin. t:.tt
 fLAt lotTot TANKS
I3,3 API 620 TANKS 491

und
Rool ol l8nk
_ actual tensile
,r^, - r-i-----_:-i_--- stress
allowaDle tenslle stress-

Then

M2+MN+N2=1.0 (13.28)
The interaction of this equation with Eq. 13.25 is shown
in Fis. 13.12.
13,3.2 Compression Rings

As shovn in Example 13.3 there are unbaranced horizontal forces

at the roof-
to-shell and cone-to+hell junctions. These forces must be carried
by a com_
p_ression ring region at that location. The region
can be in tension or compression
depending on the direction of the discontiriuity as well as the
troop torces. apt
620 as-sumes that portions of the roof, shell, and cone shown
in He. 13.13 are
ring region._ Th9 total force given Uy tt-e torro*ing
equaron :*pt":tioT
t*^.,.l_Tls assumed to be supported by the ring region:
Fisur€ 13.13 Compr€ssion rins rasion. (Courtosy of rhe Americon Pelroleum Inslitute.)

6
Q=Na,Wn+N1'"W"+HR (r3.2e)

I where Q : total force at ring region (lb)

Nr. :
6
meridional force in roof or cone (lbiin.)
N0, :
!
3 circumferential force in shell (lb/in.)
I7r, = effective length of roof or cone as determined from Fig. 13.13
(in.)
W" = effective length of shell as determined from Fig. 13.13, (in.)
:
11 unbalanced horizontal force at junction (lb/in.)
R: radius of tank at junction (in.)
\
t:
i The total required area at the junction is determined from
B

:
l" *r'o is,ooo--L
when Q is compressive
(r3.30)
Flgura 13. | 2 Sioxiol stress chon for combinod retuion ond comprelsion
3O.Om p3i ro 38,OOO pst yietd srr$s
rt.oh. (Courrory of rh6 Am6ricon petrol€sm tmrirute.l = when Q is tensile
#
'.' --*""*'ffi **TffiTffi
f irmr
whorc A - roqulrtd a,rpa (in,2)

S = Allowabie t€n6ils stress (psi)

E = joint efficiency

Details of various ring attachments are shown in Fig. 13.14.

Example 13.4. Deterrnine the required thicknesses of the 20_ft shell and the
conical reducer in Example 13.3. Also detemine the required stiffening ring
arca at point c. I,et S :
20,000 psi, E = 1.0, and CA :0.O.

Sohttian

20-Ft Shell

From Example 13.3 the forces at point c are

No : -2777 lVn'
ffd = 2940lblin.

and the forces at point / are

Nt : -2177 lbln.
Nd = 4236 lblin.

z
Thus forces at point d control. From Eq. 13.24,
P..niisibl. wh.r. rEf (ft bor+.E)
pldl! thi.tn... i5 nor 6v.tiir.
4236
'- 2o"ooo x lo

kt
= 0.21 in.
4t
, tf-

. 9.
t=i6-' Y-J Not P.rh'.3rbrc
Figurol3.14 som€ Fmi.libl. qnd noip6rml$lble d.lcik ot compr€$ioo'ringFiuicturo conJ?udioi. (cour-
Then
!,6!y of {|. Amlricon Peholcum lnrtituL.)

f.: o.oo+z

actual tensile r*rr = ffi = 7530 psi

493
 .91 IIAT IOTTOM TANK! 13.3 APr 620 TANKS 495

actuel compressive sress = ffi = +S+O Vsi actual compressive ,o"r. = o%-
u.t)6 /)
= 5710 Psi
x
allowable compressive stess from Eq. 13.25 = l.g x allowable compressive stress from Eq. 13.25 - l'8 1q10 6875 = 7290 psi
8zl40psi 106 10.5625\
\-m-)=
From Eq. 13.28, ru=ffi=0.:o
7530
: 0.38
n =W:
7290
o.ts
20,000
0.302 + 0.30 x 0.78 + 0.78'? = 0.91 0K
4940
M = ,Ooo = O.SS use t = 11/16 in. for conical hansition section
0.38'? + 0.38 x 0.59 + 0.592 =0.72 < 1.0 or user=9/16in. shell.
Compression Ring
Conical Transition Section
From Example 13.3 the discontinuity force at point c is
From Example 13.3, forces at point , are
H = -3927 lb/in. (inwards)
N, = 849 lb/in.
w. = 0.6 (120X0.s625)
Ne = 6847 tb/in.
= 4.93 in.
and from Eq. 13.24 / rtn \ (0.6875)
Wt'" = O'6 {;+ |
\u. /u// '
6847
' = 20,000 = 6.48 in.

: 0.34 in. Na : 2940 lb/in.

Forces at point c are given by

No, = -3927 lblin'
Q: C3927)(6.48) + 2940(4.93) + (-3927)(r2o)
N, : -3927 lblin. : -482,190 lb
l/a : 4158 lb/in.
From Eq. 13.30,
L€t
", _
482,190
t = 11/16 n. 15,000

= 32.15 n.2 required area

Then
available area = (0.6875X6.48) + (0.5625X4.93)
, 0.6875 = t.25 |It.-
R= 120 = 0.0057 needed area = 31.25 - 7 .23 = 24.O2 in.2

actual rensile rt
"rr
=
ffi = 6o5o psi Use 2 in. x 12 in. ti"g. I
 .9O ILAT IO'TOM TANKS
I3.4 ANS 896.I AI.UMINUM TANKS 497
I3.4 ANSI 896.I ALUMINUM TANKS
lilllowing expression, which is similar to Eq. 13.5:
The rules for ANSI 896.1 Tanksr follow the same general
criteria as ApI 650
rules. Differences in various requirements between
ai-uminum anJ sieet tants are
given in Table 13.1. , = r"oo
- Y:-,e)I
897 sin 0
(13.34)

| 3.4. I Design Rules

ANSI 896.1 uses an approximate equation which, for the design of conical
The design of dome roofs is obtained from Eq. lrxrf.s, is given by
9.2b and is based on a factor of
safety of 4.0. Hence,
D \/F
-
t=-
1414 sin 0
( 13.35)
o.06258
\R/t)' where r = required thickness of cone roof (in.)
Using E = 8,000,000 psi at 400T, this equation reduces to D = diameter of tank (ft)
R- P = dead plus live loads (psf)
t= (13.31) :
ToiYP 0 angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)

where r = thickness of dome roof

The required area at the cone roof-to-shell junction is obtained from Eq . 1 3 . 8
R = radius of roof (ft) its

p= dead and live loads (psf)

PD2
-- 8o sin d
(13.36)
The required area at the roof-to_shell junction
is obtained from Eq. 13.4:
where A = required area (in.')
O_DRpcos0 (r3.32) P = dead and live loads (psf)
4o
A conservative value of cos 0 is taken as 1.0. Hence,
D= diameter of tank (ft)
o: allowable tensile stress (psi)
PRD
^_ (13.33)
0 = angle between cone surface and horizontal base (degrees)
4o
where A = required area at dome roof_to_shell junction (in.z) The design of aluminum shells is based on Eq. 13.15, which is based on the
"one-foot" method given by
P = dead and live loads (psf)
4 = spherical radius of dome roof (ft)
2.6D (H
I:_----.4 - tt G
(r3.37)
D= diameter of shell (ft)
o= allowable tensile shess of roof, shell, or junction where r: shell thickness (in.)
area, whichever
is less (psi) D = tank diameter (ft)
The required thickness of a self-supporting conical 11 = height of liquid (ft)
roof is obtained flom the
G = specific gavity
 498 FLAT IOTTOM TANKS BIETIOGRAPHY

/: ulkrwablc tcnsile stress ol'alurninum (psi) dcsign of components. Instead it outlines the general requirements associatc(l
e = joint efticiency with design loads, earthquakes, allowable compressive stress in columns, radio-
graphic examination, and so on. Most of the requirements in API 650 can bc
ANSI B96.1 does not contain mles for intermediate applied to AWWA tanks. Some exceptions are given in Table 13.1.
stiffening
'iilio.
rings. For open
top tanks, a stiffening ring is required, *hich
is basJ;; a. i" *,,
Il is defined as the overall height of the t"*
,J-E{I.'liio;;";;". ""*, REFERCNCES

- _ PHD, (FS)
(13.38)
l. Weldcd Steel Tanks for Oil StoraSe, 7th ed., API Standard 650, American Petroleum Institute,
48 E Q/D) Washiqton, D.C., 1980.
2. Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large, welded, Lout-Pressure Storage
In an elastic body, Tanks, 7th ed., API Standard 620, American Petroleum lnstitute, washington, D.C., 1982.
1. American Nation^l Standard for welled Aluminum-Allo! Storage fdt tJ, ANSI 896.1-1981,
America[ National Standards Institute. New York. 1981.
f = Ee ( 13.3e)
4. AwwA Standotd fot Welded Steel Elev.tted Tanks, Standpipes, and Resen'oirs for water
and for a stiffener in bending, the relationship StoraS?, AWWA Dl00-73, Afterican Water Works Association, New York, 1973.
between strain and curvarure r 5. Zick, L. P., and R. V. Mcclath, "Design of Large-Diameter Cylindrical Shells," presented
at the 33rd Midyear Meeting of the American Pekoleum Institute, 1968.
t
t= (13.40) 6, Karcher, G. G., "Stresses at the Shell-to-Bottom Junction of Elevated-Temperature Tanks" in
2R l98l Proceedings-Refning Department, 46th Midyear Meeting, American Petroleum Insti-
tute, May 1981.
Hence, from Eqs. 13.39 and 13.40

t =f BIBTIOGRAPHY
2D 2E
Steel Tanks for Liquid Storase-Steel Plate Engineering Data, Vol. l, Americao hon and Steel
Substituting-this expression into Eq. 13.3g Institute, Washington, D,C,, 197 6.
and using a factor of safety 2.0, the
expression for the required section modulus
Z becoires

z = 0.084 PHD' (13.4r)

f
where Z = required section modulus (in.3)
P : wind pressure on tank (ps|
Il = height of tank (ft)
D= diameter of tank (ft)

/: allowable stress of stiffening ring (psi)

I3.5 AWWA STANDARD DIOO

Most water tanks are built in accordance with

the ..American Water Works
As.sociation Standard for Welded Steel
Elevated Tankr, Si_Jpio".,'_o n"r"._
voirs for water Storage.'a The standard gt";,
f"* ;;";#"
;;";ons rbr the
 CHAPTER 14
HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT

Rod bdffle h.or €x.honsers. (Courr$y of ihe

Noorer corpororion, Sr. touis.)

501
 HEAT TRANSFER IOUIPMENT

Heet transt'er cquipment is used in many applications such as boilers in power raat aNo
atiEu tYPl5
plants, heat exchangers in the petrochemical industry, and condensers and evap- .'AT|oNARY I{€AO TY?II

orators in heating and refrigerating systems. Heat transferequipment varies from '1t'-ii'
miniature heat exchangers a few inches in diameter to power boilers over 100 ----tlll!-i l,-tn
E L
ft long. This chapter presents the theoretical background and design equations
A flxlo Tuscs8fEr
of heat exchangers and boilers. ONE PA3s SHETL LIKE 'A" STATIONARY
-lL---,?'-"-'---'JU
H(AO

!i i:
---{11=i l-\
-_

14.I TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS F ll,l

la-llrI
fIXED TUBESHEI
-Jl TWO PrSs SHEI! LIKt "8" STATIONARY IIIAD
Heat exchangers in the United States are normally designed according to the WITTI TONGITIJDINAL AAfRC
-tL---.>
Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA)I and the
ASME Code, VI[. In general, TEMA requirements are a supplement to the a I G N
ASME requirements, for they tend to include areas not discussed in the ASME. !ii!r I ftxED TutEska6t
IIKT 'N" STAT|oNARY I]EAO
Most of the TEMA design e.quations relate to tubesheet design when affected by BONNET (NftCRAI
differential pressure and temperature, expansion joints, bustles, and so on.
TEMA uses alphabetical designation to differentiate between vadous types of p
frequendy used components. This is illustrated in Fig. 14.1. The components H
OI,i'!;IDE PACKCD FLOATING
can be interchanged to form a wide variety of heat exchanger configurations, as c 'IEAO
+J11------
shown in Fig. 14.2.
Their rules, which apply to thft€ different classes of construction depending ----Lfn\ \
s .---LI $.=.!a_(n===
on the severity of service, are referred to as R, C, or B. A summarv of the J FLOATING HEAD
differences between these classes is given in Table 14.1. WTH DEVICE
'ACKNG

N
I
Tqble 14.l Some TEMA Requiremenfs of Closses R, C, qnd B Exchongers PUTI THROIJOh fLOATING HEAO

K o_-
CIIANNEL II '1-1-------------\\
|| ,l
u
Paragaph KETILf TYPE RE'OILEN
fu-
IJ-IIJBf SUNOLE
Service t.l2 Severe Moderate General
Corrosion allowance 1.15 i rn. * in.
-l in. D x __'ii', __
(cafton steel) w --r-€:++:.,:zlTT
-----t=:E-+ \ lu
6---r=--l
Shell diameter 3.3 8-60 in. 6-60 in. 6-60 in. SPECIAL TiIGH PICSSUR€ CTOSUNE
€xrERft^trY slatED
FIOAIINC TUBTSHEEI
Minimum thickness of 4.42 i h. I in. carbon I in. carbon
longitudinal baffle ste€l steel Figurs l,(.1 Vorio{rs IEMA component6. (Courtesy of the Tutulor Exchong€r Monufo€turoi! Alsociotion, Inc.)
I in. atloys in. alloys
Minimum tie rod 4.71 ; in. i io. "1
i in.
diameter
Prefened gasket 6.32 !+ None None
contact surface
tolerance
Minimum bolt size l0. t ?n. s j in. t in.

503
 AJW
Fis'lrc l,{.2 (conrinued)

I4.2 TEMA DESIGN OF TUBESHEETS IN U-TUBE EXCHANGERS

The basic equation for the design of heat exchangers is obtained from Examples
7.l and 7 .2
^s
|.'APaz
= for simply supported Plate
" T
0.7 5Pa2
o= -7= for fixed plare

Letting G = 2a and solving for the required thickness gives

, typicol h6ot er(chons.r confisurorion5. (Court€r), of

:'l*: rho tvbolor Exchonser /$dnurodurers
].o _
, =ttE {', rornxedprate

5(M
50s
 5OO HIAT TRANS;IR IOUIPMTNT I4.2 TEMA OESION OF TUBESHETTS IN U-TUBE EXCHANOTNS 507

whcrc Cr is a constent that is based-on such parameters

as ligament efficiency,
tubc.stiffening effect, and method of edge suiport. n" fiV"e
for the
required thickness of a tubesheet in bending is based "q""tion_ g.77.
on a t^t6i C,
Hence.

'-7 Vst,
-_FG (14.1)

where I = required thickness of tubesheet

G = diameter
P = applied pressure
S = ASME allowable tensile stress
F = factor equal to I 25 for simply supported plate and I
.
. 00 for a fixed
plate.

Tle $earing stress in the tubesheet at the outer tube perimeter must
- also be Fisurs l,{.3
checked and kept below an allowable stess. The
tota force W aue io press*e
in the tubesheet of Fig. l4.3is
C : perimeter of outer tubes, as defined in Fig. 14.3
W=PA d"= outside diameter of tube
The shear area A" through the outer perimeter is obtained
from Fig. 14.3 and is p= distance between tubes

e,= cr( -e) Example 14.1. A tubesheet for U-tube exchanger has a 12-in. diameter and is
subjected to a design pressure of 100 psi. If the tube layout is as shown in Fig.
Hence the shearing shess o ls expressed as
14.4 and S :17,000 psi, what is the required thickness? Assume the edge to
be simply supported.
w PA
A" Cr(l - d,/p) (14.2)

The allowable shearing s[ess in the ASME Code, VIII-I, is given by

a= 0.8S

Thus Eq. 14.2 becomes

T _ 0.3tDL lP\ (14.3)

0 - dJpt\i)
w\erc DL = 4Af C
A= area of tubesheet Figuro l,{,,(
within outer tube perimeter
 IOI HIAT IRAN3IIR IOUIPAATNT
I4.3 THTORffICAI ANALYSI5 OT TUBISHEITS IN U-TUBE EXCHANGTRS 509

Solullon, F'ronr Lq. 14. l, :

where M7 bending moment of tube
Er : modulus of elasticity of tubes
- _ (r.2s)\r2)
2 11 = moh€nt of inertia of tube
= 0.58 in. I= baffle spacing as shown in Fig. 14.6
From Eq. 14.3 with 0 : rotation of tube at tubesheet junction

4 = factor relating effect of baffles on tube-end bending moment

A = rR2 : 98.17 in.2 given by Fig. 14.6

and
Similarly, the radial bending moment in the tubesheet is given by

C = 34.97 in. ,. = __:,-

NErlrF,a,r
M, ( 14.))
_ 0.31(4 x 98.17 /34.97, / too \ TA'l
-
(1 - 0.7s/r) \17,000/
M, : ndial bending moment in tubesheet
= 0.08 in.
N = number of tube holes
Thus f,*, = 0.58 in. I Ar = radius increment as shown in Fig. 14.5

a = radius of tubesheet
r4.9 THEORETTCAI ANArySts oF TUBESHEETS tN U_TUBE
EXCHANGERS

Gardner in 1959 published a papef that explained the

interaction between the
tubes and tubesheet in U-rube ireit exchangers. Gardner
assumeJthe interaction
to be represenr€d by Fig. 14.5. Hence thJ bending in th";1;.;-
,r= -nTt (r4.4)

Fn

DX 1 2 3Or
More
o 4.OO 400
o.2 3.83 3a3
OA 3.69 3.70
o.6 359 3.60
o8 3.52 3.53
1.O 3.OO 3.43 3.46
F'sur6 la.5 (R€f. 2) Figure 1,t.6 (RcI. 2)
 I)clining I4.3 THEORETICAT ANALYSIS OI TUSTSHETTS IN U.TUBI TXCHANGTRS 5l I

for fixed edge ( 14. r0)

IIU")
'= cry#)"'
(14.6)

where D* is the modified flexural For simply supported tubesheets, the moment at the edge is not zero because the
rigidity of the tubesheet and ly' is the total
number of tubes. The differential erquation outer tubes have a bending moment that is transferred to the tubesheet. For this
of the bending ofa plate as given by
Eq. 7.7 becomes boundary condition, the value ofAl is given by

dlt d (.dw\l _ e .,/d,u\

drlr dr| El ] - o.' ,\d,) (14.7)
A1

This equation can be solved in terms

ofBessel functions. For
for simply supported edge (14.1l)
plate, the solution can be expressed a uniformly loaded
as
With the value ofA; established for the two boundary conditions, the values of
. =uJ-{1g1_!1_ Afto@") _ r"(U)t} (14.8)
M,, M,, and Q can be obtained from Eqs. 7.3a, 7.3b and 7.10 as follows:

dw pa3 / -I\ _ u,: r*fi{o + p+y - alro14 - 5Or,<rr]}

dr= o.\zu2)LU-Alt(utl (r4.9)
t'0
w = deflection
a,= r' fir{o + p.t - elsaul +9nP4u,]} "'
P = applied pressure
9 = rafir,<u)
U.= (a
u=tr The maximum value of M, can be obtained from Eq. 14.12 for various
A= constant of integration boundary conditions and U values. Hence,
10, 1r = modified Bessel function of zero and
first order, respectively M'* = Pa2 F. (14.13)
D*= E*73
where F. : coefficient obtained from Fig. 14.7.
.E'*= effective modulus of elasticity of perforated tubesneer The maximum bending stress is given by
Z = thickness of tubesheet
t,r = effective poisson,s ratio of perforated tubesheet ' =e!e\
lt \T/ (14.14)
a = radius of tubesheet
where r; = ligament efficiency of perforated tubesheet in bending
r = radius of a given point on tubesheet
d : tube diameter :p - d
p
p= tube pitch
Also the maximum value of Mr in the tubes can be expressed as
For fixed tubesheets, the rohti,on
at the edge is zero and Eq. 14.9 can
solved forA,: be
maxMT =
i(#),", (l4.ls)
 ,22

.20

.18

.16

74

12

.10

.oa

.ou I

""1 234567
.o2 |
rigurc 1,1.8 (ReI.2)
u .t , Or-U 6 7 8 9
" 10

Fisurs ra.; Equations 14.16 and 14.17 arc combined in a plot, as shown in Fig. 14.9.
Ger. 2l

*lY€ . 4 = coefficient obtained from Fig. 14.8. Example 14.2. Find the thickness of the tubesheet in Example 14.1 if
The interaction between the tubeshe"t
,
oy combining Eq. 14.6 with Il"
ttii"t n"r. _O tt e pressure is illustrated E* : 9.0 x 106 psi lt* : 0.3
= !a: Etvng
N= 88 Ir = O'0166

(:)=h Er=30x 106 psi n= 3.46

l= 12 in.

t r-zts T
- AA (14.16)

where

1a\
L l
^=ftztl=il4f.Nr,lt/t
E+ Iasl
Also Eq. 14.13 can be expressed
as

/l\=
\qo/ ^'
6F^U2n
or

5t2
ff: ar.utu (14.17) Fisurg 1,{.9 (Ref. 2)
 drAr la srlR laulPMlNT
I4,4 BACKGROUNO OF THE ASMT DESIGN TQUATIONS FOR IUBCSHTETS 515
Solullon. tct ?.= 0.24 in. Then

(9.0 x
^* _ 12(1 106X0.24)r
_ 031) 11,390

U.:(a=18.78
T=THIcKNESS Or PERFORAIED PIAIE
From Fig. 14.7,

f. = 0.008 (conservative)
,=10--9'7s=0.r,
and from Eq. 14.14,
< 0.6
(6)(0.008)(100)/ 6
o_ Y (,6 o.s
0.2s \o.z+) > o.4
o= 12,000 psi OK
I H o.s
UI

r4.4_-.BACKGROUND OF THE-li_t4E
DESTGN EQUATTONS FOR
TUBESHEETS IN U-TUBE EXCHANGERS

The ASME Code, VII_I, uses the

sheets. The tigament efficiencv
method in- Section 14.3 for designing
tube- o.1 02 03 04 05 06 08 1.o
4^obtained from o',D#Jiii.Jrk, is sum_ LtcaMENT EFFrcrEt{cY, ? =+cq
manzed in Figs. 14. t0 and 14. il
. Because the diamet , oiti" ouirt"
ls normally less than the tubesheet tuu. ,o* TAIANGULAB PITCH
dlameter, an adjustment is made
t4. t4.t3. The tubesheet is assumed ," to Gardner,s Figure 14.10 (Ref. 3)

a and an outside ring of outer

radius ,. Accordingly,
,
iirilr"i"Tllj,. r"or,
"r"riri.ii"Fig. 14.9 must be modified
ft"-y,io_ot b/a. A sample of the curves
::.J.j:.,
ruSgr_o_up on Heat Exchan8ers
developed by the ASME
is shown in nigs. r+. r z anJi+ifr ,
r,xpressing Eqs. t4.16 and 14.17 rlr. .r I .os.
in rerm's oi r;;;;;;;;;;". ^ g,"". Also Eqs. 14.16 and 14.17 can be expressed as

, = T2 P ,".
(14.18)
",e.J )t2 a2 )t'rlo'" '
where f = 6F^
c,=+s
r, : otl(f)
110
(14.19a)
 6 HIAT TRANSITR IQUIPMINT I4.4 BACKOROUND OT THT ASME DISION TQUATIONS FOR TUBESHETTS 517

6.00
4.00

3.00
-0.1
\
2.OO

\
SIII'AFE P|ICII ROTATED SOI'ARE PITCH
T-THICX ESS OF PERFORATED PLATE 1.00
0.80
1.O
0.60
09 0.50

0.40
o8
0.30
o:l C6

2 0.20
o.6
2
o
o 05
OA 0.r0
0.04
uI o3
0.06
a2 0.05
0.04
o.l
0.03
oo rtl
o.2 0:i o4 05 05 oa o.o2
LGAmENT EFFrcrENcy , - PFd'
SQTJAFE PITCH
Fisure l4.l I (Ref. 3)
o.2 0.3 0.40.s 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.O 3.0 4.0 5.0
T/ c^
Expressing Triangular pitch
Figvre 14.12 (Coud6s), ot ihe Amsricon Sociaty of Mechonicol Engineers.)

D
K' F4. 14.19a becomes
a
G
a ,: of rlZ,,
(l4. r9b)

and
where /* is obtained from Figs. 14.14 and 14.15.

li'
"r*:
Example 14.3. Determine the thickness of the tubesheet of Example 14.2
2K' using ASME's Eq. 14.l9b.
 t tl IAT TTANIIII IOUIPMINT
I4.5 THEORETICAT ANATYSIS OF FIXCD TUBESHEETS 519

(
;; \,
t 66
,) FfiF (/
2AAeA
I*AE / er=6o"
ile\
\7 \
SOUARL
P]TCH
ROIATTD SOUARI
P TCH

TRIANGUTAR
PlTCH

(.Ya K: bA
Fisur. l,l,l/a Fis'rra l,(.15
(Court sy of th6 Am6ricon Soci€ty oI ntechoni.ol Enginsers.)

I4.5 THEORETICAT ANATYSIS OF FIXED TUBESHEETS

The shess analysis of fixed tubesheets in heat exchangers is very complex due
to the large number of variables that affect the analysis such as difference in tube
and shell strain, the ratio of shell and tubeshe€t stiffnesses, effective applied
pressure, and relative thermal expansion of shell and tubes. The development of
Tlar the simplified TEMA design equations for determining fixed tubesheet tlickness
SOUARE PIrcH is based parfly on the theoretical work done by Gardnel'5 and Miller.6 From Eq.
Figure l,l.l3 (Court .y ot rh€ Arn.ricon So<ie, of riG.honicol Engin.er3) 7.9 the differential equation for the bending of circular plate is given by

I d [,d lt d (.a\ll g (r4.20a)

r drl'drlr dr\ dr/l) = D
Soluti^oy._ From Fig. 14.4, a : 5.0 and D = 6.0. Hence K, = t.? and
q = o.25.
The next s€ction shows that in a fixed tubesheet the quantity q, which is the
From Fig. 14.15,
local pressure at radius r, is not a constant. Rather it is a function oftll given by

f+ : o.sz Q:Cz'rKlm-2w)
From Eq. l4.l9b with G - 3.0, where g: local pressure
C2 = constant
r = 3.0(0.s2) (0.25X17,000) Nt(d!;-t)Er
Kr = tube bundle stiffness =
= O.2A in. I R = bolt circle
 !20 HIAT IRANSFIR TQUIPMENT I4.5 THIORTTICAL ANATYSIS OT FIXTD TUSESHEETS 521

:
L lcngth ol tubcs l'he valuc ol C2 can then be deternlinctl liorn this cqualittn as

4: outside diameter of tube

a,:
- r'#ll
r = thickness of tube wall \t4.22)
"f-----"----=tt-l
,,? = distance tubesheet edges move with respect to each other. fzzi,,rfr
}1, = deflection of tubesheet
Now define
Equation 14.20a can be written for perforated
tubesheets subjected to pressure Q" = FqP (14.23)
4

where qo :
local pressure at radius a.
*ffi*2,'fi-*#*,ff**oo=o Then from Eqs. 14.20b and 14.21,

Z,(x.),,
where
^
-,
,a =--
x. Zz@.) h6) - " (r4.24)
2 zi&"\
, = (4\*
*,/ (r) = Br
'1-IJ'-"'" zl?.)
\D
and and from Eqs. I 4.20e and 14.2Of

f rr-,r\ I | (l- ttt I

p* = E*73 lzz6.) + vzltr;l - alz'G) -::------r!'zt9a)l
xa
M" _ L-- x4 I L I
12(l - p*21 BD*
0" zl(x") + Hzte")
This equation can be solved in terms of \14.25)
Bessel functions. For symmetnc loads,
the solution can be taken as
or

q=C2[27@)+HZ2@)] zl(x)
(r4.20b)
H=-
. =
ffiV,<ol - Z1@) + HLzze) - z+(x)l| (14.20c) ZL@.)

(14.26')
e=ffifzX,l+Hz!(x)l (14.zod)
The value of 11 is based on the edge condition of the tubesheet. For fixed
: 4:
{1", . (*)'r-,1 -,f,,<,t - (*1,*111
tubesheet, 0 and Eq. 14.26 gives
", ft
(14.20e) ,=-t# for fixed tubesheets (14.27)
whcre the Z functions are as defined in
Chapter 7 and C and II are consranm to :
be det^ermined from the boundary condidons. Similarly, for simply supported tubesheet M" O and E9. 14.25 becomes
Definrng P as the average pressure acdng
on the fubesheet, its total value is
[zzb) + l0 -
,.. = -\ffi] ttt/x"Vt,- r\ simply supported hrhesheets
, =
# I"
*o * = r,z&)lt - rffi] (14.21)
"t 04.28\
 i|IAI IiAII'IIR IQUIPMINT

vuluc or',r,,, the H constants can be carculated

f1t^u.uiu"n from and Eqs. 14.27
f.o_fi.'il.;j.",i"i? *a C, ar"
14.2[1. Constanr C2 c{rn then be determi""d
known, the of the benolng moment
at any rocation in the tubesheet
-magnitude
is obtained from F4. l4.2oe. The maximum uAu" oi tf,l.M.
obtained from 84. l4.ZOe and *'*t
---- "" ui url g,u"n ,. ,,
normally u,
"*p."r."a
M^ = pazF^
(14.29)
where fi is obrained from Fis. 14.16.
The maximum bending str6ss is

=T (1)'" (14.30)
"
For large values of -r, the Z val.uls can
be approximated by those gtven in
Table 7.1 and rhe quantities Fo and F^."n
u"
"' "'"
"ili..r"J ^i
I
F=
7{l + t/-X.l for fixed tubesheets 1234567A9

t/i (14.3 t)
Fieur€ 14.16
F^ =
=-:
IX"
I"rom Fig. 14.16, F. = 0.059 and T : 0.25. From Eq. 14.30,
and

,+P(ort)ro o'nr
F :
;O 2\/-2x)
+ for simply supported tubesheets ":
(14.32) a : 20,390 psi I
F- -,-n/4
''' 2x"
I4.6 TEMA FIXED TUBESHEET DESIGN
Example 14.4. Determine the stoess at the edge of a fixed Development of the TEMA simplified equations are based on Eq. 14.23 and can
tubesheet of thick_
? = 0.50 in. if the eeometry L u, ,to*n?
ness
lb/in.3. E* = 9 x 106 psr, p*
n!:'il;;?:
p = icrii-pri. = 52,800 generdly$e<fi.r'idedinto.thraseparateieps-..The first is determining an equiv-
=-0..1. -a alent local pressure on any given tube. The second step is establishing an
equivalent general pressure on an equivalent tubesheet. The third is incorpo-
Solution
rating the first two steps into the differential equation of the tubesheet that is
considered as a plate on elastic foundation. These three steps discussed in the
D.=q;#H#=103,020 next three sections are based on th work of Gardner. ? The notations used are the
same as those given by TEMA.I

o = (^\r'_ x 52.800\o,s
-\/2 ro3"oro-/ I4.6.1. locol Equivoleni Pressure
"-\o-) =I'0062
xa: 9(6) = 6.037 One of the main assumptions made by TEMA in the analysis of tubesheets is that
the tubes are uniformly distributed tbroughout the tubesheet. Referring to Fig.
 524 HIAT TNANS;ER IOUIPI,ITNT 14.6 TTMA FIXED TUBESHITT DESION

r,:r-Z\tt /d. - ztY/

14.17, it is seen that the total tbrce 4 in one tube due to
acting on the face of the tubesheet iS dxpressed as
a tubeside pressure li
:
"
N number of tubes
o= rl# - r(d' i "D'z1 = r#1, - i(+n 4: tubeside pressure
t= thickness of tube

Similarly, the total force 4 in one tube due to shellside pressure P, is expressed
n = nAf' (14.33)
where A = ra2/N
a : inside radius of tubesheet o:*l#-ry1=*+l'-i(*il
4 = outside diameter of tubes
4= force in tube due to pressure ,q acdng on face of tubesheet 4: nAf, (14.34)

where [ = force in tube due to pressure P, acting on face of tubesheet

4: shellside pressure

Besides forces 4 and force F" also acts on the tubes of Fig. 14.3 that
4 a third
is caused by such factors as thermal stresses, restraint due to other tubesheet, or
other unbalanced forces in the heat exchanger. This force is expressed as
'ti_il ||ttttPs F*= nt(d. -
li
wrl
t)on ( r4.3s)

where F- : tube force

or = longitudinal stress in tubes

Actual Contiguration The total summation of Eqs. 14.33,14-34, and 14.35 is equal to an assumed
equivalent force q acting on an equivalent tubesheet of radius r. Hence,

4na2
N
= E- n+ F* (14.36\

or

s=@f,-u)+\u,-ttot, (t4.37)

The axial stress dr in F4. 14 -37 can be written as

Equlvalent Confl gurafl on

Fieuf.e 11.17
,,=!,6,- u,,",) ( 14.38)
 iIiIO HIAT TRANSIIR IOUIPMINT
I4.6 TEMA FIXTD TUBESHTET DCSIGN
whcrc Ii, [x)dulus ol.clasticity ol.tubcs
wlrcrc L : length of tube
€i = longitudinal strain of tubes
w: deflection of tubesheet
pr : poisson's ratio of tubes
c, : coefficient of thermal expansion of tube
oc, = clrcumferential stress of tube
a1, = longitudinal stress of
AI, = in tube length
tube "1tunt"
0r : temperature change in tube
The circumferential shess due
to 4 and i can be expressed by
suhstituting Eq. 14.40 into 14.39 gives

"'=(#),'(*)- q: @t- P,n ++(d.- rl"(Y- ",4]

(r4.41)
Thus Eq. 14.38 becomes
.
oh: E,eh.
"l(ry)'-(*)-l
"[(#), - (*)-] (r4.39) lluation 14.41 has three unknown quantities: q, w, and LL..

T"^I1r",9t ** Eq. 14.39 can be.obtained Fig. 14.18. The strain of 14.6.2 Generol Equivolent Pressure
tube at a distance r fromthe centerline .r ,r,. lrom
r,."i i_ir,_g". i,j*L*"o
a

", 'l he total longitudinal force

W1 in the bonnet due to tubeside pressure f is shown
in Fig. 14.19 and is expressed as
a,=a-!t-L-o,r, (14.40)
Wn : ta'P, (14.42)

where W1 = longitudinal force in bonnet.

If the tubesheet is assumed as an equivalent solid plate subjected to a general

cquivalent pressure P, then the total load on the tubesheet is

Wp = ra'P (r4.43)

where P = general equivalent pressure

Wo = total load on tubesheet due to pressure P

Because W|, is not necessarily equal to w', the unbalanced force transmitted
through the shell is

W: 1ra'(n - P) (14.44)

where ll{ = unbalanced force on tubesheet.

The longitudinal shess in the shell can be expressed as

w (14.4s)
Figur6 14.18
nt!(Do - ts)
 .,.,6r$g.t,.rr:t,r^tr1rtii4t;ti.
14.6 ilMA flxlD luBllllllr DttloN lt9
Flnally, the value of €,r can be written as

+ = ^! - (4,47)
",e,
whcre d" : coefficient of thermal expansion in shell
AZ, = change in shell lengtrh
4 = temPerature change in shell
And the value of 4", is

*,=o#* (14.48)

Substituting Eqs. 14.44, 14.46, 14.47 , and 14.48 into Eq. 14.45 gives

ot=*o.m-ee;ln (14.49)

Equation 14.49 has two unknowns, Atr" and P. It is also based on Eq' 14.47
which does not take into consideration the strain due to an expansion joint.

When the dhell has an expansion joint, E4. 14.47 must be modified accord-
ingly. In Fig. 14.20a the expansionjoint can be approximated as shown. The flat
FigurE l,t.l9 plite aD in Fig. 14.?-Ob is assumed fixed at points a and b' The total deflection
of the shell is given by
where D, - outside diameter of shell LL"= 1" + La"Q * 6 (14.s0)
= thickness of shell
r"
where 6 = deflection of expansion joint.
ob = longitudinal stress in shell
The expansion joint deflection 6 can be expressed in terms of two components
as
and the longitudinal snain is given by

6=t"+6, (14.51)
,*=!6r- 1",o*'1 (r4.46)
where 6. : deflection due to mechanical load
where d, : modulus of elasticity of shell 6p = deflection due to pressure load

e6 = longitudinal sfrain of.shell Furthermore, the deflection due to mechanical load 6, can be written as
ratio of shell
" = Iroisson's
tr

o" : circumferential sness of shell a": + w,"l (14.52)

{rw
 ,.n.rnier'_lrti,iirllilrw, ]lt
14,6 TIMA ftXNO TUBrSl{ilT DllION tOl

Fisur. 14.21

s
2n=Lyra-!(w+w+wet)t3
8 EIi 3 EjIi - lMol"
2 EIr
(r4.54)

Similarly, the slope is

+w)lz +MoI
"' :!w,il2
e -L(w+w"
6 EiL 2 EiIi Ey'i
(14.55)

where D; : outside diamet€r of expansion joint as defined in Fig. 14.19

Ei = modulus of elasticity of expansion joint
Figur. I ,1.2O

/i = mornent of inertia of expansion joint

where 51 : spring constant of expansion joint = 4,24(Dt + D)tj
l7r, = load on shell from expansion joint I - lengtlt of expansion joint
= 1rt,(D"- t,)P"
n : number of convolutions in expansion joint
Substituting Eqs. 14.45, 14.46,14.51, and 14.52 flta 14.50 gives 4 = thickness of bxpansion joint
joint
L!"= w t/ + ^\ + wF) (r4.s3) l7e; = pressure force in expansion
- -t&- 4,4 +E(r
L E"r,t,@;4--il* X)W =4tp?-
4'- o?tp.

*..Tf:ilTl5^l1l:.f gy,iq g/6" can be derived from Fig. r4.2r by

9: to Letting 0 : 0 and substituting Eq. 14.54 into 14.55 gives
assumrng me expansionjoint be subjested to the forces shown. Thi deflection
oue Io priessurc torce Woy end forceW" + +
obtained from stucturii analvsis as
Wpj Wo", and end moment M0 can be
u=ffi,w+w^rfr+#@l
 Conpulng thlr oquatlon wlth thc last tom of
Eq. 14.53 shows that Equation 14.54 has two unknowns,l, and P. It is also idontical to Eq' 14.49
lor hcat exchangers without expansion joints, that is, for Si '-+ o.
('.*) =r+---at- (14.56)
14.6.3 Relstionship Between Locol ond Equivolent Pregsure
and

Tho TEMA design equation for fixed tubesheets is based on F4s. 14.23,14.41,
I 2nl3 rnd 14.49. At r : 4 it is assumed that the quantity 2w in Eq. 14.41 is negligible.
ISj r2Ey'i Substituting Eq. 14.23 into Eq. 14.41 and equating the latter with Eq. 14.49
. tlsult,in the following expression:

P=Pr'-P!+Pa (14.60)
^' = 968,L"
,); (r4.57)
2n(D1 - D")3

P
r4'4' 14'48' 14 sc and the expressions ror Pi =
xrolr + 0.,UK(l.s
+/)l
.t:ii:tflTri HL w* afr woi +
:T*n{o.*lrsp*
-t I + r(r.5 +/r]
+=ffi_w*,,," ":
_(:)(j#)1,.,ffi])
* P) +
$1",<n - rt"(Do - ,sa + - Dhp"] o _ un,r, (o--rt'fu!__g!f\
[<o?
'- 1p"- a\ u )\-r+.nq /
This equation can be simplifed by letting .. E,t,(D" - t)
n=Effi@" 1s

I
Ir+"@"-t"t*t"1 Fe:0.2s+ tr - o.ol1e%&(ql]'A
J LZ4J (14.58)
E modulus of elasticity of tubesheet material
=
Hence,

The values P,', P:, P:, Pi can be simplified by letting

LL'
.-:_ a2
L =
E"tn(D. - t,\
d"-t .r d.-t
.......:-
d-2t - - l
frc * <4 - oztn 1r d,
L-'- "l1 8"t-\t - 1) - #r(D" - 2t)(D. - ,JP,] D"-t"-tu:G D"'2t"-2a=G
/t \p
*|.i-t/r-**a - t)
t,(D. h
(r4.se) (D.-2 z (D"-3t",
.,--_-_.*@"*,1r7@qrr'!l[t|ttEr|Eu|'mnr1* ,,,r..sr.tRtitrrttll]]]{{44e1

14.6 TIMA llxlD TUllSHllT DllloN ctt

Honco,

U =ffi;n + o.dr(r.s +nl

"'
=t*4{o'*Irr's + K(1'5 +Dr (+)('"5)t
,,-(#+)(w\
the stress in the tubesheet of the heat
3:Httf exchanger
"ti..L.iftrlate rrzo-*boruees
E : n x ld psi for tubesheet material on'lt"tnntout-lR pttct-t.
and shell
d" = 0.5 x 10-6 in./in."F
Iength of tubes = 144 in.
thickness of tubes = 0.065 fu.
f (assurne a simply supported
plare)
.= !,ZS
tubeside plessule = 75 psi (b)
concruTent shellside pressure
= 15 osi tigor'11.22
E, = 30 x 106 psi
d, = 6.5 x 10-6 in./in.gF From Se.tion 14.6.3
operating temperature of shell
= l87T Q7 x rO\(O.2s)(36 - 0.25) = 2N.73
operating tempexature of tubes
= ll9? K: (27 x 101(0.06s)(0.75 - 0.06s)
ambient temperature 70.F :
Solution. From Eq. 14.57
Fq = o 2s + (, 2s _, .,|#_qa#ft#% (#;l]'"
of Fq : l '8752

and from Section 14.6.1

tt = + 36xo.2sf = o.l6e8
f;1n in.a

a _ O6)Q7
"i -
x 106X0.1698)
= 165,300 lb/in.
t:t-i(*, 1
-@Xlxl?l)47=6t-- rr2o I 0.75 - 2 x 0.065
j =, * s(ry?E#H:1]q =l- +\ ,l 35.5
= 32 85
: 0.9146
OI

J= 0.0304
= 0.8750
 !36 HIAT TRANSfTN IQUIPMfNT
NOMENCTATURE
llcncc,
/r'\
1 + (0.0304X200. 73)(1.87 s'
7-)
Itll\:r-=
x [1 + 0.4(0.0304)(200.73)(l.s + 0.9146'
FLANOED 1I FLUED EXPANSION JOIN'I
/f,
=_ ""'
16 RO?7r
'
12.4428.-
: n.lnn
41.55

15
ilil||tl
___-/uuu\F._______
1 + (0.0304x200.73)(1.s7 s' l-.-------1
t s + 200.73(1.5+ 0.s75)l
EELLOWS EXPANSION JOINT
Fisur€ 1,t.23
{o.oro.orooltr.
_ rr.0 - 9.0304)/ot,; ll r,).I
\ 2 /\ 3s.52 lJ I4.7 EXPANSION JOINTS
l5 'fhe two most common types of expansion joints are the flanged-and-flued and
= nTarr<s.trst - 0.36s0)
the bellows, shown in Fig. 14.23. The flanged-and-flued expansion joints are
= 6.57 used where the deflection between the tubes and the shell is not very large. The
most frequently used method of analysis is that of Kopp and Sayre.E It treats the
joint as an equivalent rectangular structural frame with some modifications to
account for the inside and outside radii. Many experimental investigations have

x [9.5 x
been performed to verify Kopp and Sayre's method. The results have shown that
10 6(187 - 70) - (6.5 x 10-6)(119 _ 70) tbr most applications this method is satisfactory.
12.4428 Bellows are used for large deformations of the shell. The analysis based on
= 1.48 a NASA researche is similar to that of Kopp and Sayre in that the bellows are
treated as a structural frame with hoop stresses resisted by rings or equivalent
From Eq. 14.58 plate-and-shell segments of the bellows. A frequently used standard in the
united states is that of EJMA.I0
P=41.55-6.57+1.48
= 36.46 NOMENCTATURE
From Eq. 14.I
a = radius of tubesheet
. F2G2 P b = G/2
47" D. : outside diameier of tube
(1.2r2Q5.r2 36.46 F : modulus of elasticity of shell
4
E,r : modulus of elasticity of tube
: 8686 psi OK t G = diameter of tubesheet
 530 HIAI TRANSTTR IQUIP/IITNI
BIBLIOGRAPHY 539
/I, i: poisroo's r.ittio ol tubcshcct ntatcrial (r. Milfcr, K. A. G., "fhc Dcsign of l'ubc Pla(cs in Hc.rl Exchrngcrs," in l'r(!$ut? V(tii,l Ml
/r* : poisson's ratio of perforated plate P4ing Design Colletted Pape^ 1927 1959, Amcrican Socicty ol Mcchanical lirgirrccrs,
1960, p. 6'72.
o = allowable bending stress 7, Mcmo from G- P. Byme, Jr., Secretary ofthe Tubular Exchanger Manufacturcrs Associatk)n
to Members of the Technical Commiftee, dated January 3, 1964 regarding Standards Back-
K' = b/a ground Data prepared by Karl Gardner.

M, = radial bending moment in a tubesheet 8. Kopp, S. and M. F. Sayre, "Expansion Joints fo. Heat Exchangers," Contributed by the Heat
Transfer Division and presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Mechan-
Mr = tangentizl bending moment in a tubesheet ical Engitreers, New York, November 27th, 1950.
't. Analysis of Stresses in Bellorrs, Design Criteria and Test Resubs, Part l, Atomics Inter-
N : number of tubes national Repon NAA-SR-4527.

P = pressure 10, Standads of the Exponsion Joint Manufacturers Association,4th ed., Expansion Joint
Manufacturers Association, New York, l9?5.
P, = shell side pressure
4 = tubeside pressure BIBTIOGRAPHY
p = rube pitch
: Rubin, F. L., "What's lhe Difference Between TEMA Exchatrger Cl^sses,"? Hydroca/bon Prc-
g local pressure ce$in8, June 1980.
J = ASME allowable tensile stess Rubin, F. L. and N. R. Gainsboro, "Latest TEMA Standards for Shell-and-Tube Exchangers,"
Chemical Engineering, September 24, 1979.
Z = thickness of tubesheet Yokell, S., "Heat-Exchanger Tube-to-Tubesheet Connections," Cr"nical Engineering, Feh aty
8, 1982.
t = thickness
t" = thickness of shell
t, = thickness of tube
a" = coefficient of thermal expansion of shell
a, = coefficient of thermal expansion of tubes
n =(p-d)/d.

REFERENCES

Standads of Tubular Erchonper Manufecturers

Association,6th ed., Tubular Exchanger
Manufacuers Associarion. york,
Niw 1978.
Gardner, K. A., "Hear-Exchanser Tube-she€t D€sign_3. U_Tube and Bayonet_Tube
Jourrnl ol Applied Meclranics, American Soc",y Sheers,..
lf ,r4""_-Lat"*'i1r".", ,'S#:
O'Donrell, W. J., and T. Slot, ..Effective Elastic
Constants fo. Thiciperforatea plates wrttr
Squares and Triangular penet ation panerns,..
Noverbber 197t. American Society
A S!4! J*r;i ;I ;;;;;;;Ir'#"r'l*^o",
of Mechanical Ensineers.
A., ..Heat
Exchanger Tube_Sheer Design.,. Journal of
9**, ISociety
Amencar of Mechanical Engineers, Decembei tgag
Apptied Mechanics,
Gatdner. K. A.. "Heat Exchanser Tube-Sheet
Design_2 Fixed Ttbe Sheets,,, Jounat of
Applied Mechanics, American s;iety of Mechani.je nginee.., i;;; trr."' "-
 CHAPTER t5
VESSELS FOR HIGH
PRESSURES
I5.I BASIC EQUATIONS

This chapter presents some design aspects of solid and layered vessels with
pressures in the range of 10,000 to 100,000 psi and higher. In these high
pressures prestressing, or autofrettaging, becomes an important consideration in
the design.
It was shown in Eq. 8.1 that

PR.
t=. sE ,,,
- 0.6P

is the design equation for vessel shells. As the quantity (,SE - 0.6P) approaches
zero, the thickness approaches infinity. In other words, as the pressure increases,
the allowable stress of the shell material must be increased higher than 607o of
the design pressure for the equation to be valid. This increase in allowable stress
requires materials of high tensile and yield properties. The limitations ofEq. 8.1
for high pressures are usually overcome by using a different equation that is
based on the theory of plasticity as discussed later in this chapter.
Equation 8. 1 is shown in Fig. 5.6 as being very similar to Lame's Eq. 5.9 for
thick vessels. Disregarding extemal pressures, Eqs. 5.9 and 5.10 become
A thick-woll loyercd vsss€t (Courres), of rhe Nooter corpororion, Sr. touis.)

/ ,2\ (1s.1)
o,=P'lt-41
r-l
\
540 ot = P'
541
 512 vt33!13 foR HtoH PRtssulEs
r5.2 PRESTRESSTNG Ot WAU"S
whcrc
whcre W = strain energy
/,?\
P' = Pl ,!! "l t, : poisson's ratio
\r; - rfl E = modulus of elasticity
.
The shess distribution given by Eq. l5.l is
shown in Fig. 15. 1 for a vessel or, cz, 03 : principal shess
with rJ 11 = 2.2. The max-imum stress is in the
hoop direction and is at the inner
surface where r = ri. As the pressure is increased,
the stesses increase until bar stressed to the elastic limit in simple tension,
F-or a 02: a3 : 0 and the
they reach a maximum limiting stress where cncrgy of distortion expression becomes
rainre is assumJ ti oc-cur. r,o. trrin
vessels the ASME Code assrirnes that failure
occurs *f,"oG-ii"ra poin, l,
reached. This failure criterion is conveni*t
*a
sfess tleory. In thick vessels the crirerion usually""lf"i
t tir"'rni*iriut pnocipat
;p;Iil f;;;i" mareriats
w:--6-
0 I u\ol
is the energy of dislortion theory. This trr""q,
-combination .lt"Jil;i
tl,;lrrii.o"
in a body under any of sfesses begins only when""uor,the", lror a pressure vessel with the tbree principal stresses given by Eq. 15.1, the
TI,I)oi",
*oCy .I per unit volume absorbed at trrefiiit cnergy of distortion expression is
Sstorrion
^s:11 energy of distortion
stain
is Squar to tfre
absorbed per unit volume at any poi* in u
to the elastic limit under a state of.umaxral
i*
.,r"rr"O
+ De),
test. The equation that expresses this theory
i, giu"n iV--
"'* """,
stress as occurs in a simple t€nsion
-o (#
/t + p\",f ,'; .f1tY
* = \!t<r, - oz)2 * (sz - o), * (o3 - c1)21 (1s.2)
=
\- l \r;- ri/ \r/
Itecause Ws, : l4lr, the maximum pressure at which yield is assumed to occur at
the inner surface is given by

'.:($(T)Gl (15.3)

It is interesting to nole that when the axial strain is assumed to be zero, the
axial stress becomes

o1 : p,(21t)

and the maximum pressure given by Eq. 15.3 becomes

rl - r?f ri , \r - 21t'fl-t/z
or
\/3 --l-Ll - 3 I (1s.4)

In most applications the difference between Eqs. 15.3 and 15.4 is negligible.

I5.2 PR,ESTRESSING OF SOLID WALL VESSELS

.L As the pressure in Eq. 15.3 is exceeded, the inner part of the shell becomes
plastic, whereas the outer part remains elastic, as illustrated in Fig. 15.2. The
Figu.e 15.t
derivation of the relationship between dle elastic and plastic regions is beyond
 ,4 vtt!!t! fot HtoH PnlssuRrs
15.2 PRESTRTSSTNG OF WAU.S 545

wlrrrc or, o,, a1 = hoop, radial, and longitudinal stress, respectively (psi)
or, = yield stress of material (psi)
Rrc,o, 't' r, = outside radius of shell (in.)
.," o'r"sr'c
ri : inside radius of shell (in.)
r= radius at any point in the shell (in.)
p= elastic-plastic interface radius (in.)

lklrution 15.7 may be used to determine the lower bound pressure P* at which
ytrl(ling occurs by letting p : 4. Hence

Fisurc 15.2

".=#( -1) (15.8)

the s9ory of this book. However, it
suffices to say that the derivation is
."r"c-i *irl, *." "*i"i'.nn.. rr,"
on plastic analysis of an incompressible based l'his equation gives results very close to those given by Eq. 15.4. Equation 15.7
resultant equations are as follows: lnn also be used to determine the upper bound pressure P+ at which total
Elastic region: yicfding occurs by letting p = ro. Hence

-2o" lnr
(+)H ('.!) \r5
(15.9)

@)6 (t -'4\
Itlxnmple 15.1. A pressure vessel with a solid wall has an 4 of 8 in., r, of
(15.5) l?.6 in., and o,, : 80,000 psi. Plot o6 and o, when P = P* and when P =
({).000 psi.

@e) Solution. From Eo. 15.3.

Plastic region:

.e+ _ 80,000 /17.6, - 8'z

V5\ 3' )(-''J

(#X'*1*znt) = 36,650 psi

(#J(-' * 4.* znt) (15.6) rrnd from Eq. 15.1,

o, = ss+o(r. ,,-/!g\
@(5"*z'n!) \

*:trfl':H[X ?iween
the applied pressure and the elasric-plastic
interrace
o,=rsno(r -ry)
'l'hese two values are shown in Fig. 15.3.
:
#(' -4
f; - zr,L\
p/ (r5.7) From Eq. 15.7 with P = 60,ffi0 psi and o,
calculation gives p :
80,000 psi, a trial-and-error
11.50 in. Hence from Eq. t5 5
 t46 Ytlstt3 foR HtoH PRISSUnES
I5,3 I.AYERED VESSEIS 547

Figlro'15.4

Solution. The maximum autofrettaging pressure of 60 ksi is less than fwice the
lower bound pressure P*. Accordingly, the stress distribution resulting from a
pressure drop of 60 ksi is in the elastic fange, as shown in Fig. 15.4. FromEq.
RaDrus , lNcH t5.1.
Fisurc 15.3

"'= -t,*t(rrr, - s.---g-)

qe=rs.72o(t*!g) P' = - 15,625 psi

\ r'/
o,=rs,72o(t-!g) oa= -rs,ezs(r .ry)
\ r"/
and from Eq. 15.6 The stress distribution given by this equation is superimposed with that in Fig.
15.3 for a6 at P = 60 ksi. The resultant residual stress is shown in Fig. 15.5.
The internal pressure of 45,000 psi gives a stress of
a,= 46,Do(1.427 + 2rn;3)
/-
o; = +e,loo(-o sz: + z rn
oe: rr.tzo(r.ry)
;)
A plot of these equations is shown in Fig. 15.3. and the total stress distribution due to this and residual stress is eiven in Fie.
i" Fig . I 5 . 3 are significait because they show the 15.5.
^. ,1.^.y:-p_t"g
or the stress pattem as the inner region of
redistriburion
the cylinder beco_"a ptu"ti". ato not"
the reduction of rhe stress at ttre inner
the elastic-plastic boundary as the pressure
surfactrrrd;;il;;;,i'?iL" ,o"r, u,
I5.3 TAYERED VESSETS
i, ln"."u."Ji"yoro ri. f
Example 15.2. plot the circumferential Layered vessels were developed in the United States and Germany at about the
residual stress a, when the auto_ same time during World War II. In Germany they were used in ammonia plants
frettaging-pressure j: !f-pl: rs r. i, ."o""ic iJr"r, ;i; irlT o, *r,"n u as well as for producing gasoline from coal. In the United States they were used
oeslgn pressure of 45,000 psi is applied.
for ammonia-synthesis processes for the ultimate production of nitrates. Since
 vlssg.s Fon HtoH PRESSURTS
I5.3 LAYERID VESSTTS

od ar P=45Ksl

c(

o
o
f

i,:)SBRINK Fr-r (d) ColL WRAP Figure 15.6

The earliest reference to layered vessels was made in the 1951 API-ASME
( bde. In later years when the API Standard and the ASME Code were separated,
'?iiLi;i* llre layered-vessel criterion was deleted from both. It was not until Jan'tary 1979
that layered vessels were included in the ASME Code. In establishing the new
Wodd War II the technology of building layered llyered-vessel rules, consideration was given to the state of the art as well as the
vessels has improved substan-
tialty..Today layered vesseJi are used ii'",i,ia"i"re" and research accumulated by the industry in the past 50 years. An
tions in the penochemical industry
;i[nfT"."ru." "iperience
c l ibrt was also made to provide rules to accommodate all types of known
as heat exchangers, "pp,,""-
ammonia conven€rs, autoclaves. and-such - reactors,
urea l:ryered-vessel construction.
coal gasificati;;
Layered vessels consist of a multitude of layers
,#il. Today most layered vessels are constructed in accordance with the ASME
wrapped tightly around an ('ode, VI[-1, Division 2. The majority of the design equations given in the code
inner shell to form a pressure-retarnlng envelope,
as shown in Fig. 15.6. The lor solid wall vessels are applicable to layered vessels. For fabrication, the
vent hole system is a safety feature incorporateainio
ttre iay"iJu"."sel o"_ ASME Code, VI[-1, Division 2, gives additional rules for layered-vessel con-
hon. It consists of a mulritude of small holes "on.t _a
drilled radiity lntoit fuy"., struction. One criterion for controlling wrapping tightness of layered shells is
extending from the ouiermost layer to and including "
tfr. i'uy", uj1'u""nt to tfr" rhat the area of any gap between two adjacent layers, as measured from the end
inner shell. The holes are sized and spaced so
that they do not affect the of a shell section, must not exceed the thickness of a layer expressed in square
structural integrity of the vessel. The venting
potential problems such as erosion and
,yrt"- uJt, u. u'rnonitor of inches. This is illustrated in Fig. 15.7.
at -ay oc"urln ti" inner rt
during the operation of the vesset. "orrosioritt Another criterion used occasionally to measure the tightness of layered shells
"tt is limiting the circumferential expansion of the outer layer during hydrostatic
Layered vessels are constructed by various
-
these methods is in the thickness of inoiuiaua
methods. The difference between testing to a value not less than one-half that ofan equivalent solid wall thickness'
Uyeri *.ap-piig !.-o""ou.", tlencJ the stress at the outer layer due to internal pressure P as given by Eqs.
In^ general, layered-vesset "nA
construction can be divided inro
I:l1ilg-r."ryiqy
three categories. The first is 5.9 and 5.10 is
the colcentric_ or spiral_wrapped method where
layers.consist of segments welded together the
i
in spiral ;;;;;;fashion to 2Prl
ItT ft::"guld ftickness, as shown in Fig. 15.6a andb. The second
method
co = --;--"--
r;- ri
is the shrink fit method wherebv layers ."'inOiuiOuutty for_"Jiito
and shrunk on each other to form thl reguired total ,r,t'L"*'ii]g.'is.orl.
"yfmO"r,
rr,"
C,=0
to. ft: coil-wrapped method whereby
ItlO a .rrti"u""r-J""t i. it ip i, *ounO Pr?
rn a spiral or helical fashion to form a cylinder
as in Fig. 15.4:' ' r;- ri
 wtt|tt tot HtoH PR!33UR!3
15.3 t/aYIRED VISSILS 55t

'l'hc uctusl measurcd growth must not be less than one-half the value given by
l!. r5.10.
A third criterion for determining the maximum permissible gap in layered
rhclls is by relating the gap height to a given shess level. Referring to Fig. 15.8
End Eq. 5.12 and assuming the end to be fixed against rotation, it can be shown
lhd the gap /, can be related to the bending moment by the expressron

Mo
,F; (15. 11)

GAp AREA a=f r,.n !l u bstituting

AREA OF GAP < TH ICKNESS t ex pnesseo rN nl 6Mo
Figurc 15.7 cb = -- .)-

and from Eq. 2.1,

B=

*: |b, - p(o, + o)l

,:d+
e,' = 9.--DP'J into Eq. 15.1l gives
E(rz. - r?)
The circumferential growth can - O.55ro,
h= (1s.12)
be expressed as E
,
_ ,*,
=,#ii
-Ee=A-
Lt n-tr', defined as the mean radius. Then

11 =P--!
-2
,.=n"+|
and the circumferential growth
is given by

e _ t.71rp(Z?.^ -t)2(?R^ + t) (b)

SERnt (15.10)
Figur6 15.8
 5!2 V!!t!ts toR t{toH PRESSURIS
r 5.3 TAYTRED VESSfl.S 553
Equati0n 15.12 cannot be used directly becau-se
the quantity o, is not readily by
known. This. quantity, however, can be related llv('I
to un uiio*udr"-Jt uy
lating the principal stresses at a layer as ".. "ut"u. 1-n / o,.
K= I + --:--- - l:i--
,?(m - l) \JJ6
( 15. r 6)
oo: S + pab ')
a,= -P wlrcrc m : 3.0 for carbon steel

ot=tyt+) = 2.0 for low-alloy steel

: 1.7 for austenitic stainless steel
where o6, cr., ar = principal stresses ' n: 0.2 for carbon and low-alloy steels
,S = hoop stress = 0.3 for austenitic stainless steels
;r, = poisson's ratio S. : allowable stress:
o6 = bending stress due to gap l,
lrluation 15.16 can be expressed in terms of S" by substituting Eq. 15. 15 for o6
p = intemal pressure uxl letting m = 3.0 and n = 0.2, which yields
The maximum stress intensity is given by
K: -!- ,[!-!t"
t'Va-5s. (1s. r 7)

ah=ob+r+p (15.13) li(luations 15.13 and 15.15 can be expressed as

The maximum stress inrensiry o; is limited by the ASME Code, VIL[, Section 15. 18)
2, to 3S,. Or in general terms
",o+f,+"=#r. (

oo+]+p<KS^ or assuming S = S. and

(1s.14)

where K = 3 for indefinite number of cycles.

.'u:T"KS^
. _Ircases where aa is greater than 35, Lut less than 3rn,S,, the rules
ASME Code, V I, para-sraoh q_rce .q,"
of the
apiti i"r s.pilfr!a""ir"'rr,"_pr"rri" liquation 15.18 becomes
analysis. In this case "
o6=NS.-+-P
t": *Z
and Eq. 15.12 can be written as

z^\-
'
o= o'ss/s"
E fN L
- 0.5 - :lJ..l ( 15.19)
(15.15)
^ where N = 25"/KS^
where & = alternating stress as defined in the ASME Code,
VIII, and K is : 3 for indefinite number of cycles
 vtttttt tot HtoH PnrssuRES
r5.3 |AYERED VrSSfl.S

K=-+.,,"[**
& = maximum allowable alternating stress
S. = allowable stress
E = modulus of elasticity
r= radius where gap is measured
P : design pressure
Fisur€ 15.9

t:.r, A layered vessel with a 42_in.. inner d.iameter

carbon sleet with. E = 29,000.000
l::10L" is constructed of ( irmbining these two equations gives
psi. D.,.r*in. ,ir" ni"iriorn
iito*uor" g"p
i:r:*ifff:'' s' = 20,000 psi,i"d th".;i;;"y;;'iiiii'h" RZ - R?: a2 - ?aYs (1s.20)
".,,"r 'i
Also from Fig. 15.9
of the ASME code, vrr,
f31#fl' iffi il:IlTr1 Fis. 5-r10.r, & =
RyI h= R2 Ia (15.21)
I
K=-:+ rnd

: l.2l Ys : ,R1 cos d (ls.22)

2 x 4o,ooo
^r- 1.21 x 2O,nO
Substituting Eqs. 15.21 and 15.22 inoo Eq. 15.20 gives

= 3.31 h(h + 2R.)

(1s.23)
x
2(&+h-R'cosc)
_ 0.55 21 x 20.000
_ 0.5 _ 4000
\ 'l'he circumferential saain determined from
29,000,000 Fig. 15.9 is expressed as
20,Oo0/
= 0.021 in.
t -
2RzB -
2Rra
(rs.24)
Equadon 15. 19 determines the ZrRr
uulue of anv one gap in a lavered
n"t'"l wh"r. tl,".Jil;ffi;""1TlTYl
rn a given cross secdon' a
n"eteo to tar.e uc"u,nui"##;:1""91t criterion is Substituting
tT9 account' rhis can be accom-
prished by ;;il;;;; ilJ'#:,li1
91,p'
st uin i,
tr,eo zu--'J""; ilij};T,=fffifj ..X*nsap. rhe toar
ffif:T,: t= B- d
rn gettrng the strain required to
close one gap, refer to fig. iJ.S
,1,"r"
x6 + yE: R?
c
and 'Rz
asina
xE+(Yo-a)2=Rtr R2
 l!6 VttSlt! foR HtoH PRTSSURES 15.3 TAYERED VESSIL3

into Lq. 15.24 yields r1 + -2

o, ='rr, _j,P * l* p,-- ) .
Rr | /c sin a\'l q
'="'&1"*""'\ & /l
_,
; (r5.25)
The maximum radial stress is given by

The total snain required to close one gap is obtained by substituting Eqs. 15.21 o,= -P
and 15.23 into 15.25, which gives
Hence the maximum stress inlensity is

,=fre+4sin-tc (rs.26, co,: oo- o.

where

A=l- 2+ h/Rl
'1*'1r, + + P < NS,
2(l-cosa+h/R) ri- ri r- lL-- e
=l----).
4: I r h (2 + h/R)(h/R)
and
Rr 2(l -cos d+h/R)
C: + h/R)(r - d + h/R)
y.=!d(rs. (15.28)
2(1 cos - (2 + h/R)(h/R)

A plot of Fq. 15.26 will show that the lines are a linear function of strain Example 15.4. The following gaps =)
were measured after forming a layered
versus /r/R1. Hence, the ASME Code, VItr, Division 2, approximated 84. 15.26 vessel of 11 = zl0 in. and rz = 55 in.
by the quantity
Gap lrngth Height At Radius

e = 0.109(2a)3 I 5 in. 0.008 in. 43.25 in.

/(1
2 9 in. 0.005 in. 43.25 in.

or in terms of Fig. 15.7 terminology 3 7 in. 0.010 in. 48.50 in.

4 6llr. 0.009 in. 53.00 in.

. < 0.r0er4) (rs.27) Determine if these gaps are acceptable 1f E = 3O x 106 psi, P = 6000 psi'
\/-/ /, = 0.3, S. = 20,000 psi, and N 3. :
Equation 15.27 calculates the strain needed to close any given gap. The total
stain required to close all the gaps is determined by summiig all -the individual Solutian. Frcm 84. 15.27 ,
shains given by Eq. 15.27. The hoop stress in a layir due o all accumulated gap
stains is approximated by .,:o.loefi# =2.33x10-6

ue =;lt- ,)e ., = o.roeff# :2.62 x 1o-6

lL--
The total hoop stress due to gap shains and intemal pressure can be expressed
as
.,=o.loe*#:3.25x10-6
 vlttl|.s foR HtOH PRTSSURtS
I5.4 PRESTRESSING OF LAYTRED VESSII.S 559

6(o o09t
eo =9 1"^ UYJJII = 2. l0 x tO-o whcrc r/, : radial dellection of layer l, shown in Fig. 15.7, duc to intcrlacc
pressure ffa1
rotal€=10.30x10,6
d. = radial deflection of all layers beneath layer i due to interlacc
From Eq. 15.28, pressure fl11

-;t
| - u2/ ,.?D \
("t - f+,) = rr,. *-,r,- (, x 2o.ooo - H#)
Substituting Eq. 15.30 into Eq. 15.31 gives

NS
a.-4,: ( 1s.32)
= 1O.47 x 10-6 Z

Because total e is less than 10.47

x 1g-d, gaps are safisfactory.
f
'l'he deflection of layer i and all layers beneath I due to pressure 4+r can be
olrtained from Eq. 5.8 by substituting ar = 0 and disregarding the term p'z. The
cxpressions for the deflection, using the terminology of Fig. 15.10, becomes
I5.4 PRESTRESSING OF IAYERED
VESSETS
, - 4*'R,*, /Ri*r + ni - n.\
fn
tfe gniral or concentric method,of
fabrication, the transverse weld E \Rl+,-rR? "-l /15 ?1\
m me rongitudinat seams causes prestressing shrinkage
snnnkage is influenced bv
.f ,h. ;;r;;i6#: Such weld , 4*rRi*r /Ri,r * tRi., , ^ ,\
o'=
r,.ut input, unJ
manv
niiiiil;"',ffiI
t

ff:"iffilr:'"X.ll,ii,X#ill1ffi:J.T
r \n,t,-ni-,-"''/ (1s.34)

;i Substituting Eqs. 15.33 and 15.34 into Eq. 15.32 and reananging
s=kw (Is.29) yields
where s = transverse shrintage rn welds
^ nsE ____lRL
(Ri. | - RiXR:-2 - Rr'?- r)
ft = coefficient of transverse shrinkase ,i-,: 4.IrRr-j _ R?) (1s.35)

w = width of seam weld

'lhe stress in layer i can be expressed as

Refe'ing to Fig. 15.10, the total radiar

deflection due to transverse shrinkage
ot- a number of seams in one layer o': .4*tRi*t
---J (15.36)
rs

,ns
2t (15.30)

where d = radial deflection

n = number of welded seams in a layer
Weld shrinkage decreases the diameter-
pressure between the of a welded layer. This causes a
welded laver ravers undemeath it' rhe deflection
"ompatibitity
equai;;'ffi; ;?::;:"trh€
d-dt=4" ( 15.31) Fisure 15.10
 560 vt3$tE toR t{toH PRtssuR[s I5,4 PRISTRCSSINO OF TAYERED VTSSEIS !6I
Substituting Eqs. 15.29 antl 15.35 into Eq. t5.36 gives
und the stress in inner layers is given by

o' =
nkwE (RIt
v'nR'n-'
- 4.iR!*z -
lRi'z - Ri)
R!.)
(rs.37) * = -\t/- **)
R?\
4
4*rR?-'
- Ril:E
Stress in the layers below I due to welding i is Itxample 15.5. Determine the wrapping stress in the-vessel shown in Fig'
l5.11lf n =2,k=o.1',8= 30 x 106 psi, w = 0'375 in'
-i.,,Ri*r /. *;,7
R?\
Solution. From Eq. 15.37, stress in layer one due to wrapping of layer one is
"'= il:;r-1t
Stress in any layer due to welding other layers around it is

= 8733 psi
,,= {\ 1R?,,-nl
- -(t\ * x'/ r !-,Ri,. (r5.38)
Stress in layer two due to wrapping of layer two is
Substituting Eqs. 15.29 and 15.35 inio Eq. 15.3g resulrs
in 2.25 x tO6 - 2r\(21.52 -
or:4igffi@ (21'z 21'z\

(1s.39) = 11,365 psi

Equations 15.37 and 15.39 are necessary to determine

the precompressive Stress in layer three due to wrapping of layer three is
sress in a layered vessel due to wrapping Uy *,"
oiri-ira.etnoA of x
fabrication. "on""oG" 2.25 tO6 (2t.52 - 202\(222 - 2l.5'z1
In the shrink fit rnethod, the orecompression equations ot = 4o(o.s)er.sf
are the same as
15.37 and 15.39 except that the'qaanniy n*w/2iir"pfuJJy-Jrn. Eqs.
n"*" = 12,487 ps|

, ='#,' r' *r, (15.40)

ra,(i!'!Liul

"'::!f('\.#) + ry#::t (15.41)

In the coil-wrapped method, the initial stress in the outer layer

..
Hence the applied
i is known.
pressure for Eq. 15.lg is

n-r=#
and the total sbess in the outer layer is

oi= o" Figur€ 15.l I

 362 vt33!ts Fon HtoH PRESSURIS SIBTIOO[APHY

From Eq. 15.39, stress in inner shell due to wrapping

all three layers is l{ = inside radius as defined by ASME
llm : mean radius
o,, = :??l l_]ou
(, . #) (ffi
_
r = radius
21.52 - 212 , rr = inside radius
-r- 2tetF=6\* n6=65)\
22, 21.52
r,, = outside radius
-(179,049)(1.97s)(0.0247 + 0.0163 + 0.0120) J = shess
-18,737 psi ,1. : allowable sfress given in ASME
Stress in layer one due to wrapping layers two and three is t : thickness
/ lnz \ w = width of weld seam
d' = -17e,04e(l * ffis,)to.otos + 0.0t20) rr = coefficient of thermal expansion
: -9774 psi pn

Stress in layer two due to wrapping layer three is

= change in temperature
A.r

o,= -tls,rNs(t + c = strain

ff)ollllt p = proisson's ratio
: _4052 psi I : radius at interface between elastic and plastic zones
Total stress in inner shell :
-1g,737 psi
: bending stress
Total stess in layer one = g733
- 9744 = _1041 osi : stess at layer i
Total stress in layer two = I I ,365 4052 7313
- = osi .,1 = longitudinal seess
Total srress in layer three = 12.4g7 psi f
(fr = radial stress
(ft : stress at layer .r
NOMENCTATURE
(f, : yield stress
ITtl
D = tr-T, U0 = hoop shess

E = modulus of elasticity
BIBTIOGRAPHY
e = circumferential growth
h = gap Armstrong, W. P., and M. H. Jawad, "Evaluation of Thermal Conductivity in Layercd Vessels,"
ASME Jounal Prcssure Vessel Technology, November 1981.
K = weld shrinkage Brownell, L. W., 8trd E, H. \onnl, Process Equipme t Deiqn, John Wiley, New York, 1959.
Jawad, M. H., "Wrapping Stress and lts Effect on Strenglh of Concentrically Formed Plywalls,"
Mo = longitudinal bending rnoment
NME Publication 72-pvp-7, Seprcmber l9?2.
n = number of seams in a layer Prager, W., andP. G. Hodge, Theory of Perfectb Pkstic Sortrb, John Wiley, l'{e\t York, 1 5.

P = pressure
 CHAPTER t6
TALL VESSELS

Tollve$el. (Co',rtesy oI rhe Noorer Corpororion, Sr. touj3 Mo.)

564 565
 566 TAtt vtssfl.s
16.2 IARTHQUAKI LOADING 567

I6.I DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

cornbined with the internal and external pressurcs and any other kradings that arc
Special design considerations are required for tall vessels lpplicable to the tall vessel. The following sections describe dift'erent methods
vertical position. These vessels may utilize support skirts,
that are installed in the lor establishing the forces, moments, and overturning moments from extcrnal
girders, lugs, and other forms of support attachments
sffirt nngs, ring kradings. In addition, methods are given regarding how to combine those load-
as describid in Chapter 12. ings with other loadings in order to determine the highest stresses and to satisfy
However, the vessel itselfrequires special design considerations
proper thicknesses and stiffening rings, if neided,
in setecting the tid-22 of the ASME Code, VI[-1. Included also are methods ofconsidering the
to adequately support the rlynamics effects of the wind loading and wind velocity on vortex shedding and
vessel and to resist the applied loadings.
In addition to loadings from intemal and external pressures, ovalling vibrations.
.
De capaDle ot.wlthstanding additional loadings
tall vessets must
from the dead load of the vessel,
the inlgmal parts, insulation, piping-, and externA equipment, anA
9onte.nt1
earthquake loading and wind loading. Thi tall vessel,
tiom I6.2 EARTHQUAKE LOADING
as we as'most otner types
of vessels,
T9y also be subjected to applied forces and morneni, fro- tt errna ln the design of tall, vertical vessels, one cause of stresses in the v-essel wall is
expansion of the piping. The niost critical combination
highest stresses may not occur when all of the loads
of loadings that cause the lhe overhr;ing moment from the lateral force of an earthquake loading' Al-
are appii.j u? ttr" .a-e ti-e. though most disign standards require vessels to withstand earthquakes, usually
Certain loads may cause critical stresses during the time
whereas other combinations of loadings ma! cuuse critical
of
".""tion
t"
of u".r"t, no sfecific applicible rules are given. The purchase order or design specification

vessel is filled with its contents. The propei design of

stre;ses when the ,hould list thi applicable code to be used for earthquake design, such as the
the veJmay require ANSI A58.1, "suilaing Code."r the Ilniform Building Code,a ot some otler
examining several different loading conditions to Jstablish
the proper thickness applicable building cod;. Additionally, the location ofthe installation is required
and other requirements for a safe desien. ^determine
t; the appropriate earthquake factor. Figure 16.1 shows a typical
Some of the cornbinations of loadirigs requiring careful consideration
are: oarthquake
"one
-up aicording to the Uniform Building Code (UBC)' Earth-
procedure
quakj zones given in other building standards may be different. The
l. Vessel. installed in place but not operating (no contents,
internals, or lbr determining the lateral earthquake loading is similar in most building stan-
insulation) and not under an applied earth{uake or *inJiouotng.
dards and is G same in both the UBC and ANSI standards Some coefficients
2. Vessel under intemal pressure with contents and other
dead loads with or in the formulas and the zones on the earthquake zone map may differ in various
without earthquake or wind loading. standards.
3. Vessel under external pressure with contents and other
dead loads with For both the UBC and the ANSI standards, the total lateral earthquake force
or without earthquake or wind loading. is calculated by the following formuia:

for a specific vessel, may be a worse combination than any V : ZIKCSW (16.1)
^t;*:::::,b,:l!:y:
or me condltons listed above. The designer must be certain
that all conditions
aretxamined for determining the controlling condition. where Z = coefficient depending upon the earthquake for the location of
The required thicknesses and other desigi requirements vary
somewhat de_ installation. For ANSI A58. I for zone O' Z = | /8 ' For both the
pending upon the design theory chosen. Thi .*i-u,
,o".r ,fi.o* is used for UBC and the ANSI 458.1, the following apply: for zone 1'
Ine oeslgn ot most tall vessels. This theory is used in Z= 3 /16 for zone 2, Z : 3/8; for zone 3, Z : 3/4; and for
the ASME Code. VI[_I,
and the API 620t and 6502 design rules. Tie effects
of using other theori"s a.e zone 4. Z: 1.0.
discussed later.
Iv = total dead load of vessel and contents above plane being consid-
The two-external loadings that are important in the design
are those due to ered 0b)
e:mnquake toadrngs and wind loadings. AJthough the ASME
Code, VI[_ | , does
not specify design methods or design codes th-at are considered,
application of I: importance factor; assume I= 1'0 for vessel

*^y: :"lryPt used design ruGs is discussed. nememUer,'ii'ile

specinc K= arrangement factor; assume K : 2.0 for vessel
rocauon where tie tall vessel is to be_ installed, as given
il the design specifica_ :
tion or purchase order, the design rules may be so-mewhat
oimere# tom eitrrer C base shear factor = 1/15\/7 = 0.12
()1 me two rules described
here. Local requirements are always considered.
Once the extemal loadings and overtuming moments
? = fundamental period of vibration of the vessel assuming a uni-
are determined, they are formly loaded cantilever beam fixed at the base by the following:
 16,2 IARTHOUAKE IOADINO 569

zn t;n"
^' 3.52 (16.2)
\ EI,s
Substituting I = 386.4 in./sec2 gives
r = o.osos.g. (16.3)

h = sfraight length of shell from tangent to tangent of shell-to-head

lines (in.)
w = W/h = average unit weight of shell (lb/in') of straight shell
length
E = modulus of elasticity of vessel material at design temperature (Psi)
/* = moment of inertia of shell cross section (in.4)

1,: (v/8)(tl + + t)/t < 20

t)3t when (d

L = O.Oa9@2 - dt when (d + t)/t > 20 (in.)

r = nominal thickness of shell (in.)
4 = outside diameter of shell (in.)
d = inside diameter of shell (in.)
S = site-sFucture resonance: assume S = 1.5 unless an exact value is
known.
O.l2 < KC s 0.25 for UBC.
O.l2 < KC < O.29 for ANSI, zones 0, l, and 2.
'hdrdhh|'b.dlol
O.l2 KC < 0.23 for ANSI, zones 3 and 4.
=
CS < 0.14 for UBC and for ANSI in zones 0, 1, and 2.
Figuro I 6. I Rirl zorc mop ot rhc Uniied $or€t" (Reproducld
CS 0.11 for ANSI in zones 3 and 4 when.l = 1.5.
tro,n thc Unifrofih Building Code, I 9g2 Edirion, =
CoPy'iglt 1982, wifi pcrminion oI th. p!bti3h6r, Thc Inr,arnotionot
Confera"* J g;tdr;Offt.uL.f KCS need not exceed 0.3.

When KCS = 0.3 is substituted into @. 16.1, the total lateral earthquake
force becomes

V= O.3O Zw (16.4)

When the vessel is rnade from shell sections with different dianieters and
thicknesses, the lateral earthquake force is determined for each cylindrical shell
section above the plane being examined. However, for a cylindrical shell of
uniform diameoer and thickness, the total lateral earthquake force V is distributed
as follows:

s68
 570 lAt I vrlslt 3
I6.2 EARTHQUAKETOADINO 571

1. At the.upper head-to-shell tangent line, apply a concentrated

force determined as follows;
horizontal fluid in shell = 7r(30F(360)(35 /1728) = 20,620 lb
fluid in heads = (4/3)n(30)3(35 /ltzt1 = 229916
4= 0.07 TV, except n shall not exceed O.Z5V and Fl w = total weight : 34,240lb
shall be considered zero for ? = 0.7 or less (f6.5)
/r = 360 in.
where ? is given in Eq. 16.3 and V is given in
- Eq. 16.1. w = Wlh:34240/360 = 95.1 lb-in.
2. Along the straight length of shell,
E:30x106psi
^ (V - hw.h.
n,=--;f, (16.6)
d+t 60 + 0.5
U.J
'
For a shell of uniform diameter and thickness, this gives
__ a triangular load
disnibution with the pointing downward. fo.
_apex
assume a concentrated loadine of (V _
tie momenr,
fl "ul1ufutirg
applied at the centroijof the niangle
that is equal to 2/3 tr from the-lower he"j_t,i'rr,"rr
arg"riiiJJri Jio*n rn nig.
t6.2.

-f
Ongg A9 values of d and .{ are determined and
the moment arms to the
respective forces are known, the overtuming moment
is determinel as

M": 4(h). n(!^) (16.7)

I

Example 16.1. A vertical vessel with a cylindrical shell and hemispherical

heads is installed inside a building in Boston.
fhe sheU is i ftlnril aiurn"t"r,
0. 5 in. noninal thickness and 30 h
, from t"rg"nitl i-t"r,t. ft uiJ."r
a fluid at 35- lb/ft3. The purchase order speclfies
tf,"t tfi" UsC"b" i"llowed
"ontuio,
for
earthquake design. what are the lateral earthquake
ro.", ur"a ro. t c"rigor
"
Solwion. The UBC specifies that the total lateral earthquake
force is calcu_
lated from Eq. 16.1 by the followrng:

v = zIKCSw
Z = earthquake factor depending upon site location. Boston is located in I

earthquake zone 2
where Z = 3/8

-+
I

1= 1.0
K=2.0
W = total dead load of vessel and contents is
shell weight = n(30.52 - 30\(360)(490/1728): g7gs16
weight of heads = (4/3)n(30.53 _ 3O?)(4gO/ |TZS\: 1630 lb Figure 16.2 Eonlquoks lood distribulion on o toll vos!€|.
 312 tAtt vrlstts 16.3 WIND IOADING 573

/, = 9.949161r - = 43,400 in.a

600) of g for the vessel in
16.3 What is the equivalent earthquake force in terms

r = 0.0908 (95.lx360f Problem 16.1?

(3d-i06x43/00 = o lo06
Azswer.' Earthquake force is 0.229.
=r = 0.2102;maximum is C = 0.12
" 16,4 What is the equivalent earthquake force in terms of g for the vessel in
KC = (2.0)(0.12): 0.24; maximun is r(C Problem 16.2?
= 0.25
CS = (0.12)(1.5) = 0.18; maxrmum is CJ = 0.14 Answer: Eafihquake force is 0.289.
KCS = (2)(O.M) = 0.28; maximum
rCS = 0.3
yis determined by using
Eq. t6.l and KCS : 0.2g as follows: 16.3 WIND TOADING

v = (3/s)(t)(0.28)(34,24o) _ 3600 tb Two distinctly different kinds of design considerations are generated from wind
Ioading. First, the static force from the wind-loading pressure against the vessel
4 = 0 when ? is less than 0.7 (T :0.1006). Therefore, V ou".to-ing moment that must be considered in designing tall vessels
4=0. I = 3600 lb and "our"a'-
installed in the vertic-al position' The second consideration is the dynamic effect
from vorlex shedding of wind passing arcund the vessel'
Example 16.2. The tall vessel described
in Example 16.l is to be supported
at the lower head-to-shell iunction. 16.3.1 Externol Forces from Wind Looding
Dete-rmin" ,fr" i"""".frg'iro-"n,
- -'i-'i''|b 'n
support line from the lateril earthquake
forces.
u, *"
As with earthquake loading, many different design lnocedures determine the
Sotution. previous calculations show that the period of vibration places wind loading and its applica:tion to i vessel. The two most widely used standards
&e horizontal earthquake force to-be all of
applie; ;t;r-""',,#;;i#loaoing. are the ANSI A58.1 Code and the Uniform Building Code'
For
the vessel in Example 16.1, this grves Although there are differences in tle procedure for determinilg the wind
loads betieen the ANSI A58'1 Code and the Uniform Building code' both
M" = (3600)(20 x methods use the same rnap for determining the wind velocity at the location
site'
rZ) = 864,000 in.{b I Building Code'
as shown in Fig. 16.3 for the Uniform
Problems When the ailst A58.1 Code is used, the basic equation for determining the
velocity pressure q, at various heights z is calculated from
16.1 What is the total lateral earthquake force
using the ANSI A5g.l Code for
the following vessel? A vertiial vess"t
*irh ;-;;;l;;.il-o.on"o o, q" = 0.OO256 K,(tv)2 (a)
lower head. The shell is a seaml"r, pip" *"
in. thick,.and 40 ft. long wirh 3_in.-ih'i.k
*i;h ;_i;: inrialtii.am","., ,.0
pressure (Psf)
ri;;;J#;. rd"uJrlr"r where q, = veloclty
gas at ambient temperature.
The vesset is instJleJin "ont"tn. importance factor; assume 1 = 1'0
4 where Z = l.O. --.*mqo"k" ,on" =
1
y= design wind velocity (mph) from Fig' 16'3
Answer: Lateral earthquake force is 3910 lb. : veloc8
K, Pressure coefficient
16.2 Consider the exact same vessel given
in problem 16.1. What is &e total In addition, it is necessary to modify Eq.a by the force coefficient C1' which is
lateral earthquake force using tri'"
u.ii"""-i",rar"!'C"iJ.ll"r, 0.6 for a cylinder, and by the gust factor G, for the height of the vessel above
-basic
ground bv!I. Once the wind speed is determined from Fig' 16'3' ttte
Ansu,er: Latel-3l earthquake force is 4970
lb; ielocity pressure for a cylinder is obtained from Table 16' 1a' To determine the
 16.3 WlNo toADlNG 515

Tqble l6'lo velocitv Pressure for cylinder' (q x Q) ucing ANSI A58'l codr'
P"t

\-, Basic Wind Speed (mph) frorn Fig 16'3

HN I
I
r.,:-rr1 alr^i,a
lcight Above
i -.r (;round (ft) 100 110 t20
E
d6
uI|
N*
k) g !E
: 9{
E ET
l,css than 30
30-60
7
911
g 11
14
13
17
16
21
19
25
23
29
!? g.a
r; 60-100 10 13 16 20 2s 29 34
: FT
i t; d -0H 100-140 11 15 rg 23 28 33 39

|il|
:F E €I
'E 5 *,J l40-200 12 16 20 25 30 36 42

_i 200-300 14 18 23 2E 34 41 48
i- F! E 5?
r-, ,!aA
gi >
=:! trr 100-400 15 20 26 31 38 45 s2

| :at
q

i*i 95
5 E +l
; a:- i E6' FT
eE I E::E €F
i!;
rb8 frE; ; $
*8i iEF sE tlesign wind pressurep, the velocity pressure is modified by G, from Table
16' 1b
'-9 i
I!t *EFE
: p:
9rE I
=:a
li
uccordins to
tr gEg
Ei=s
::5 b5
i:
-E€
p=(qxc)(G) ( 16.8)

A*g gE where (g x is ftom Table 16.1a and G, is ftom Table 16'1b'

Cy)
: 6r
IE !ai+'t for instatlations above ground level, G is based on the total height of shell
and supports. Depending on the total height, there may be several different
E !8
g ^wind
pr"riu.". f6r different height zones. For {.sig1 purposes, wind
.e:
;
q
i-e
tlesign
toaoi ure appiieC at the center of each height zone Gee Fig' 16'4)'
r." -* Wfren tdi 1982 Ilniform Buitding Code is used for determining the design
6d
wind oressure in the horizontal direction, the basic formula is

(16.9)
P = C,C"q'l

Toble 16.lb Gusl Foclor for €ylinder ot Vorious Heights

Height above
ground (ft) 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 '10 80 90
Gust factor 1.32 1.29 1.27 1.26 1.23 1.21 1.20 1.19 1.18 1.17

Height above
ground (ft) 100 Dn AO 160 180 2N 250 300 350 /100

Gust factor 1.16 1.15 1.14 1.13 1.12 1.11 1.10 1.09 1.08 1.07

574
 T t"t wtl .l
16.3 WIND LOADING 577

Tqblc 16.2 Derign Wind Pressure pfor o Cylinder Uslng the Unlform Bulldlng
€odo (psf)

Basic Wind Speed (mph) from Fig. 16.3

llcight above
(ltound (ft) 100 ll0 120

lrss than 20 t2 l6 20 z) 30 36 42
;10-40 t4 18 22 27 38 .to
40..{0 16 20 25 31 37 44 53
l,{l -10O t'7 22 n 33 40 47 JO
t(x) 150 t9 u 30 45 53 63
110-200 20 26 32 ,10 47 56 6't
t(x) 300 22 29 35 44 52 62 '14

){) 400 23 30 3'l 55 65 't't

Ituilding Code are different from those given in the ANSI standard. A typical
rlistribution of wind loads at various elevations for a tall vessel is shown in Fig.
I t6.4.

-f
Figrrr. 16.,t Wind lood disiriburion on o rollwr!€|.
where p = design wind pressure (psf)
C" = coefficient for combined height, exposure,
and gust
Cq = pressue factor = 0.g for cylinders
4, = wind stagnation pressure at 30-ft level
1 = importance factor = 1.0 for pressure
vessel
The Uniform Building Code basic. wind
speed map is shown in Fig. 16.3.
*._dg::rry_p for a cylinder for vari9";r,!r!itz"i",
1"11T
rs glven in Table 16.2. Aeain- there tn" grouoo
"ilou?jesign
may be sevlral aifferent
pressure Ioads for different-height
zones. The height zones for the Uniform
I 16.3.2 Dynomic Anolysis from Wind Effecfs
When a laminar wind flows by a circular pressure vessel, the air stream or wake
bchind the vessel is no longer smooth. There is a region of pressure instability
in which vortices are shed in a regular pattem. These vorlices cause an alternat-
ing force perpendicular to the wind direction that could make the vessel vibrate.
When the frequency of the vortex shedding coincides with the natural frequency
ol the vessel, a resonance is caused with increasing amplitude. To prevent this
condition, the natural frequency of the vessel is set higher than the vortex
slrcdding frequency determined by the maximum velocity of laminar wind at the
vcssel location.5 Resonant wind velocity is related to the heighfto-diameter ratio
ol a cylindrical vessel, as shown in Fig. 16.5.
The natural frequency of the vessel/, is greater than the frequency of vortex
sheddingJ, using the following equations:
I
(16.10)
f, = i = natural frequency of vessel (cps)
f,^= -t;
o.2v
= frequency of vortex shedding (cps) (16.1 1)
The
1 = period of vibration from Eq. 16.3
winC
I{ = maximum velocity of laminar wind or resonant
velocity (fVsec), (see Fig. 16.5)
 rAu. vlll .l
16.3 W|NO LOADINO

r60 shell is 5 wall thickness, and 100 tl.

ft.0 in. inside diameter, 1.0 in. nominal
0 in. from tangent to tangent. The contract specification requires the vessel to
140
be designed according to the Uniform Building Code requirements What are the
ltteral wind forces to be used for design?
,- 15,106.7
a 120

110
Solution, The UBC map shows that Corpus Christi, Texas, is located in a

.8.
100-mph wind zone. Therefore, the wind forces at various locations are calcu-
100 lated usins Table 16.2 as follows:
3
90
.s
!
E 0-30 ft ri = Qs)(2o)(62/12) = 2,580 lb

;l 20-40 ft Fz = (n)Qo)(62/r2) = 2,790 rb

I 40-60 ft 4 = ODQO)(62/L2) : 3,200 lb

60-100 ft Fq = (n)@o)(62/12) = 6,820 lb
E
. r0.5)( zrY3l Y(45)
-
,E

=
;l Upper
-- Head
Total
\r?r,
470 lb
15,860 lb I
Exampte 16,4.
What is the overtuming moment due to the lateral wind forces
assuming that the vessel is supported at the lower shell-to-head junction for the
vessel in Example 16.3?
12 t4 16 la 20 E--24---i
Height to diameter rario, ltD Solution
Figl|rre t6.5 Relononr wind velocir,, V,, v€rcus
H/D.
Load Arm
D= outside diameter of vessel (ft) 0-20 ft x 10 = 25,800 ft-lb
2,580
2040 ft x 30 : 83,700 ft-lb
2,790
f,>L (16.12) 3,2N x 50 = 160,000 ft-lb
4}-ffi ft
In addition to the vorrex sheddins. 6,820 x 80 = 545,600 ftlb
60-100 ft
Upper head 470 x 101* : 47,470 ft-lb
y,:.:.1 is examined for ovalling vrbration
as a dng. The ovalling frequenc-v l" at least twice the vonei shedding
frequeniyf, Mo : 862,570 ft-lb a
",i"s;;i;itil;;:,fi#11,f
Example 16.5. Determine if the vessel described in Example 16.3 is adequate
f' = # = ovalling frequency (cps)
(16.13) to resist vortex shedding and ovalling vibration.
r = nominal thickness of shell (in.)
Solution

I{i.l_!.. ,\*.T: ed a stiffening ring within 24 in. ofboth shelt-to_head

Junctlons, and additional stiffening nngs 1. Determine the total dead load weight of the vessel:
are evenly spaced to keep the
maxrmum of g0 ft. span a
= z(31'? - 301$200)@90/ 1728) = 65,219 16
Shell
Heads = 4/3 r(313 - 3or(49o / 1728) = 3,320 lb
f. > 2f, (16.14) Total weight = w:68,530 lb
Example 16.3, A vertical ves1l. m3de
spherical heads is to be installed with a cylindrical shell and hemi_
our ol doors near Corpus Christi.
Texas. The i,100 + 0.4 x 2.5 : l0l.
 !to rAu. vlll|lt
.,
I6,4 VESSEI. UNDER INTERNAT PRESSURE ONIY 58I
Dctcrminc these properties:
10.11 lJused on a support line at the lower head, what is the overturning momsnt
.= w 68.530
n= 1200 = 57.1 lb/in.
liom the lateral wind force for the vessel in Problem 16.5'l

Answer: Mo = I1,682,400 in.-lb.

E:30xl06psi
I = 0.049(62a - 604) = 89,000 in.a 10,0 A pressure vessel is 10-ft inside diameier by 2.O-in. thick and 150-ft tall.
l)etermine if the vessel design is adequate to resist ovalling vibration.
r' = 0.0e08.
""'""Yt:o/- (5ZJ.lg?99I_
xloS<as"ooo) =0'6047 Answer: Tl:,e design is not adequate because the "f, = 0.11 and
: f. 0.09i consequently, t does not equal or exceed 2f,.
.1 I
= 0"604? = 1.65 cps

H 000x12) I6.4
D= ii; = te.3s VESSET UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE ONLY

V : 40.33 ftlsec l,or tall vessel under internal pressure only, the primary additional consid-
F|rli(nr to the intemal pressure is the effect of fluid pressure head and the dead
_(0.2)(40.331 ['rrl. 'lhis is especially important at the bottom of a vessel where the effects may
D - --51? = I.56cps
'"s =0.2V r rrrubine. The fluid pressure head may occur only during hydrostatic testing of
lh{' vcssel or it may be a continuing load occurring during operation ofthe vessel,
f, > f, 1.65 > 1.56 oK lh' additional pressure caused by the ffuid head is calculated as follows:
- 683(1)
J. = .o;i = 25.55 cps
(16.ls)
f' > 2k 25.55 > 3.12 oK ",=W
Problems wlrt lc PJ = additional internal pressure effect from fluid pressure head (psi)
Il = height of fluid column above point (ft)
16.5 A tall vessel conshucted with a- cylindrical
to be installed near Denver, Coloiado.
shell and flat closure ends i8
7 : density of fluid. lb/ftl
Th" ffi;;#;;.or tlre cyfin_
drical shell is 8 ft, the nominal
length from head weld seam b head
*rl.rhi"k;;j, i.6't.l'Joo ,r," ,o"igr,, |l the fluid head exists in the vessel during operation, the value ofP7is added
are 6.0-in. nominal thickness.
*aJl""- i, izJ n.-rir" nut t"ua, t' lhe intemal pressure when the minimum required thicknesses are set. At the
Wt at is tf,e totA fa*J*ioO '
design of the vesset fouowing rh"
*d;irh";;i;rltili io."" u."O fo. lr(,ttom of tlte vessel, the stresses and minimum required thickness are set by the
tirtrl pressure. It may be possible to decrease the thickness when the fluid head
Answer: ""a"r rllcct is decreased in a vessel where a variation in plate thicknesses is accept-
Lateral wind force = 14,060 lb. rrblc.
16.6 What is the total lateral wi * the vessel given in hoblem 16'5
If the fluid head exists in the vessel only during the hydrostatic testing, the
using the Uniform Buildinf,%tff; plirnary membrane stress frorn the combination of the hydrostatic test pressure
rrrrtl the fluid head pressure may go as high as the yield strength of the vessel
Ansu'er: Laterul wind force t|r terial at the 0est temperature. However, if the resulting minimum required
= 21,100 lb.
tlrickness from the combination is indicated as more than that thickness required
16'7 Many_design specifications requirea-minimum lrrr the normal design conditions, substitution of a pneumatic iest or a combina-
design wind speed of r00
mph. What is the total lateral^wlnd torce tion of hydrostatic/pneumatic test should be considered. In general, the min-
on the vessel in problem 16.5
based on a wind speed of 100 irnum required thickness of a vessel should never be set by the requirements of
mph?
thc hydrostatic head unless it is impossible to test it any other way. Also,
Answer: Lateral wind force rcrnember tJlat a hydrostatic test may use fluids other than water if water causes
= 21,390lb.
rr rrroblem such as corrosion.
 ..7 TAtl Vt!!!ts
16.4 VESSCL UNDTR INTTRNAI PRESSURT ONIY 583
F'or u vcssel untjcr intcrnal pres
. lrr hoth Eqs. 16.18 and 16.19, the dead load term may be either tension or
iffi:i;:lJ:,.:ji,# ffi #*'#liilT":lji
Whether the ,t .ir", ;iilliJi,l,,lj,
vslrcr uur
;ii il.;",l:ll,l
also lts weight to be consi( q'orrrpression depending upon the plane being examined. In general, above the
pressive sresses a"p""a,
"uur.J.Un",t-,w cause tensile or rrrpport line, this term is compressive and the total longitudinal stress is the
"r# ,ii:e
: locatton
-addttronal.loadings
of the extemal supports or s[
sKrn tocation. rllllcrence between the intemal pressure effect and the dead load effect. When
llris is below the support line, the terms are both tensile. For some arangements,
. In th€ actual design, the minin is initiallv set by
circumrerentiaLsnesi;ffi il thc condition without inlemal pressure may be more critical than when intemal
#l}1T3ffi:*|"**' prcssure is considered.
ll
.rr is positive, the actual stress is positive and the allowable stress is
or=PR
_ rlctcrmined from the allowable tensile stress tables. If the value of or is negative,
t (16.1
lht: allowable stress is determined by the method that establishes the maximum
From the equation rrllowable axial compressive stress in a cylindrical shell.
in IJG_Z7tct(l of the ASME code,
ter-s or sr', tte vltr-I, expressed
'e;;#;"i:') l{xample 16,6. For the vessel described in Example 16.1, determine the total
kngitudinal stress in the cylindrical shell above and below the support line that
sE=P(4+o' (r6.1 lN at the lower shell-to-head junction. The value of SE
: 15,000 psi.
where = allowable tensile shess (psi)
,S
,l{rrtttion. Assume the intemal pressure is set by Eq. 16.17 for a value of
E = weld joint efficiency (E
= I.0 for seamless)
Jr, = 15,000 psi. Reananging the terms gives

P = intemal design pressure (psi) sEt _ (t5,000)(0.5)

R = inside radius (in.) 'p.=R + 0.6r (30) + 0.6(0.5) = )45 nci
t : rninimum required thickness (in.) 'l'he dead load of vessel above the support line is
Using this equation, a lentative
m.
circumferential .*;.. Wil;;;"f"rmum required thickness is set based on tho Shell 9,700
be necessary ro inci;" thickness is determined, Upper head 815
pressure. Based
d;;f;:litequ.ired tluid head.as
it may
well as the intemal desigir
^the-
10,515 lb
determined f.;; il;;iil#;
";;;;;;:r the total lonsitudinal stress'is
l"nili,ill"t'""'' 'l'he longitudinal stress using Eq. 16.19 is

,PR w (lo.sls)
30_n"\
oL: 2x0.5 "'- I -
2t rD^t (16.18) +Q45)(
a(60.5X0.5)
wnere ot: tatal longitudinal sress (psi) ot: *730O - 110 psi
W= total dead load of ot = 7190 psi tension with intemal pressure
examined(rb).rhl,;.h:#X,,:?lf being
:*;r.TdLJr""" ot : ll0 psi compression without internal pressure
D" = mean diameter of shell (in.) _
211 * ,
'lhe dead load of vessel and contents below the support line is
From the equafion in uG_27(c\et.:lg:
rearranged and the dead VI[_ | , with rhe rerms
load term added, 1tM-E.-C"de,
the following equation is grven: Lower head 815
Shell fluid 20,620
,,=+p(!-o.z)t w Head fluid 2,290
\zr / rD^t (16.19)
23,725 tb
 tta TAtt wr!![3
16.5 VESSEI. UNDER INTCRNAT PRISSUR€ AND EXTERNAI IOADINO 585
The longitudinal $tress usinS Eq.
16.19 is
16,12 What is the maximum longitudinal stress in the vessel in Problem 16.10
with and without considering the internal design pressure?
oy: + (245)l/ ;--30 - O.2l
\ oe:'<r
+ \'r'tzr)
\z ^u.r / r(60.5X0.5) Answersz ot = TllO psi tension with intemal pressure considered.
a1 : I 73C0 + 250 = 7550 psi tension with intemal pressure
ot: l7O psi compression without considering intemal
pressure.
Example l6J. For the vessel described in Example
16. 1, determine the
t;;*r;ivo'l.,jii'L,r"e,
l"TlT !Trftri".'tainingnuidat35rb/ft I6.5 VESSEL UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE AND EXTERNAT TOADING

When a tall vessel supported in the vertical position is subjected to internal

|rcssure and extemal loading from such sources as earthquake or wind, both the
l(#t. *f **.::
and at the lowest
line^
is-nee_ded
point of the lower lt
both the lower sheu-to-head tansenr
tcnsion and compression sides of the cylinder must be examined. These items
At the^r,ff
head.
lower shell+o_head tanr rurc similar to those for a tall vessel under internal pressure only, except for the
.jent line. rhe fluid height 30ft+2.5ft=
JZ.s ft. is
Irl(er only one of the sides needs examination. The earthquake loading or the
wind loading is resolved into an overturning moment that is further resolved into
fluid P7 lcnsile and compressive loads.
For : 7.9 psi Using the membrane shess equations given in Eq. 10.2, the total longitudinal
ntrcss is determined ftom
For water e, = GZ.$(Q.D = 14.1 psi
,PR W 4M"
(f':-|-=-=----..--:- (16.20)
At the bottom of the lower head, the 2t rD^t nDit
fluid height is 30 ft + 5 ft : 35 ft.
(3.5)(35) And in terms of the present ASME Code, VU-l, the total longitudinal stress is
Forfluid
----- P"=
't e {-
(1441 = -orPst obtained from

6t: lR \ w 4M.
For water P, = = 15.2 psi *P (t - or/ =i.,';fr (16.21)

As can be seen from this equation, many different combinations of stresses must
Problcms hc examined to obtain the maximum stress such as, with the first term equal to
zero when tlere is no internal pressure (vessel not operating), and with internal
16.10 What is rhe circumferential syss bgeO_o1_tfre pressure, with the second term either iension or compression, and with the third
ASME Code, VIII-I, at tcrm either tension or compression. There may be more combinations because
the bottom of a tall vessel rh"t contains
nuiC at sO tUTdJj an intemal
design pressure of 400 osi? .The. "#al'ta_eter
,"r."i; ;;:;. rhe value of W, the dead load, varies depending upon the location of the plane
uy lhat is being considered. Usually, the maximum stress is located at the support
0.5-in. minimum wan uv +s ft 0
heads on each end.
i".;;;;l ,."e,i,, *iii"i_il. n* line; however, when the vessel has various diameters, it may be necessary to
E = l.U and the vessel is supported at the ".*
bottom. cxamine stresses at different cross sections. This, of course, is not considering
any local stresses in the shell caused by the support.
Answer: c6 = 15,200 psi
16.11 What is the naximum shess in the Ilxampte 16,8. The vessel described in Example 16.l is to be supported at the
shell of the vessel in problem 16.10
during a standard hydrostatlc test Iower shell-to-head junction. What are the longitudinal stresses in the shell
of 1.5p?
above and below the support line? The intemal pressure is 225 psi.

Answer: o, : 22,700 psi Solutian. From Example 16.1, the dead load of the various components is
 386 TAtr vlssEls I6.5 VESSET UNDER INTERNAI PRESSURE AND EXTERNAT I.OADING

=
;::: i:;::i: M. = (862,570)(12) 10,350,840 in'-lb

l)etermine the total longitudinal stress o1 using Eq. 16.21 as follows:

Shelt fluid = 2O,62O lb

The overtuming moment is

Fluid, heads = 2,290 tb oL: + @7s)(*- o.z) t ftffi ' 11ffi#E
ot = + QO3O) -f (350) + (3540)
M" = 864,000 in.lb
Windward Side Stresses
Using Eq. 16.21, the total longitudinal stress is
|. Pressure, dead load, wind load = +(7030) - (350) + (3540) =
- = * <zzst(#* - o 2) !ft#6.u. ffi#3 2.
10,220 psi tension
No lnessure, dead load, wind load : 0 - (350) + (3540) = 3190 psi
tension
The side of applied force above the support
line is 3. Dead load only = 350 psi compression
dead load : shell + upper head = +
ITOO 815 = 10,515 lb I t eward Side Stesses
o1 = + (6705) - (110) + (ffi01 = 72OO psi tension

The side of applied force below the support

f. With intemal pressure, dead load and wind load'
line is = +(7030) - (350) - (3540) = 3140 psi tension
dead load = lower head+ contents : gl5 + 22,910 = 2. With no internal pressure, with dead load, and wind load
23,725 tb = 0 - (350) - (3540) = 3890 psi compression
o1 = + (6705) + (250) + (0) = 695S psi tension
A I lowable Stre ss-Tension
The opposite side of applied force above the
support line is
&= 15,000 psi for 5,{-516 Grade 60 at 6507
at = +(6705) - (110) - (600; = 56* psi rension with pressure and
710 psi compression withour pressure Allowable Stre s s-C omPres s ion

Example 16.9, The vessel given in Example

16.3 is to be constructed trom . = 0. 125 - 0.12s : o.0go
5.{-516 Grade 60 marerial
efficiency is E= 1.0. what--a o""ign"d f- +zS pri ut iSO;f."I.lle weto joint ^ nJ, (31/ l)
are trre tota longiirJina- rtr"rr"r' on uotr, tr,e
windward and leeward sides at the support line? What are
the allowable tensile and fron Fig. 8.1 I and also Fig. 5-UCS-28.2 of the ASME Code, VI[-l ' the
and compressive shesses? value of8 is 11,500. This gives an allowable stress ofS": 11,500 psi' All
calculated stresses are less than the allowable stresses. I
S1luti91, From Table UCS-23 ofthe ASME Code, VIII-I,
for SA-516 Grade
60 at 650'F, the allowable tensile stress is
t = 15,m0 psi. The weight of the
shell and upper head above the support line is'determined'from
I'roblems
Eiu-pt" tO.S u,
16.13 A tall vessel is constructed of a cylindrical shell with a flat head on each
W : 65,2rO + 0.5(3320) = 66.870 lb end. The shell is 4 ft inside diameter by 2 in. thick by 75 ft from end
to end. The flat heads are ?.5 in. thick. The vessel is supported on the
The. overtuming moment due to the wind
. loading at the support line is bottom that rests on structural supports that are 75 ft from the ground
determined from Example 16.2 as
level to the support line of the vessel. The wind zone is 110 mph and
 !tt8 TAtr vt33!r3
1000
800
thc Unilbrm Building Code prevails. What are the longitudinal stre
800
liom wind loading on both the windward and leeward sides above 500
support line? 400
300
-
Answer: o2from wind load = -r 1 660 a 200

t6.t4 Assume that the vessel described in problem 16.13 is supported

on
n

ground instead of supported 75 ft in the air. What are

the tonsituJ
! roo
shesses from the wind loading in the shell above the !eo
support iinei Foo
E50
Answer: oL from wind load : +1360 pel 340
30

16.6 VESSET UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE ONIY

For.a tall vessel under external pressure only, in addition to the basic 10
1.0 2 3 4 56 810
consid. 0.1
erauons tor external pressure design given in Chapter g, the effect Length to diameter ratio {t/Da}
of fluid lo uniform extornol pr€ssuro
pressure and dead load is considered. This is very iimilar llsure 16.6 Numb€r of Lob€!, 4, into which o .hell will collopse when subi€cr
to those conditiong
considered in Section 16.3 for the vessel under intemal pressure
only. When
bl9: caused by th€_ fluid pressure and dead load create a compressrv!
S::l
toadrng. lt has to be combined with the loading from the
extemal pressure. nnd the compression term m is
]he ASME Code, YI[-l, has methods to consider each of these rwo
- rypes
of.loadings separately. Extemal pressure, of course, is described in UG_2g 1.23 D:
and
aluar compresslve stress on a cylindrical shell is described in
UG_23(b). How_ "' L',
(16.24)
ever, there is no method given in the ASME code that describes how
to consider
both at the same tirne. An arbitrary method to consider these two
simultaneously and use the ASME Code, VI[-l, procedure was developed
loadings Ity applying Sturm's equationT for the ratio between the extemal pressure alone
Dr. E.O. Bergman in 1954.6 This method combinei the effects of
iy rrna thi *i"t loadings, an equation can be developed that gives an
axial loadinge "o-p."ssive
cquivalent external pressure Pj for the combined loading as a multiplier of the
and extemal pressure by establishing an adjusted pressure
used in the extem-al base extemal pressure Po. This equation is
pressure calculation procedure given in UG_2g.
Based on the von Mises instability formulas as discussed in
Pl= n2-1+m+mct
Chapter 8 for a
cylinder loaded with both radial and axial pressure fouaing, uju. D (16.2s)
oJ-r-i,
" tom wtrich
drtermined-for values of L/D. and t / D,. This is plotted in f.igl tO.O n2-l+m
the value ofz can be easily determined for varioius values of"Lf
D. versus t/Do, For a ) 1.0, the vessel rnay fail by yielding and should also be checked as
A comparison of results between pressure on the sides only and pressure on
the sides and ends indicates that the value of z changes very iinle u cantilever beam including the axial shess effect due to the external pressure'
for values
c < l 0. The ratio a is the axial compression unit toad divijed by the allowabloof fhe axial load from the extemal pressure is
extemal pressure that is permitted when it is acting alone. Eipressed
in an P* = 0.25 P"D- (16.26)
equadon,

p 'Ihe axial load from external pressure in Eq. 16.26 is combined with the axial
(16.22) load from dead loads in Eq. 16.23 to give the total axial loading on the cylindri-
Pp. cal shell. When this loading is divided by the shell thickness, the result is the
And the axial compression unit load is total axial compressive shess on the cylindrical shell. This actual stress is
compared with the allowable axial compressive shess determined according to
UG-23(b) of the ASME Code, VI[-l.
W
' = nD^
P.. (16.23',)
shell and two
Example 16.10. A tall vessel is constructed with a cylindrical
589
 I6.7 VESSET UNDER PRESSURE AND EXTERNAI. TOADINO 59I
TAu, VtSSH.S
psi' in'.is satisluctttry
?5
is less than the permissible pressure of 23 9
r
hemisphericul heuds. The vessel is designed for lull vacuum (15 psi
lir .:.0
is needed' I
pressure) at a design temperature of 550'F. The material is 5A-516 Grade
i;il;; ;i;;; tian I .0' no cantilever beam check

There is no corrosion allowance required. The vessel is l0 ft 0 m.

l'rohlcm
diameter and 116 ft 8 in. from tangent to tangent. The vessel is to be
in the vertical position and supported at the bottom tangent line. It contains vessel consisls of a cylindrical shell with-the lower
head a hemi-
ffuid weighing 50 lb/fd. Thee stiffening rings are evenly spaced at 30 ft 0 in -- A tall
16.15
"" the upper head
soherical head and the upper head a flat head Because
it
with 28 ft 4 in. from each tangent line. What are the longitudinal stresses
the support line?
ffi; ilp".t; J; *"igi'tt or zo,ooo lb from connecting
for full
equipment
vacuum at room
is rnaAe- 2'S in. thick. The vessel is designed
i".p".*."' Material is 5A-516 Grade 60' and there is no corrosion'
Solutian position and
The vessel is to be hydrostatically tested in the horizontal
is supported at the lower
installed in the vertiial position The vessel
l. Determine a preliminary thickness based on the extemal pressure
treoa+o-stt"tt tangent line' No stiffening rings are permitted' The vessel
using the procedure of the ASME code, vl[-l,
uc-28(c)(1). is 5 ft 0 in. insidi diameter by 60 ft 0 in' from tangent to tangent' The
a thickness of t = 0.75 in. D. = 129 + 2(0.75) = 121.5 in. D"/t - vessel contains only a gas during operation' What is the required thick-
121.5/0.75 = 162, and L/D":
360/121.5 = 2.9630. From Fig, ness of the vessel?
5-UGO-28.0, A = O.OO022.
Azswer.' Required thickness = 5/8 in'
^ = -----ffi
," 2(O.OW22)(26.38 x 101
:
= 23.9 psi: t 3/4 in. OK

I6.7 VESSEL UNDER EXTERNAT PRESSURE AND EXTERNAL LOADING

,,
Determine the weight of the vessel and contents when
to extemal pressure and
A tall, vertically supported vessel which is subjected
Shell-weight : zr(60.7 52 -602)Q4C0)@90 / 1728) = 112,950 in
.*rc.uf fouain! contains ,tre'set similar to those a vessel
with extemal
Heads-weight : (4 /3\n(60.753 -603)(490/ t728) = 9,740 ur"rror" on". ft *"thod of combining loadings as developed by Bergman and
il.,scribed in Section 16.5 is used to obtain Pj
" in the
:458,150 used analysrs
Contents-shell = n(61)z (l4N)(50 / 1728)
-iit" value
: between Sections 16'5 and 16'6 is that an expanded
Conrents-head (4 / 3) n(60)3 (50 / 1728) = 26,180
".f"-Aff"t*"e are used in obtaining P"
,,,'i;ii#J.i;;; which is given in Eq' 16 23:

3. Determine the maximum compressive load, (lb/in.) using Eq. (16.23) as

W *.4We 4M (16.27)
follows: P'= ;D3- nDz
-trD^
^ w (il2,950) + 0.5(9740) = rlu'o lDlrn' 'l'his new value of P, is then used to obtain new values of c and P/ from Eqs'
": no,= "il:lul, 16 .22 and 16 .25 .
4= 15.0 psi
what are the
P, (310.6) llxample 16'11. For the tall vessel described in Example 16 10'
2 using the
"= Fh= (,ffi
zone
= 0.1704 tonsitudinal stresses when the vessel is designed for earthquake
Uniform Building Code?
(1.23) (1.23)
forces and the
^=A/D"f:ffi=0.1401 Sotutian, It is necessary to determine the lateral earthquake
earthquake
,,u".t,-iog rno."nt at thl support line Using Eq' 16' 1' the lateral
n = 3.0 from Fig. 16.6 for L/D,: 2.963 andD"/t = 162 lbrces may be determined.
p; = e - l *t0:11 r?04)
(r5) = rs.04 ps' y=|fcrzone2
13,11(0
1= 1.0
As determined in step I, the maximum allowable extemal pressure based on
K=2.O
t : 0.75 in. is P, = 23.9 r", at 550T. Because the required pressure of 15.04
 392 TAu. VtSSEtS
BIBTIOGRAPHY 593
w 607,(xx) tb
+ 5698.3/().75) : lt,200 Psi'
Axill stress is (452.lt
I - l4(X) in. lirftowing the method given in UG-23(b) of the ASME Code' -Vlll-l '
thc
w 607.000
*:'h= 433.6tb/in. lllowable" axial stress on a cylinder is determined as follows:
ffi: "o-p."riiu"
E = 26.38 x 106 psi
determine A=
0.125
= 0.125181 = 0.0015
d+t 120 + 0.75
R.lt
t O.75 Code' VIII-I is
Ar 550'F, the value of B from Fig. 5-UCS-28 1 of the ASME '
I,:0.049(l2l.5a - l2O4) = 517,600 in.a l;ititi pJ.'
-ont"qoently, the actual compressive- stress. of 8200 psi is less than
(433.6)(l4ooF plate thickness of 0'75 in'
thc allowable compressrve sness of 8700 psi, and the
T=ooeo8./(26.38 x t06x5t7,600) : r noro
satisfactory. I
v rs

-1
c:_=--::0.{1666 l'roblem
ls v(l.0029)
r(C = (2.0X0.0666) = 0.1331 16.16 For the same vessel described in Problem 16'15' what is the required
CS= (0. 12X1.5) = 0. 18; maximum is CS : 0. 14 thickness if the 20,000-lb force is applied at the edge of the
cylinder

KCS = (Z.O)(0.14) = 0.28; maximum KCS : 0.3 rather than at the center of the head?
y = (3/8)(l)(.28)(607,000) : 63,740 rb in Although--the €ffect of the
Answer.' Required thickness = 5/8
F' = 0.07(1.0592)(63,7 40) = 4,7301b but not more than 0.25y = overtumlng moment ls added, the thickness originally selected is ade-
0.25
(63'740, = 15,940 lb; F, = 4730lb quarc.
F" = V - F, = 63,740 - 4730 : 59,010 lb
M" = (s9,010X1400)(2/3) + (4730)(1400) = 61,698,000 in.-lb
REFERENCES

Using Eq. 16.27, determine total compressive loading as

ANsvAPlstandard62o,RecommendedRulesforDesignandConstruc|ionofLarse.weucd',
Inw-Pressure Storage IdnIJ American Pelroleum Institute
Washington' D L '

ffr^@# : 310.6 +
Peroleum Institute '
," =
ffi* 5387:1 = s6e8.3
ANSTAPI Standard
Washington, D.C.
65 O, Wetded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage ' American

P, = 15.0 ANSIStandardA58.l-lgS2,BuildingCodeRequirementsforMinimumDesiSn.I'oadsin
Auiidings and Other Stntct r€r, American Nalional Standards Institute'
New York' 1982'
P /56OR 1r
Uniform Buitditrg Code, 1982 ed , Intemational Conference of
Building Officials' Whittier'
"=#r=ffi=3-t266 Cal.
Hydrccarbon Pro-
m = 0.1401 Dechetto, K., and w. Long, "Check Towers for Dynamic stability
c?rrir,g, Vol. 45, No. 2, February 1966, pp' 143-147 ' "'
n=3.0 Bergman, E.O., "The Design of Venical Prcssure vessels
Subjected to Applied Forces"'
it"?in vuutt ona piping Design ASME New York' 1960' pp 576-580
9-l+0.1401 Ctlinders' University of
= 15.8 psi 7. Strum, R.G., A Study of the Collapsing Pressure of Thin'walled
Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No 329' 1941

Because r :
0.75 in., MAW? = 23.9 psi at 550.F, the shell is still acceptable
with the earthquake loading. When a is larger than 1.0, the vessel is checked
as a cantilever beam. The axial unit stress due to p- is BIBLIOGMPHY

Vibratiots, 4th ed , Mccraw-Hill' New York' 1956'

P_:2!
=Gs)(120.7s) : 452.8rb/ in.
Den Hartog, J. P., Mechanical
Wrndenburs, D. F , and C. Trilling,
"Collapse by lnstability of Thin Clindrical Shells under
Extemil Pressure," Ttuns. ASME Vol 56' NewYork l9J4 pp ulv-bzJ'
 CHAPTER 17
VESSELS OF NONCIRCULAR
cRoss sEcrloN

595
 396 V!33H.3 0r NoNctRcutaR cRoss sEcfloN l7.r TYpES Ot vEsstls 597

17,I WPES OF VESSELS

Although many kinds of noncircular cross sections may be used for proces!
vessels, only a few configurations are used widely. The ASME Code, VI[_l,
limits design rules to vessels of rectangular cross section as shown in Fig. 1i, i
and Fig. 17.2 and to obround cross sections. Some additional rules are given fof
vessels with a circular cross section that utilizes stay plates to give addedltrength
to the vessel. The rules in this chapter are limiied to vessels with a straight
longitudinal axis and noncircular cross sections. Rules are given elsewhere ior
vessels with or without a circular cross section that is made into some other shaoo
than one with a shaight longitudinal axis, such as a torus.
Some vessels contain very few openings, whereas many others contain many
openings. If tlere are only a few openings, they usually are individually rein'.
forced by replacing the area removed as described in Chapter 11. In manv
vessels, multiple openings are calculated according to the rules for ligaments.
Ii
jlte diamelers of the openings are uniform through the wall thiikness, the
ligament efficiency is calculated very similarly to that for a circular vessel. Ifthe
opening consists of several different diameters through the vessel wall thickness
,
depending upon the type of calculated stress (either direct membrane sfiess or
bending shess), the effective opening size and the ligament efficiency calcu-

dnd flol w6ld ioint

Fiour6lT.2 "C" thops headeru wiih lorg€-rodius corne'5 {or minimum sire$ €oncanlrolion
for eosv rodiogroptry. (Courre3v EcodFo MR'vt Divkion)

with rectangular or square cross

lations are determined in different ways' Vessels
built with many different combinations of wall
thicknesses'
r;*it*t."y tt
;it"i"." sides have the same-wall thickness
where two opposite
ftom the
two opposite sides have a different wall thickness
"o.uinutions
^"J*ft".,ft" other
tiJ"..",ft-
nts $pe is often used in air-cooled heat exchangers'
"ii"#
ffiil;;;i; fu iioes or different thicknesses' wheteas still others mav

uiitir.
-'. ,tuv'ptut"t to stiffen the flat sides of the vessel'
for rectangular cross
i"n"rui diff"."nt combhations are shown in Fig' 17'3
for rectangular cross sections with stay
r""ii#ii rt ti r"yplates, in Fig' 17'4 circular sections with and without
;;;;d]; F s i'?.5 for obrooid isandsimilar forcross vessels with intemal pressure
Figur. l7,l
"*y ;il; ;ilf""gh the analysis plates on each type
witfr tnos! with extemal pressure, the effect of stay
Four-plore rectongulor hoodcr utilizo! wsld ioints or eoch corner. (Coortesy Ecodyne MR/r{
Diviiion)
"oirJarea
is di-fferent.
 +--J

+ l";

(Couriesy Americon So.isfy of Engine€n'

fioure 17.,1 Recrongulor crds s6ction' wilh sloy plot€s' '{echonicol
kim Fis. l3-2(o) of the ASl,tE Cod€, Vlll-l')

figur€ 17.3 Ploin ractongulor crols sectioff. (Courtesy of Americdn So.iery of rt^€€honicol Engineer!, from
Fis. l3-2(o) of the ASME Cod€, vlll-I.) s99
598
 I7,4 TIGAMINT ETFICIENCY FOR CONSTANT DIAMETER
OPENINGS 60I

I7.2 RULES IN CODES

cross section have been in

Spccilic rules for the design of vessels of noncircular
to that time' the ASME
:-(
;ifi ;ffi A;;, tI[- 1, iince the r97 7 Addenda' Prior
(ieaDDliedseveraldiftbrentmethodsforestablishingthemaximumallowable
ln 1963' the ASME
-,'rir"I i"it= i;; ".tt.it tr noncircular cross section This code
i,;[';:"ffi;A;A
"t Cu." irrs rot noncvlindrical pressure.vessels'
to UG-34' but
,,,r, *.rtin"O the heads and covers to bi calculated according
according
.1-- calculated
il;;i;il;tid;;iuie" p-a["] to ttt"thic[ress
longitudinal axis be
or maximum-allowable working
il;;;6. il;;;;i*rt", p"r-its ttre
permitted by
irr"r*i!',J" i","t-ined analytically or by one of the proof tests
tho-tnASME Code.
cross section given in the
addition to the rules for vessels of noncircular
vessels^are contained in
ASME-Cod", VIII-I, design rules for rectangular
code'2 and several
i ,i,,yd" R;;i;*;i strippin!,r the Swedish
Pressure vessel
other codes.

CROSS SECTION
I7.3 OPENING IN VESSELS WITH NONCIRCUTAR
number of openings that are
lirr those vessels and headers that contain a limited
mav be applied For
:';; ;;;g;-lrt p"n"m, the method of reinforced openings
the flat sides of noncircular vesseis, the
reinforcing rules for flat plates apply lf
ligament efficiencv
i;; ;;;;i;;t ;;angea in a reluiar pattern' the method of
rrrav be apDlied.
""i;;Jfi;i"ament efficiency appears in both of the equalions for
mem-
foi some opening confi€urationsit is neces-
brane stress and for bending stress,
stress and the
,^t a J"i".-it" both *rJ hgament efficiency for membrane
$ress' In addition' it is necessary to determine
ili;,-#;i"*t r- t"nain! to the degree of weld joint examination' The
iii**"Ld i"* relati-ve
"in;iency
k,wer effiiiencY of the two is used'

DIAMETER OPENINGS
(c) (d) I7.4 TIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR CONSTANT
Figure 17.5 Obround ond circl.llor cros. .€crions with ond wiftout sioy plote!.
a regular pattem as shown ln
l'or flat plates with constant diameter openings in
(Co,rrr,e5y Americon Socioty
oI lchonical Engiru.rc, tom Fig, t3-2(b) ond (c) of th€ ASME Code, V t_I.)
and bending stresses is the
i ig.'i?.6, ,ii" flg"."nt efficiercy for b;rh membrane
same. When the two opemng's being considered
for setting the ligament
an equivalent
rtu"" Ano"nt diam;ters, it is necessary to determine
"iil"i*"y
oi"-"i"i"i,ft" openings by averaging their diameters as
follows:

(17.1)
DB=O'S(dt+dz)

600 The ligament efficiency is then determined as

 r7.5 IIOAMENT ETFICI€NCY SUBJICT TO MEMIRANI
STRT3S OOI
vtssEts of NoNctRcutaR cRoss srcTtoN
rllicicncy equation i|s

Da=05(1 5 + 1'25):1375in'
.|.|rglisamentefficiencyisbasedontheminimumspacingofp=3'5in.ustng
tlrc eq-uivalent diameter Dr = 1'375
in'

€^ = €r:3's ,.1'3" = o.ao, T

l'roblems

l?.lAheaderisdesignedforaligamentefficiencyofe-=-e'=0667What
is the rninimum cen
for 1 ?5-in diameter openings?
".-,o-tJnt"' 'puting
Answer: d = 5'25 tn'
two.rows of 7 /8in'
17
'' .2
'- Theflat side plate of a rectangular header contains
ie openings,are on 8-in'
iiL"L th" 3-in' apan and the
Jt"-ui" "p"oing.' 'o*'
r6.gi*-oinal spacing along each row The header. aLso contains

i""d;JtJi*ao ioint ienter of the same flat side plate The

alon'g ttre
";;il'j"t"r, only visually eiamined' has a weld joint efficiency of
f = O.ZO. Wftut is the efflciency used to set the minimum required
thickness?
Figuro 17.6 efficiency'
Answer: E = 0 70, which is less than the ligament
Op6nings wiih constonr diomerer.

2 has the weld joint examined by fuli

radiog-
cm-eb--
P_DF 17.3
' ' '- If the header
in Problem 17 '
(17.2) required thickness?
p t"pfty, *ft" is the efficiency used to set the minimum

Example 17,1. What is the membrane and bending ligament efficiency in a Answer: E = 0'825' which is the ligament efficiency'
rectangular cross section header in which 11:6 lf|.-, h = 12 in., and
tt = tz = 0.75 in. with a single row of 1.5-in. diameter holes on 4-rn. cenrer-
OPENINGS
to-center spacing? I7.5TIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR MULTIDIAMETER
SUBJECT TO MEMBRANE STRESS
Solution. Using Eq. 17.2, calculate the efficiency as
Therearemanydifferentarrangementsofplateswith.openings.withmulti. the
4-1.5 ;;;; .iio*n in Fig 17 7' For use in air-cooled heat exchangers'
= 0.625 T ", ar" orr-gJd in increasing diameter through the-plate
."iiidi".J" thickness
tube
rolling in the
*t i", ,. tubJs the larger diarieters are needed for
may be considered'
!,xrmple 17.2. A single row of openings is altemately spaced on 4-in. and for "*",
holding "a-inAny nrrung"'fi"nt of various diameters
power.
3.5-in. center-to-center spacings. The opening diameters also alternate with first For me-mLrane stress, the ligament efficiency is
a 1.5-in. diameter opening followed with a 1.25-in. diameter oDenins. What is
the minimum ligament efficiency for setting thickness? D-Da ( 17.3)
p
Solution, Calculate the equivalent diameier DE to be used in the ligament
 vt33!t3 0f NoNctRcutaR cRoss sEcfloN I7.5 TIOAMINT EFFICIENCY SUBJECT TO MfMBRANI STRESS

nr

I
I-,--

IN
t:
:I P
11 . p- d1
+
lFl
I

a, tt.n>j
IF;--;;;'r
*1
do = 1,625"

J
figure 17.8 Hole dsloils Ior oxomple l7'3'

D, =1#(r.625 x 0.125 + l.s x 1.r2s + 1.375 x 025) = 1 490

in. I
Figur. 17.7 Op.ning! wirfi muhi{iomeier. Example 17'4. Tubes are expanded into a rectangular header that
is 1'25 in'
'fne grooves in the
tt ict. notes ute 0.875-in. diameter with two 0 3l25-in -deep
hole for holding power. The grooves are 0 125 in' high with 0 25-in'
spacing
between them.-The top gtoove is 0.25 in ftom the top edge
What is the
where membrane ligament efficiincy if the openings are on 3-in' centers?

Solutinn. Calculate the equivalent diameter DE using Eq' 17 '4:

o" = + dlt + dzTz + . . . + d,n) (t7 .4)
I@on
p:3in'
Example 17.3. Determine the membrane ligament efficiency in a header do = in. ?6 = 0.25 in'
0.875
where /r : tz = l.5O in. The header contains a series of openings on 4_in,
centers. The openings are multidiameter, as shown in Fig. lt.g. dr : O.9375 in. T : O.125 in-
dz : 0.875 in- 7i : O 25
Solution, Calculate the equivalent diameter DE using Eq. 17.4 as follows:
dz = 0.9375 n. \ = 0.125 n'
P:4in. d, = 0.875 in' 7i = 0.50 in'
da: in. ?6 = 0.125 in.
1.625
," = x 0.25 + 0'9375 x 0.125 + 0'875 x 0'25 +
dr = 1.5 in. T1 : 1.125 in. #(0.875
dz = 1.375 in. Tz = 0.25 in. 0.9375 x 0.125 + 0.875 x 0.5) = 0.888
 606 Vt33!r3 0t NoNctRcurAR CROSS SECTTON
I7.6 TIGAMTNT ETFICICNCY SUBJECT TO EENDING s]RESS 607
The mcnrhranc ligunrcnt cllicicncy rs
I =2 AXz ( 17.6)

lrrom Fig. 17.1 and Eq. 17 5'

",=1:jq=o.zo+
>Ax=bofr(;+4
/T^
+z+...+4)
-/
Problcms /a \
+ btrt l; + 7;+...+T"l
-/
17.4 A rectangular header contains a series of tube holes on 3.5-in. centers. (r7.7)
The holes are l-in. diameter with the ends counterbored 0.25 in. deeo to /'r-
a diameter of 1.125 in. ff the plate is 1.5 in. thick, what is the lisament + brTrl; +
\- "'n 4)
efficiency for membrane stresses?
/T\
Answet
+ u.nlil
\-/
etu = 0.702

17.5 A seamless square header that hasT l/4-in- inside measurement by 1.125 2A= boTo + bll + bzT) + .. . + b"T" (17.8)
in. thick is to be formed so that it will have a constant thickness. Thc
header contains a row of 2-in. diameter on 3-in. centers. The holes havc >AX Eq. 17 7
"-
(17.9)
one groove for expansion at the midthickness of the plate that is 0.125 in. >A Eq. 17.8
high and has a2.125-in. diameter. The opposite wall contains a series of
handhole openings 4.25-in. diameter on 7-in. centers with a seat on the From Eq. 17.6
outside 0.125-in. deep by 4.75-in. diameter. What are the ligament
effi ciencies for membrane stresses?
I=2Ior2AXz (17.10)

t * brTrt + bzTrt +.. +bE

Ansver2 e^: 0.328 on tubeside tz' t2 12
'-=boTo3 12
\2
e^ : /T^
0.384 on handhole side
* b'ft (? + rt + 12 + . . . + r. -I)
17.6 A header is to be made from 1-in.-thick plate. The plate contains a row
of tube holes on 3.5-in. centers. The holes are allernate 2 and 2.5 in. All .^lr,
-rarrrErT2* "+T,-X) (17.11)
holes are counterbored 0.25 in. and to a O.Zs-in.larqer diameter. What
is the ligament efficiency for membrane stress? lT -\'z
+brr,(;+...+r.-x)
Answer: e. = 9'339
?\2
/-
* b"r"v _;)
I7.6 LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY FOR MULTIDIAMETER OPENINGS
SUBJECT TO BENDING STRESS c = larger off or (r - fJ
For a flat plate that contains rnultidiameter openings, it is necessaxy to determine The width of the ligament is
an effective ligament efficiency in bending by locating a neutril axis of the
b6=P-DB (r7.r2)
various diameters and thicknesses of the openings and the effective moment of
inertia. From structual mechanics, the basic equations are
Because c = t/2 and I = bEt3 /12,
2AX
"= >A (17.5) c tll2\
-=-l-------=l=-- brx
6
(17. r 3)
I 2 \bEt"/
 I7.6 LIGAMTNT EFTICIENCY SUBJECT TO EENDINO STRESS 609
608 vtsstts oF NoNCtRCUtAR CROSS SECTTON

thc ligament cl'licicncy lirr bending strsss is calculatcd lrom liq lT l5 us

And
4 - 1.53
= 0.617 I
Dt=P -n o/
(17. t4)

For bending stress, the ligament efnciency is |.)xamp|elT.6.TheheaderinExamplel?.4issubjectedto'bendingStresses

in tt e nut sides. What is the ligament efficiency for the bending shess?
D_D" Solution
(17.15)
p
P=3in'
Example 17.5. Determine the bending ligament efficiency in the header
in To : 0.25 in. do : 0.875 in' bo = 3 - 0'875 = 2'125 tl:,'
Example 17.3.
Tr = 0.125 in. dr = 0.9375 n' h = 3 - 0'9375 :2'O625 \n'
Solwion Tz= 0.25in. dz=0.875\n' bz=3- 0 875
:2lZ5 in'
Z: = 0.125 in. dz = O.9375 in' bt: 3 - O'9375 : 2'0625 in'
P = 4in.
: Tr : 0.5 in. dr = 0.875 in' bq = 3 - 0'875 = 2'125 \n'
To in.
0.125 do = in. bo = 4 - 1.625 = 2.375 in.
1.625
r, AX : (2.125)(0.25)(0.125 + 0.125 + 0.25 + 0.125 + 0 5)
Zr = 0.375 in. dr : 1.5 in. br = 4 - 1.5 = 2.5 in.
Tz = 0.25 in.
+ (2.0625)(O.t25)(0.0625 + 0.25 + 0'125 + 0 5)
dz = 1.375 in. bz = 4 - 1.375 = 2.625 in.
2 AX = 2.37s x 0.12s(O.o62S + 0.375 + 0.25) + (2.125X0.25X0.125 + 0.125 + 0.5)
+ 2.s x 0.37s(0.1875 + 0.25) + (2.062sX0.12s)(0.062s + o's)
+ 2.625 x 0.25(0.125\ + (2.12sx0.s)(0.25)
) AX = 0.6963 X AX = 1.6484
2 A = 2.375 x 0.125 + 2.5 x 0.375 + 2.625 x0.25 =
t A = (2. 12sx0.2s) + (2.062sX0. 125) + (2'r2s)(0 25)
1.8906
_ N KOK? + (2.o62s)(o.r2s') + (2.12sx0's) = 2'6406
X= = 0.3683 in.
1.8900::
x- = 1.6484
L64C6
= u.o4+)
r = + l(2.37 s)(0.12r3 + e.s)(0.37 13 + e.6zs)(0.2s)31
+ (2.375X0.125X0.625 + 0.375 + 0.2s _ 0.36S3f r=$ l<2. rzsxo.2r3 + Q'062s)(o.r2r3 + Q. t2sr(o'2s\31
+ (2.5X0.375X0.1875 + O.zs _ 0.36S3f + (2.125X0.5f
+ (2.0625XO.r25)3
+ (2.62s)(o.2sr(0.3683 _ 0.1212 (2.125)(O.25)(O.l2s + o.lzs + 0.25 + 0 125 + 0'5
+
/ = 0.0884 - 0.6243)2
c = the larger of 0.3683 or (0.75 - 0.3683) = 0.3817 + (2.0625)(0.125)(0.0625 + O.25 + 0.125 + 0.5 - 0'6243)2

From Eq. 17.14, the equivalent diameter is + (2.125X0.25X0.125 + 0.125 + O.5 - 0.6243)2
+ (2.0625)(0.125)(0.0625 + 0.5 - 0.6243)2
Ds = 4 -#ffi = 4 - z'47: 1'53 in. + (2.125x0.sx0.6243 - O.2s\2
610 vrsslr.s 0f NoNcrRcurAR cRoss s[cTtoN
STRISSES 6I
I7.7 DTSIGN METHODS AND ALLOWABTE I

I = 0.3451 in.a applied bad-

: solvc lbr minimium required thickness in terms of geometry and
c = the larger oI O.6243 or (1.25 - 0.6243) O.6257 \n.
ings. Even in these cases' some assumptions are. necessary because the thickness
shess, but, it is related by the square of
isiirectly related to primary membrane
Equivalent diameter is equal to lhc thickness to primary bending stress '
B;th il.rty;embiane and primary bending s$esses are determined for
th€
(6)(0 345r \ point examined' Where required' shesses may
De = 3 -ffi = 3 - 2 tl8 = 0 882 in' various configurations at each
t f"r the effect oi a weld joint efficiency' if there.is one' and for
1-ntR? """J "O.i"t*E
both thJ membrane shess and the bending saess ligament efficiencies
when a
eb : '-:------::-::= = 0.706 rspeating
-'n.""iai"gpattern of openings is used.
J
to ttre ASME-Code, VIII-I, a weld joint efficiency according 10
joints) '
uw- t Z ls reiuirea for longitudinal butt-weld joints (and-some other butt
In looking at the efficiency from Example 17.4, this is a case where the groovcl all points
.trtrr.ugn tftJ*"fa joint eficiency is applied to the membrane stress at
for expanding the tube have little to do with the efficiency because e. = 6.794 weld
: in tn" noi side plates, iiis applied to the bending stress only at the
and eu 9.796. a ri A" examined binding stresJ is located in the flat side plate rather than
"*u-in""O
tt" *"tA iom,, the weld j6int efficiency is not applied' The ASME Code'
'"i"i.
ui
Problcms VUi- t , is applying the weld joint efficiency to the allowable stresses
"onsiOAng any polnt'
instead of modifyinf thJcalculated snesses' However, in examining
either method worki when the proper weld
joint efficiency is used in the equa-
17.7 T\e header in Problem 17.4 is subjected to bending stresses as well a!
membrane shesses. What is the ligament efficiency for bending stresses? tions.
'"-Only
the lower efficiency of the weld joint and the membrane and
bending
is used. The weld joint efficiency is not modified by the
Answer: eu = 9.792 lit es."', efncien"ies
joint not
ii*u*"n only the lower efficiency is used' If the weld does

17.8 What are the ligament efficiencies for bending shesses in Problem 17.5?
"tn"i"n"y;
rt" p-", irxamined, only the ligament efficiencies. need be considered'
"3"* "i
Provisions are given to account for holis with different diameters
thrcugh the
determined for calcu-
Answers: et : 0.333 on tubeside olate thickness.-For those cases, an equivalent diameter is
iating
- the ligament efficiencY.
et : 0.367 on handhole sido iio- ttt"" for"going discussion, one realizes that care is. required
in deter-
a:t any location. In general, it is. easier to separate the
-i.i; tttd"s
tlt"-
a"-ti-" stress and the bending stress at each location examined
ln most
I7.7 DESIGN METHODS AND ATIOWABIE STRESSES , shesses should be ixamined at the
midpoint and ends of the side
"r"ig*"ti-t
pf"telt waf as at the weld joint, if one exists Other points may
also have to
Design rules given in this chapter are for vessels and headers that have a sraight be examined.
The calculated primary membrane stress is limited to the basic
longitudinal axis with a noncircular cross section and closure plates on each end, allowable
The fonnulas are based on assuming a unitJength vessel section with no t"nril",t gin"nin the applicablecode; however, the combination of primary
stengthening effect form the longitudinal direction of the plate. However, for
certain uniform thickness vessels and headers, provisions are given for plates
-".U.-""r..6tt pfus primary bending stress for a plate thickness assumed to be
rectangular in cross section is limited to the following:
with a length-to-width ratio of two or less to compensate for the added strength
from the longitudinal direction. govern'
1. At design temperatures where tensile strength and yield strength
The design rules in the ASME Code, VItr-I, provide for vessels of rectan-
the lesser of the following:
gular and obround cross section where different walls may have different thick-
(a) 1.5 times the basic allowable tensile stress at design temperature'
nesses. The method used in the ASME Code, VI[-1, combines plate and shell
(b) Yield strength at design temperature'
theory and stuctural design theory where it is necessary to assume wall thick-
nesses and calculate stresses that are compared with allowable stress values. 2. At design temperature where creep and rupture strength govem' the
These methods were described in Chapter 7. lesser of the following:
(a) 1.25 times the basic allowable stress at design temperature'
For vessels and headers of uniform thickness, e.quations can be developed that
(b) Yield strength at design temperature'
 17.8 BASIC EouAlloNS 0r3
612 VtSSttS OF NONCTRCUTAR CROSS SICT|ON
is
["br externll prcssure, where the total stress may be compressive, a limitation llcnding moment at cOrner O
also set based on buckling of the side plat€.
il
The basic theory is the maximum strsss theory that is generally used in
structural analysis. For cross sections of members and stifieners other than
M"=+Hl{'##) (17.18)

r. the combination of primary membrane plus primary bending stresl

Tlangular,
is limited to the shape factor of the member times the basic ailowable tensilc llcnding moment at midpoint
of long-side M is
str6s in the applicable code but is not to exceed the yield strength at the design
temperatures where tensile strengtl and yield strength govem. At design teir. u" __ un _P# ( 17. 19)
p€ratures where cre€p and rupture strength govem, the same limits apply,
but tho
shape factor multiplier is limited to 1.25 regardless of the actual shape
factor,
short-side N is
. As_mentioned previously, it is necessary to calculate shesses at various pointl llcnding moment at midpoint of
in order to determine which combination controls. Certain analysis methods,
(17.2o)
such as that in the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code, combine the mjmbrane stresg
and the bending stress in the same equation. It may be necessary to separate them
ur= un_P#
for evaluation when different efficiencies apply to the membrane stress rather
than to the bending shess.

I7.8 BASIC EQUATIONS

For analysis purposes, the noncircular cross section of the vessel is considered
as a skuctural frame. Each component of the rectangular or obround
frame
contains a load that causes a membrane stress and i moment that causes Internal Pressure, ?
a
bending shess. The total stress at any point is the summation of these
two
stfesses.
As shown in Fig. 17.9, the direct or membrane
_
by intemal pressure
skess at any point is caused
loading against the adjacent walls. fhls toaaine is resisted
by strength of material, and weld or ligament efficilency of the
-the-thickness,
lvall! that are carrying the load. The applied loading d e)(1,) and the resisting
loading is (&Xr)(2d. When these are equated to e;ch other and solved
for S,l
the membrane stress for the short-side iJ

-Ph
t^: xrn (17.16)

and for the long side, the membrane stress is

Ith'
^PH (17 .17)
2t2E

From the theory of structural frames,3 the basic moment equations for
a
rectangular frame under intemal pressure loading p when the two pairs MM
of
oppcsite sides have equal thickness and equal length, as shown in Fig. -.9, diogrom ior reclongulor !€crion heodor'
are lnbrnol pr*3'rr. looding ond b€nding moment 'ro$
as follows: rigur€ '17.9
 6t4 Vt!!!ts 0f NONCTRCUTAR CROSS SECTION
17.8 BASIC EQUATIONS 615
Momont ol incrtiu /1 lirr short-side is

L=\
t3 M,=ilffi)-?
. P /htl, + Htlz\ PHz (r728)
'12 (t7,2ll
('learing Eq. 17.28, we obtain
Moment of inertia 12 for long-side is
p /hJt. + Hjlz\
,. - L t:_:.L-- P l2rrz (17.2e)
|-
1..
r3
'2
""- t2\w,+at, J r28
n 07.22,t
Clearing P/12 in Eq. 17.29 gives
The basic equation for bending stress rs
M-=+ffi#-1.s''?) (17.30)

So:M'
I Multiplying Eq. 17.30 through by (-l),
Bending stress in comer of short_side is
M-=+('5"'- +J#) (17.31)

G)a=ryx!
Z.lt E (r7.23)
Substituting Eq. 17.31into Eq. 17.25 andcfor hf2:
Bending stress in comer of long_side is
$),=h(""'- +tuo,.; (11 .32)

6;)a=ryx!
2lz E (r7 .24)
Ilxarnple 17.7. Determine the adequacy of a rectangular cfo-ss-sectional
Bending stress at the midpoint of the short_side headeiwith a design pressure of 150 psi and made from a seamless forging with
oi t2,soo psi' The header inside dimensions are 14 in by
is
tn allowable .t
"ti
7.25 in. with a constant thickness of 1 in. All openings are reinforced'
tsr.lr: $
UtE* 1 (17 .2s)
Solutian
Bending stress at midpoint of the long_side is
1. Calculate the moment of inertia:

$,:ryx! (17 .26) ,=*$=oo',,

simplifying equations, the equation for the bending
stress at the midpoint of the
short-side is determined as follows: 2. Calculate bending moment at comer Mc using Eq. 17 l8:

Cross multiplying Eq. (17.18) .. 150 /(14)r/0.0s33 + (7.25)3/0.0833\

ua: i \- r+rerffi -llfr = 1838.28
/
= t2\(t!!!-!'h\
M..
P
(r7.27) 3. Calculate bending moment at midpoint of long-side M1a using Eq lT' 19:
hlr+HIz/
Substituting Eq. 17.27 in Eq. 17.20 gives
Mu = Ma -'+ =1838.28 - *Tq = - ft3632
 I7.8 BASIC EQUATION5 ot/
6t6 VtSSEtS Of NONCTRCUTAR CRO55 5ICT|ON

(S)c',v = (S')'v + (Si')or: 1050 + l l'030 = l2'0ti() psi

4. Calculate bending moment at midpoint of shorfside Mry using Eq.
14. Total stress at midpoint of short-side:
PH2 (150x-7 25)'?
Mu = Mo - +8 = 1838.28 - : 852.7J (sJ,u + (S)' = 1959 1 5120 = 6170 Psi
(S).,v =
5. values' so 1-in. thickness is satis-
Calculate bending stress at corner of lons-side: All sfesses are less than allowable sffess
lrctory.
(1838.28)(0.5)
(S)aa : : 11,030 psi from two C-
(0.0833) l,)xumple 17.8. Arectangular cross-sectional header is made
rcctions and butt welded along ule center
of the short-sides' Th€ weld joints are
6. Calculate bending shess at midpoint of long-side: r|)otexaminedwiththebacking,t.ipt"ftinplacefromTable.Uw-12ofthe
l15,psi,at room tem-
,ili*,riit"J", vrii-r' r = o.si' The design pressure.is
( 1836.72)(0.5) ,"r",ri."] *O tft" .","""f is se-S t S Craae
i0 with an allowable stress of 7 ' 500 1

(r"" = --O:d833- = I l'o2o Psi is 6 bv 0 625 in' thick'

ilI. ri'!il;; ;il;ir.i uv r in thick and the short-side
holes on 3'75-in' centers ls
( )ne lons-side contains a row ot i'S in diameter
,f
Calculate bending stress at corner of short-side: thc desiln acceptable?

(S6)qv = 11,030 psi Solution

long-side with the tube holes:
8. Calculate bending moment at midpoint of short-side: 1. Calculate the ligament efficiency of the
s=oeo
^ =
tsr)"
(852.73 )r0.5
-to.offi : 5120 psi
)
c^=€t=:'ls,;1
9. Calculate membrane stress on long-side: 2.Calculatethemomentsofinertiaofboththelong-Sideandtheshort-side:

,",
rs-,u=_PH=
(t50x7.2s) \-'Y:-' = o.o2o3 I,: tz\ (lt -= 0 0833
l,r (0.625)r
T ,(D :540 psi L = i= i=;-
Mp using 8q 17 18:
10. Calculate membrane stress on short-side:
3. Calculate the bending moment at the comer

Ph t50)( 14)
(J'),v=t= (
lo5opsi
r(ri:
ll. Total stress at corner of long-side: 4. Calculatethebendingmomentatthemidpointofthelong.sideMMusing
Eq. 17.19:
(S)o,u = (,S.),r.r * (S)aa:540 + 11,030 : 11,570 psi

12. Total stress at midpoint of long-side: M, -- Ma - ( = ror.rr-

(115X13'5f : -1778'so

(S)u = (&)v + (Srr : 5,40 + 11,020 = 11,560 psi 5. Calculate the bending moment at the midpoint
of the short-side Mrv using
Eq. (17.20):
13. Total stress at comer of short-side;
6t8 vlsSIts of NoNctRcutaR cRoss stcTtoN 9 EOUATIoNS lN THE ASME CODt',
vlll'l 619
. 17

Mn = Mo -'+ = 84r.3s - t+q :323.8s (S)o,v = (S,)'v + (Sr')o'v = 1550 + 12'950 = 14'500 pst

15. Total stress at midpoint of short-side:

6. Calculate the bending stress at the corner of the long-side with the
(E = 1.0): + (Sa)rv = 1550 + 6230 = 7780 psi
(S)p = (S'),v

'l'hc allowable stress for membrane stress is 17'500 p:'-Td ft^t't* combined
<s,t*=W:ffiffi=5o5opsi rrrembrane plus bending t*t""t-'it"i i-s = l 5(li'500) = 26'250 psi All
stresses and are acceptable'
|rlculated sfesses are tess tnan tne aiowable
7. Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the long-side with
holes (E = ea = 0.60): l'roblems
C-sections that are-buttrvelded
along
Mucz : ( 1778.50X0.5.) 17.9 A header is made ftom from two *eld is not examined and the backing
tsttu = -ilF: I /./eu psi fn"
(0.0S33X0O the centerline of th" bv 6 bv
il;;;. in pro""; tr'"tiiott' E = 0 65 -The.header-is 12
'tto*-'iA"
at the weld
is the stress
8. Calculate the bending stress at the comer of the short-side (E = 1.0): I in. thick with a de"gn p'";tit" oiZoO psi' What
joint?
Maq: (841.35)(0.3125)
= 10'160 Psi
(o^oro3xl3) =
ttilaN = 12'950 psi Answer: Maximum stress
iE
along
C-sections that are bxtt welded
9. Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side (E : 0.80): l?.10 A square header is made from two
wetd- efficiency
liJes' The is 0 65'
ioint
the centerline or t*o oppoiit" 2-in diameter on
of openings that
The adiacent side co"tain' u 'ow
t.)att : Mucr= (323.85X0.3125) = bzru Psr 5.75-in. centers' fr'" O"'igtipt""ut"
ii ttoisi and the lreader is 7'25 by
'are
lF (oJro3xojo) it tfi"''l*ito* where is it located?
stress and
0'75 in. thick' Wf'ut
10. Calculate the membrane stress on the long-side (E = e^: 9.691
Maximum stress = 5950 psi at corner of welded
side
Azs*er"
\r.)M =
PH= (l rsx6) :
Ui ,(lx0f) )uu PSr
I7.9 EQUATIONS IN THE ASME CODE'
VIII-I
11, Calculate the membrane stress on the short-side (.E = 0.S0):
Appendix13.r,h:f y:::*h#t" j;,:.lllllll1lH"',,'Tl:H jiJ,::iT;
=
Ph= (l1sxt3.5) jfi *::*'ffi
\r^tN
zttE ,(o.6rsxo3) = l55u Psr
ttriillT:l:i:Tfl
ASME :re
Code irs:i;if#l:h'#'
mexpressed c
'll"l,l:
to the sPecific geometries shown'
12. Total stress at corner of long-side: same thickness' the equations
in the ASME
When the opposite sides have the lT lT However'
Code, V[I-l, are the same * tnot" *iu"n in Eqs 17 16 and
(S)oy = 6^)u + (S)e1a = 580 + 5050 : 5630 psi *"tt' *"*rt"" theri are rounded comers' or when
when opposite thicknesses a specific
ue ,esM! code has
some other variation occurs , iir"'g"".""y,
13. Total stress at midpoint of long-side: oiut J"utiopta ttot the theory of structural
equation for that conngo'ut'on
'f'ui
(S),v = (S.),y + (Stff : + ftHl'"quu,ion, The prin-
580 17,790 = 18,370 psi for the bending stresses were similarly.developed
t4. Total stress at comer of short-side: .ipi",oi"*o*a f.T::"',::1"*f .J:rT: ;#:ffiil:tX"il:^1f'""?#'fl
to sive different equatrons rol
 +
Z:

\-l
'{
-!:

-(\
-+
I
,: -s
3 +: +
*sl
+I j

crs \l* \i ;
I
I I
t(a

-^-r-i- T 5 i T-r
't!.
-i
+ (J
9,)
€-E-'"r
lt5\(l
l- c.l

;
:' I

Fst.
^slv
,n ^r
F .*
,-..:\
^;l{
al
+ +
:
{lv +I
c'l
\]:
ol+ -l+ \) di
*l+ + I

ll-=l-
-l-tir Eo N +
\]
N
+
.:_-:-\
+ '{
ol
f'l
r_]d
dl
d
.\ilNI
6Jor
i
!J
.-i-
-i1c.|
i-]^ F
"? ^' ]: : \"1^ :J I a.a\
*+.F\E I
tl$ ti! rl$ tlH ;F it5 ].
E
le
{-l$
IN
*<-
<\'
lai '--:a
-l tN ,lla -t{ :l lA:
rN
s
.+Y
+< dl-
*llc ili

"l! rls q,i

ll-
tl
-Nl

^ t!.1
I
qJ

-B 3a93qLraa Fa O lrl Qaa

'Ed
9!
YE
EEEFEEEE
E:>S"a'Si
€E! 6

-> <at\ a<

ri
o 9
0
F
ii3333Ss
rxrrSSrC
$\J
r- c- F-
ul!"4
Fe-rr (J

620 621
 622 vfssg.s oF NoNctRcurAR cRoss sEcTtoN

bending stress at thc midpoint of the short-side of a rectangular cross-sectlr Iqble 17 .2

headerisEq.3of Article l3-7 of the ASMECode, VIII_1. bevelopment of
l,rIure Location Membrane Stress (Psi)
same equatlon as given in Eq. 17.32 is

as,: ffiltsn'- o,ttti :ff (t7 l'l .3a

t't .3b
Short-side
Long-side
Short-side
Ph /(2hE)
Ph/(2t28)
Ph /(2^D
(17
n Long-side -=:=--=l4NH'-2h'? | (K, + k?)
b./Yttt2l I L

K= -kt(Kt + k) + Kr - Kr))\
t;td (r7 , "'k
P(a + L)/^E
|+ = t. * l4 *
I:, 1] h3lt + H3t2 17 .3c Short-side
P(h + s)lhE
o2K -
r,^i]____Fh
Lh,..
(r7. Long-side
p(tE l17 + d/ns
comel
+
r+K=l *11 "',.1 -htt+Ht2 (r7 t't .3d Short-side Php/2(At ph)E
Lh rtl hll Long-side PHp 12( z + pt)E
_h2(l + a2n = _orlhtl, + Hrl, u H, I _ h3lt + H3I2 l7 .3e Shon-side P(L+L.l+a)/hE
(l+K) -L h'1, "ht,+Htr] hlt + HI2 (t7 .
Long-side P(h+h+a)/t2E
tt.)a Midpoint, curve P(a + L)/nE
Substituting Eq. 17.38 into Eq. 17.33 gives Pa/hE
End, curve
Side PaltzE
@,:#,rftt"'- +:#] (17 t't .5b Midpoint, curve
End, curve
P(a+L)pl(At+ph)E
Pap/(A, + ptt)E
Pap/(At + ph) E
Equation 17.39 is identical to Eq. 17.32 and shows the relationship between Side
thl
gquations in Appendix 13 of the ASME Code, VI[-l, and those derived fron
basic theory. The ASME Code contains extensive nomenclature in Article
13.!
fo-r yarioug configurations. Equations for the bending stresses in Table
l3_lg,l
of the code are shown in Table 17.1. In addition, equations for membrana Tqble 17.3
:hTle! for various configurations in the ASME Code, VIII_I, are summarizod LtlH or Lr/h Cz
in Table 17 .2.
Although all the formulas have been developed on the basis of a length_to. 0.56 0.62
1.0
width L1/H and Ly /ft of four or more-the ratio where there is no long dimen. 0.70
1.1 0.64
sion effect-provisions are given for the simple rectangular header shown o.77
in 1.2 0.'13
Fig. 17.3a to reduce stresses when the aspect iatio is lei than two. The mem,
1.3 o.79 o.82
brane stresses remain the same, but the blnding stresses are reduced
by multl. 0.85 0.87
plying by the factors in Table 17.3. The stressei are then obtained by 1.4
using tho 0.91
following equations: l.) 0.89
1.6 o.92 0.94
For the short-side at the comer: 0.96
0.95
1.8 0.9't 0.9'l
(Sa)o = Eq. 17 .23 x C2 (17.40)
1.9 0.99 0.99
2.O 1.00 1.00
For the shon-side at the midpoint:
623
 r7.9 EQUAI|ONS lN THI ASMI coD[,
vlll'l
vEssH,s oF NoNctRcurAR cRoss sEcfloN

(Sr,),v = Eq. 17 '25 x Cl ( r7.4 (Si,),v = 5120 Psi

For the long-side at the corner: midpoint of the long-side using Table
17 l'
Calculate the bending stress at the
lirst equatlon:
(sa)o = Eq' 17 '24 x Cz
f, . - I +-t(0.51?9)rl = lr.020psi
(l50x0.s)(l4f I
For the long-side at the midpoint: (s,)" =
1;(o58txt L' ' I o.5l7e I
(Sa),r.r = Eq. 17.26 x Cl ( 17. truilt with a shortened
l,lxample 17.10. The header in Example 1?'9 is to be
midpoints considering the
For those cases where eitdrrer Lr/H or Ltf h is elss than 1.0, it is necessary ffi;;ffi;;; = ia in. wttu' trt" foesses
'"
at the

rho-rtened length?
reorient the axes of the header and to recalculate all properties such as
of inertia of the wall. Dimensions are chosen so that the longest dimension is L1,
Solutian. Zr = 18in';H = 7 '25 in'; andh = l4it' Calculate the following:
the next dimension is ft, and the shortest dimension is 11. This may result in
pafi which was originally considered to be an end closure becoming a wall
the header. All calculations are based on this revised confieuration.
L'
= 18 2.48 cr : c2 = l.oo
Vessels of noncircular cross section may be subjected to external pressuro, H 7.25 =
Membrane and bending sfiesses are considered the same as for intemal pressun L:
unless the resulting stresses are compressive where stability may be a possibh =9 =
h14
t.ZS Ct = 0.79 znd Cz = 0.82
mode of failure. Interaction equations are used to examine the various plates fot
stability. Calculated stresses are compared with critical buckling stresses with I long-side only because the length-to-
The strengthening effect applies to the
factor of safety applied. This is described in Article 13-14 of the ASME Codo,
width ratio ii less than 2'0 This gives
vl[-l.
(s6)r x cl = (11,020)(0 79) = 8?10 psi I
(s)1q' =
Example 17.9. The rectangular cross-sectional header in Example 17.7 il be built with a shortened
made according to ASME Code, VIII-I, rules. What are the bending stresses at ExamDle l7.tl. The header in Example 17 9 is to
axes for analysis and what
the midpoints of both the short-side and the long-side? ffi1ilfi;;''= iz in' whnt is aonejo trt" n"aaer long-side?
midpoints oi the short-side and the
,rt"
^r"",il"'r'o""". "
Sohttion. Knowns: Il = 7.25 in.: h= 14 in.; r= 1 in.; c = 0.5 and geometry properties as follows:
Solution. Calculate the header
E = 1.0. Calculate a. 1. and K as follows:
Lr: 12 = t.66
H 7 '2,5
"=#=T:o.ttn 4 =9 = o'ss
rl fl\l h14
r=i=;-=0.0833
( reoriented for analysis ln the
Lr/h 1.0, the axes of the header must be
. = (,:)" =
0.0833
(0.0833X0.s 179)
:0.5179 Since
ffi;#, r,) tqin.,h= 12in', andrl-= -,,1:
7'tf in' -
flat end closur-et^which have now
The first assumption is that the originat
Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the short-side using Eq. 17.33 b".;.';i;;";'also I in trti"t on'tttur basis' 1= 0'0833 remains'
and Table 17.1, second equation:

" =+
=ff = o.suz
/t4), I
(1s0)(0.5)
fr s,z rsv - rr+,
+ (0'5t79)3'l
(Ja)":
l2(0.0833)(1) Lt.J\t.zJ, K= O.6042
 VESStLs lN OTHER CODES 627
vEsSEt s o; NoNCtRCUtAR CROSS SCCTTON l7,lo DGSION Of NoNclRcutAR

il proof tests Among those design codes lirr

Check thc strcngthening I'actors apply: vcurs based on dellection and burst Llovd's
l';;";;;; ulrr"i, *" the Swedis'h Pressure Vessel Code and the
L, : t4 il"*'.i"' ii*p*g n"r"-"1'*i::l"T",i ;$,"%il'ni-":X',"*"';1ff #:1':,1
V 1O = t.lZ Ct = 0.99 and C2 = 0.99 Lrl "i ftames, spectnc appt
structural
luro different.
L, 14
h= i= 1.17 Ct = O.62 and C2 = 0.68
Method in Swedish Pressure Vessel Code2
l7.lO.l
are rules and
Shengthening fagtors apply to both short_side and long_side. (i)ntained in Chapter 18 of the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code
headers subjected to intemal
Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint of the sliort-side
using Eq. 17.4 il;;;t-f- ilGning rectangular cross-sectional all sides' There are no rules
:ffi;";;;;i,h G ,ut"-ttti"tn"" of walls on
when the wall thicknesses are con-
ts,r,=ffffil' rrrrrl - ozrfffilro.el i;ff;5;it ffi ;tilerent watl thicknesses' both
;;;i;;;
*i{;-basJ;q"^u';
J;"i, ;iu"n for ttre st'"ss"s in the long-side and the short+ide'
Pressure vessel Code
for the long-side from the Swedish
(Sa),v = 2280 psi
is

Calculate the bending stress at the midpoint ofthe long_side

^ equation:
fust
using Table 17. l,
;=(;,-&*6 (17.M)

/c, -- (150X0.5)(lD2f .- - I + (0.6042)r'l (0 62; One term in the denominator is the membrane
effect and the other term is the
'""' D6lEl5?i) 1t': 1; fi,ai | = ae5e o,'
t em"ct. Substituting terms from the ASME
Code' gives VI[-l'
"nOing
Problems h eb K = bending moment tenn
I 2: €n =
^ =;
21
s*i. =
17,11 A rectangular vessel of the cross section shown in Fig. 17.3c ir 100 for kilo x=d
constructed from 5A-516 Grade 60 material. The design pissure
is 75
psi.at a design temperature of 300.F. There is no cfusion and
full Substituting these terms into Eq 17'rg gives
radiography is applied at all weldjoints. What are the total stresses
in tho

s= (z'
long-side plaies and in the comer section using the method in the ASME
P- '2 (r7.4s)
Code, VI[-1, Appendix 13? Dimensions are as follows: 11 0.75 in,;
a=3in.;L=6in.;h:3:[il. = \/'/ *i;. +1hKtr'
Rearranging terms and solving Eq' 17 45 for S gives
Answen At center, ,t = 14,100 psi
Ph lta 3hK\
At end, ,S : 1480 psi s=*\*= )
(17 .46)

In bend at 26.e, S : 10,720 psi "

lf e- = e6 = E, F.q' 17 '46 may be simplified as follows:

Ph
I7.IO DESIGN OF NONCIRCULAR VESSETS IN OTHER CODES
-s = 2Et'= (td. '+ 3hn
(r7.47)

In addition to the ASME Code, VI[-l, design rules for noncircular pressure
the Swedish Pressure Vessel Code
vessels are contained in other design codes as well
as in various textbooks. In The basic equation for the short-side ftom
addition, empirical design rules have been developed and used is:
for a numUer of
 628 VtSStts of NoNctRcutAR CROSS SECTTON I7.IO DESIGN OF NONCIRCUTAR VESSETS IN OTHTR
CODES 629

p_ cross-scctional headcr givcn in

/100\ rz krng-side and the short-side of the rectangular
s- \;i ! 6^k/4
( t7.48)
lixrrnple 17.7.
'^,Jz
Substituting terms from the ASME Code, VI[-l, into Eq. 17.48 gives Solution. Design data ftom Example 17'7 are as follows:
p /)\ tz h:14\n. H= 7.25in' P = 150Psi r:1'0tn'
-S = I:l (r7 .49)
\1,/ t/e^ + 3hKfe6
:H =7 25 g.51g E:1.0
=
h14
Rearranging terms and solving Eq. 17.49 for S gives
use Eqs 17'52 and 17 47 as
li)r the stress at the midpoint of the long-side'
li)llows:
'=#(*='+) (17.50)

If e^ = e6 = t, Eq. 17.50 may be simplified as follows: K:K^=

1s0(14)(1 x x 14 x 0'250)
s_
0.5_1_8_-t__?
= 11,570 psi
s=#e+3hn (r7.5t)

The various values of K are determined as follows: lrortheStressatthemidpointoftheshort-side,useEqs.17.53and17.51as

lbllows:
Midpoint of long-side:

K = K^ =(o.s18f
+ 40.s18) - 2
= -0.116
\-LA--rZd
K^: (17 .s2)
+_1lj-_lj x (0 116)
T
s_
1s0(14X1 = 6170 psi
Midpoint of short-side:

q-ttq-z Problems
KN: ( 17.53)
17.12 Using the design conditions for the vessel described in Example 17 12'
Any point y. from midpoint of long-side: if thJ same cross_sectional area is kept but the cross sectlon $ square
midpoint
at the
iort*A of a""t-gular, what are the maximum stresses
and comer of thJ side using the Swedish Code?
K^,: K.- o.s (Y-)' (17 .s4) : 4560 psi
\m/ Ansrver: Stress at midpoint

Any point n from midpoint of short-side: Stress at corner = 8370 Psi

lT.l3ForthevesseldescribedinExamplelT12'what-isthemaximum
K^' = K, - 0.5 f)-)'
\n/
(17.55)
allowable working pressure for the header if the thickness
is increased
tot= 1.5 in'?

Example 17.12, Using the Swedish pressure Vessel Code formulas for n Answer: MAWP = 600 psi based on the stress at the corner of the
rectangular header, determine the maximum stress at the midpoint of both the short-side'
 lN oTHER coDts 63l
630 Vl33tr3 0F NoNctRcutaR cRoss stcTtoN l7.lo DESIGN Ot NoNclRCUl'AR VESSELS

surlace of b = {7L'
17.14 A vesscl of the dimensions in Example 17.12 is made from two cular limits measured from the vessel is the nominal
Aia*"tet and
sections welded along the centedine of the short-side. The weld ioint where d, is ttre actJ op"nin^g
'd
only visually examined and no backing strip is used (E = 0.70). Wt ,fti-.tn"t' of the tube stub (in'')
are the maximum stresses at the midpoint and the corner of the
determined from either Eq' 11 44a or F4'
side? Once the ligament efficiency.ls
from
fl.+S, th. valie of K is determined
Ansrrel: Stress at midpoint = 8810 SE
Stress at comer : 12,530 psl
x=V
17.10.2 Design by lloyd's Register of Shipping Rules where S : allowable tensile stress
(psi)

Rules for the design of forged, rectangular cross-sectional headers air given P = design Pressure (Psi)
Chapter J of Lloyd's Rules. In order to use the rules, the header has\i con
E = ligament efficiency
radius of not less than 0.25 in. As with other desisn methods for
cross-sectional headers, stresses at the corner and in the ligaments betwecn A= distance ftom centerline of hole
'l'he value ofA/8 is then determined where
from tangent of comer to tansent
openings are examined.
The method used to detennine the efftciency of ligaments between openingl
il;#;;;;";;,uaio' -a r = ditt*""
in Fig lT l0 Using the value of K'
enter
of corner (both in inches), u'
't'o*n the.value of A/B'Readhorizontauv
is similar to that used in other codes except that Lloyd's Rules permit coniiderin'g
the reinforcement area in a welded tube stub as giving a smaller equivalent
lri.'"..iiJ" #i;.;t. irj"'ii
""4 ""'JJlvio
uJui r' the minimum required thickness'
of
ro determine the value ot
diameter. Without welded tube stubs, the hole diameter is used.
H;"ji.i;',H*1""a. 'lo' 'n" of r tnitt U" greatel than t. [f the values are
fi,"
"Au. pto""doi" repeat€d until the values are
For a regular pattem of holes, the ligament efficiency is
uDart. the value of I ls reduceo und th"
cIose.
(17.s6) doss-sectional htd:t using the
p Example 17.13. A rgctlnSlr| -square wittr no ftbe openings' -lt-,*t]t The allow-
Llovd's Rules. The header rs I :]in' 150 psi'
For an irregular pattern of holes, that is, one in which the spacing between th" d"tign pt"ssure P equals
abli stress of the materi* is rs,o0O fsi':oJ
op;nings is variable but the opening diameter is the same, the ligament ffi"ij, ,it" rnrnrfi required thitkness of the header?
efficiency is
Solutinn
p, Io,-Zd
L- =" - (17.s7)
Ptrpz 4=o
B
anct J= 1.0

K=Y= lfiH
For an opening without a tube stub, the hole diameter d is used. For an
opening with a welded tube stub, the diameter used is the equivalent diameter = rooo
d. determined by
t
0.056
d"=d-LT (17.58)
B
B:7'5-2(o'2s)=t'o
where I = nominal thickness of shell or header (in.). r = (7 0X0'056) :0 392 in' I
A, = excess area in tube stub over that requ ed for internal design on 3 5-in' centers lies along
pressure plus area in attaching fillet welds within perpendi_ Example 17.14. A row of2-in' diameter openings
 6t2 vtgSlrs 0i NoNC|RCUTAR CROSS SrcTtoN BIBTIOORAPHY 633

A/B
4 = 0.s0
E3333SB I B

B
1 = (0.23)(7.15 - 2 x O'25) = 1.668 in' I
I'roblems
of a
17.16 Using the Lloyd's Rules' what is the minimum -requi-red.thickness
' "^" 0'25-in corner radius and 9-25--in' inside
wall-to-
;J";;er'with psi and the
i^l;i;;;;"rtrl" urro*uur" tensile stress is 1s'000
10865432 contains a row of openings that is
desiqn Dressure 1800 psr' One side
K i.o-in. aiut.t.t on 3'b-in' spacing along the center'
AIB Answer: t,ni,, = 1'75 in'
0,30

u.lTwhatistheminimumrequiredthickness(withinl/16in')inProblem
The tube stubs are
17. 16 if welded tubestuus' are added at the openings?
o,m
anA aftached by a 0'25-in' fillet
1.O-in. inner diameter uy O ZS in' ' tttict
0,15
weld.
tlB
t";n: 1'75 in Cannot be reduced to 1'625 in'
0,10 Answer:
0,08
0,07
0,06
REIERENCES
0,05
and Other Pressue vessels"' it Rules and
l. Lloyd's Register of Shipping, chap J' "Boilers
the Co structon and tlassirtcaio of Steel Ships' London' lg72'
K Relulatiotls for
of the Strength of Pressure^Vessels' Publication
Figuro l7.t0 Rcclongulor r
hooder thickness 'aquiremenis for tlovd's regisr€r
ot shippins (courl'elv Llovdl
2. Swedish Pressure V essel Code' Calculation
Stockholm' 1967'
Rssisior ot shippins) Series A No. lE, Swedish ttessure vessel Commission'
August 19?6, James F. Lincoln Arc
r, tiJg"t, o.", w ., DesiSn ofwellments, 8th printing,
the centerline of a header that is 7. 75-in . square Wetdog gounAation, Cleveland' Ohio' 1963'
with 0. Z5-in. inside corner radii.
The material's allowable stress is.15,000 psi tf," J"riln
-a
What is the minimum required thickness bf the f."rr*"
fSOO pri.
header?
BIBTIOGRAPHY
Soltrtion. Calculate the ligament efficiency as follows: Barberton'
Recnngular Headcts' Rabcock & Wilcox'
Allovlable Working Presswes--square vnd
Ohio, 1950 (private communicatlon) '
^ 35-)
E=::_:____-::=0.42g6 Roark, Raymond J. andwaren Young' Fom ulasfot Stess and Strai'' 5th
c ed Mccraw-Hill'
'
'
New Yolk, 1975
Calculate the other properties of the header
as follows:
sE (15,000)(0.4236)
r = P= (1500) = 4.286
 ,!t

APPENDICES

635
 GUIDE TO ASME sEC.
VIII' DIV' I

fu|.fu4'A*dirr'.'cu^nno
1r

il

APPENDX A lt

GUIDE TO VARIOUS CODES I

I
il
Lill:;ll;T;X;'i: . ,' ,"'
'lif;f;l'l'
'3,S'11i1"?t1'**'
u
tl

ll

Is:s''x: ** : :i;'-T,l'j'i-Ir"? *. '$ll r';:*::r;

G l'"*;+.r*, ":"1ili*d,*:1. -,, r;l*"t+lg;_:'tiix -
;$l;::J: -J T:.
;;;;i*i-.6 -'$: :5:.:ji:s Jil:Ti;
*,-
",. ,".',

**iir:'**';*:.::, qgt:l.l**" *,*::"";,";.*.1;t;," _" ., D

ffibv ft e Am€ricon
:l:;1ffi
nn''""''
societv or
.'liJi"l
i,Li; lill iH' Lv ioo'z''o'n'"'i
e

H;:ij,'"3ill:"1il'.f;".)'li
l'Jll"i'i,J-*it, ""** ins' De'' \ela \

637
 GUIDE TO BRITISH CODE BS.55OO CODE
GUIDE TO A. D. MERKBTATT
J. W. Strowson, Oil Componies Mqleriols Associotion, London e'V''
H. Steffen, Vereinigung der
Technischen Uberwochungs-Vereine
Essen, Wesl GermonY

1,---^-*--J:l

sb,ve-J'.tNol..

taen tftu*) 6on- 35!

tribi (,dud) dm
rr.iriLon (o!u{n rdrcn
^o.B?- -aos2

lB:i'",-,..*'
srh..ic.rt d'hd B
^D.s3- 11 e lf$<

3:llll"ft-*-^""""" :liEEry,.+
ii*ri*;;'::m*:::::*l i'drcnit G!-11:::
PEumia Gi
LEg I

P'oo' rer .ea.:

r#r:g:'liJ.Tffi:
tmF
-",..::::",""
Fif
-aY-:.-:
ddd4e/od_
- -- '::;:;
"."f.";Y'
18-32,
cort HeymonnsVerlos KG, Gereoftrr*!€
Fisuro A.2 cuid6 to Brirish Cod6 SS.55OO. (p,rblirhed by rhe Britilh gondords Insriturion, 2 pdrk Sirser,
ffi ot Germ i3,'n- a n'***bon Prccessins' D*
1978')
London WfA 2BS, co{r.t sy o-sOm s cotogn", F.derot Republic ""i'
ot Hy&ocatbn kocessing, De<. lg7'.)

639
 VESSET CODE
GUIDE TO DUTCH STOOMWEZEN CODE GUIDE TO SWEDISH PRESSURE
The Swedish Pressure Vessel
P. von Rossen, Diensl voor hef Sloomwezen, ,s-Grovenhoge, The l. Berglund, Tryckkirlskommissionen'
Netherlonds Commission, Stockholm

lo,5-xozh..dorc.h.d

sE'9.|4-Geo'12!)
D &h'c. ri.

..1.' [h -G@oqn) :ffll" i i

-oo8l?!.o..0|
etn-oo.o3{10'd) -i;;'
hl.|plpic-6@013e| id,.,",--d--1'1.

*'-""---- ":::7"
l1rli?..-i,-",".'--) H:H l*T'":il -,"..?,r il
"x

sd..! .,,,i.1 F*. ?9Tt

-.""
gtigffi
uwT
rEedm 6Fi^ll strlt.l'
rxvl.vi|.
*f;?sl;ffi!ft:
fi ;;,."",-..,.-_''.,,
x'.,Jffi
nnd.bl
ilT:I$ll;:i
j
;;;;
X;1;1
eli,
ssdd.c @ido3g1l,.

F.DrD _Ooaqs.|s@or.Mr,o7oi

'"' :i#lBffiil$rj#'1fiilj{ffilljlf;3$C*{E"F}::#'3'ff:U'ii
Sf{*,.*if
(Published bv Trvchkkorkkommi'3ion€n
lvA' P o Box
Fio'ireA.5 Guide to Swsdi3h P'e$ure ve$er code Prccessins' DEc teTa')
ot ttdrcnrbon
fisu.6 A.,{
cuid€ to Dukh Stoomw.zen Code, (Published for rhe Minisrry of Sociot AfidiB [Di€nsr voor h6r l":ti. l-iti;;1.anorm, sweden; courtesv
Stoomwezenl by Govornm€nr Publishing Offico, Chrisioffel Plonriinsrroot, The Hdgue, N€thendnds; courbiy
ol Hydrea$on Processing, Oe<. l979.l

&1
640
 VESSEL CODE
GUIDE TO ITATIAN PRESSURE VESSGT CODE GUIDE TO JAPANESE PRESSURE

M. Koike, NiPPon Kokon K'K"

R. lV\ozzoncini, Brescio, lfoly TokYo

".!-$ll'#:'""'"'-

-a1..=1e-lAH{H'rud",.
rird ,itit ;:.d.;;i#6i."!-?o?1r"
r\
wdd oFrir
-r,r.o2 I
a
tt \=lE!-T
-v.s.R.r.t,s
^l.t.iob-v.s'i''''i
rrntu l'-G.n Bbi
:1-- l,llx.li'" ----."r{; iEEi'i' J Xl ;":;-.-, -""- "
-v5e.r.F.3
I=IHH ::il'H*4fi' iX'bF *t;;* :tt'i= I
atu6,d rul.
fr;;u^d o{gd-nt!
.".--'' '5
5'
.rdn.lor.u.--4rie

ur. w.rd loiir or.9

-s3

2'0 I
ffi
-s

Fisu.o A.6 Guide to ltolion Pres5ur6 Vossal Code. (pubtkhed by Co3o Ed;rrice tuisi Di G. piroto, vio bv rhe
% Ab'irvoku Yo'iki Kouzou Kikohu'
CorFlico, P.O. Box 3680, Mifon, lt'j,ly 2468Ar <owtety ot Hdroc bon pro.essing, D... 197A., Fisur€ A.7 G!i& ro rory:a
P:'*:"::::;;iln s-ss-r st'il'o r^ino'o-Ku,Iokvo,
roPon' courtesv
the JoPon borrc
r.rinirtrv oI I'obor, poblish€d bv
tlioeorbon processns' De'
19741
"l

&3
g2
 tAW
PRESSURE GAS CONTROT
GUIDE TO JAPANESE STD. PV CONSTRUCTION GUIDE TO JAPANESE HIGH

M. Koike, Nippon Kokon K.K., Tokyo M. Koike, NiPPon Kokon

K'K" Tokyo

hi.rn6 ridi.l r.gr 3 2..t 1?

tru'.
r d.D .nrni rtur i45..5.t
-rh'cri..n.d..r
f-'ikhd{n@.|pr@[
-

.r. not 2c-^di.c-r oP-r.lt

-^cj.cd.F

i;;;;d;F;'-,.,5
5

cod,|6imn.!-..''4| t22r -rN?,*l'

Ar- sor
Lndb tdl6t ..en r2..1-r'.n|lM (r.dd) d4
^r.rt4.
rrx30.. t'dldr d'd
-ir'tl
il lJJt::l
,hr*'u itund ,'uur_r4{,
'nfi|*.i.n.''i.@-..
-4r,.r

-arrr
rhddh'dd9.dd.-1.
thB|lA.eij'.d.-B T-ffi
12
-senrk
rv dbH @
;liliiffi
PF-.J
ii:}i:F,s--- ";
Mrr rndrbb *dit p,[*r-t3 n::,ffi;u:--"*.'.
flllf:i"---------;li ,ffi
tu:;;::
f,ll*1i:!l-=--' '{i=----------=1r'
fuol4[ch( Ej-.':;
sq
stud. l\

Figur€ A.8 Guide to Jor,ono!€ Srondord pV Construction. (JtS B B2tg-IgT?, pubtished

by rhe Jopcn
Sfondor& A5.o€iotion, 4-l-24 Akcoko, Minoto-Ku. Tokyo, Jopon; courrery oj Hydrccchon pft,cassing, *l;::l:$:'J"T:J:1
D€c. 1978.)
hiu:rrv, poblished bv th6 In3lil"le tor wr€ry
Hvdrocorbon Procassing' D* 1974'l

645
d44
 HEAT EXCHANGER SPECIFICATION SHEET

APPENDX B
SAMPLE OF HEAT
EXCHANGER SPECI FICATION
SHEET

fi:--swc- ttNGrH Plrcrr

,xchongsr Monufocturerc Atsocialion' New

York' N Y'
*n ." ot,t.,uluto,

u6 47
 API Strndrrd 850
Stor.gc Tlnk Spcctllcltlon Dlta Shcet
sh..t 1 ol3
FlL No.

hlvnlnbn (!Y Ptt!at-.)

Phdic _---

|lLr ta! ol P|.'

APPENDIX T.t* C.FdtY (t'll: |{d $rdld.le
ib ._-- Dlfi.
i.||.r h bblfir' ot
h.r.Ung T.inFnur. -.-
SAMPLE OF lF(.d D-igo s!.dic Ot vlty @

SPECIFICATION SHE -

fb.fitC Rool APg H

hoar5 Yo t'ao --
tod.r Unlto?rn t r. (cdt ld.t tGY)
Lo.dkE (p|oYLt
frdgn par APP. E: Y- --- &
lo.r. (Fle. E.t) ---
tlo.llld.rll (T&|. E 1)-
X pllllcrddr Fer O.dc
tL Bod! (3.10.4.5): Y.! l{o --_
L.d: V.lodtY (m9h)
h ld.dn dllt $finddit r (a!F 39.9):Yr--t{o.-_
Ethclr: Ftrll,-- m.t" h. F ht.

Dbnatar, nur,
rd/or 8.bin Rdtena
l,t i!i!. rs.
Co|EtL

D'C'
Court$y ot lhe An€ricon Pelroler,m Inslitur€, Woshinglon'

u8 g9
 8h.at 3 ol 3
ahrt 2 0t: Flh No.
Conalnrc on On I. (!t ttrutotur., rnr'o, Frxdr-r, ar
Ff. o.
I Manul&arcr ^tDtb!b)
Clty
$ara
S.fial tto.
2 Fabrlcator
- Doof Stt..t ( PP.
Flulh-TYP.

Clly q.l. lrllold Htlcrr grcton N@L

S.rhl No. Ittamd FY,D.: Swlno U|. aq, ll.
3 ri,hbdll Sp.dnc.tdlj sli.I F
iaadne Co{ Stltt At r
Fool iooi Ddn: no-
Eolio.n li.ll Mrnw|Y.:, i'lo. Jd E2c
6'nrictuds hr Mrflty!. llo a,|c Si.
iiru [:rJ ta- ttg. *8, ]5, s€, "d r'bb! 3€ ]e ]10)
Slioll Coul!.. (no. ot) 'r'd
Ads rudh rnd ntch6 (hdulng conBdon dowrnc.
I
a
7
t Tank Bonom: ptata litdsEaa
Scrmr (cli.d( one) _ hp _ dr,
Slope t C||.d( q'l.: To-Fto.r_caot
h. p.r
7 Bottom Annutrr Pt !. tfin. nb$ arld ltkrot- (!..
! Root to Str.ilO.rdt: Ftg. Fl
c Irbm.dhi. Wirdliidrr: yG _ t{o
Top wlidgirdr (r,rc .r ritr,ory): y.!
-l0 Rool Typ.: S'.Fpo.iad _ -- l{o _
S.tt.SI
Slop. or R.diu.
'It R6t ptrio: t chr€a
Bur Joh
l?
aid &r5 itd T.blc &t6 $t4
ll Fd rbrd.. (lidt *t v.ilthe od'tttdotr) (s.. Flg. 3.4
'nd
ll T.nk Bo(brn Cofdnt: ht do..yaa_ o _,itd.rld
Applb.tio.t Sp.dtb.ton
la Prhi S-tn cturlt S.tr.t tih.-yar _ _ eir{or.y.r
o _ Lo
16 lfiFdion By: Shog
la lvcld Ellrn|mtonr R.dofmph
supp|.?iantary uquld parFarai or ultarric
t7 Fllmr PDp.rty O
It L.rt T.'dllgr Aotb.n
Sh.ll
lg iilll T.d R.porb R.qutrrdl Ya!
Phb --
lil,o

20 Pud[rar,a Ratafaica Drar,ttg

2l T.nk SLc: Dtr'l| tar.nd |htght i, tt.
&| O.!. ot €dt0on or R.trton ot Apt -S||rd]d
-
A5O

l{ot.r Stadl atd/ot aaDatn Ji"t ttr|y !' d'dr.d b cov'r

'9'd'l
nqulrmcnt3

650 651
 Pressure Veesel Deslgn Dsta Sheet

Bcagr.4s$c!
cepaclty of v65e1: ec.ktns pte6Bure: ----l?!- P"18

VIII - Dlv. I rorka!8 !.aPe!6ttrte: ;:P9- deg' F

de.1e! code: rSrc Sectjon
coD3tructioo: <cilos1on allol'ance: 0.063 bcrl

Uateltal Speclf lcatlon8 :

APPENDIX !
No.
GlP.
No.
latcllel sP.ct!1c!tlon8 E...1orra lUooable 6t!e56

sA-204, &ade ! 17,500 P61 abl. ucs-23 3 2

SAMPLE OF PRESSU sA-215' ctade I|cA i5,000x0'8=12'000

Tbl. UCS-23
UG-24(.) 1 1

cla.€ 17,500 Tbl. ucs-23 I

forAlnS6 SA-181, 70

bolrl[g sA-193, Crrdc 816 20,000 rbl. ucs-23

9A-106, Grade B 15,000 Ibr. Itcs-23 1 1

PlPl!8
l/16 lEch asbe3to6 y-3 ,700 Fz ,75 Tb1.2-5.1

Skeich and Genelsl Dbenstone of V€6se1

4-lnch outlet ulth r€tru.n8 neck fl.nte
3€ao1e$ di8heil head, !re3€u!€ on
corcave sld€, unstayeal
8-iD(h outlet wlth la! loinr
flaige

sPeclgi cast 3tee1 oeldlng

Epeclal folted Eteel bllnd

flente

:-1./2 lnch blosdoh ourlet rlth reldtr8

653
 .10
ata APPTNDIX

Ihdgn ol Hord and Shell Dectgn of Head and Shell (contlnued)

th.lt lttcta...! !c-27 (c)tlt lh. chcck Ernt-Erdthtchlis: !G-32 (b)

l. dDlEl! r.qrd lhtcb.tr, !. pt (..rtir!e 8 - t'
Joint lfflclencv of 0'85 b€tt'en head '!d 'he11' post s'ld hcat ti'at'd
0.?0, Tbl $t-lt
fsb-:-id' (doubl. e.ld.d bur! Jotlrt "ot. U6_32 (f)
double_buitaelil fot th' c1lctDfetentlll lo'!t:
atrrl rir'\
?IiSdli-ffi6j:io-fi-3E - o'7e1
5P-t
,r-_l
trio' rc:rl
|ild coEo.lo! rllosroc.s ,?9t + .053
lr-EEfuu
F |
_
. .8j4 ts. :"1a' 6:E5
' ' 'dn.0.3l8
Z. Cb.cL pos! rold hcrt !t rtDtsr rlit r.dtoSrrpb rcqult sllrr. iii--mo-ii=iclFsrt
VCS-56, Ib1 I'CS-56 [o!. O)(r): port e!1it b!.t rrcrlE.lr r.qul..d 0.318<0.68E, thlckneB6 oR
lt
.ac.!dr 5/3 t!; frd Ucs-16 (b): 3/32<0.688, thtckn€38 oK
b.c.$. 0.8500.625r por! e.:.d b.rt !r.*!!ar t.qulr.it UFfI (a), IrCS_j7 check t!1d'lEi instde lnuckle iadlus! Uc-32 (J)
cf D$-52): r.illotr.ph r.qstr.d t-3, Cr 1, 2, 3 1f t> O.?50 r!.; (3) (0,688) . 2.053 'a'd->2 053 knuckle ;adrus 0&
b.c.ur. 0.851D0. 750 rdll.ogrrpby tr !.!ulrcd cyundlr.cal 3k1!t: rr,l-13 (a) 0.688<(1'25)('750)' 0'937
r.crlcuLtc tl{cbcrr rrqut!.al orb8 f - 0.85 (rbl DT-12, 3Eot .tr6b.d) A cyllDttrlssl 6klrt b o9llorlat for Ehe h€'ail butta€lded to the Ehell' t
t + c '?ir-s66++=ii?5ir .ll'1,.,1'lll.Ll"l'l rangeot of 1-112 In. 1e4!h l'tll be used to Provide a
b€!e1 fot the butt

c$.cl |Ppltcrbltttt of foinutr:

;.i# e.ld, lbtu uU1 rvoltt cultln8 th' bevd rnto the L^nuckl''
UA-27 (c)(1) Skctch;f h€.d lnil 3b€lL shotdng ?llDcipal dlo'Dslo!! and to!'!3nc€'
0.385 sl - (0.365) (rt500) (0,85) - 5?2Oi 525<5720 forsutr fi
0,5r - (0.5) (18) - 9.01 0,750<9.0 JomuL of,

Aud frlct!..s: {EG-3ZI

l. l dlrhld ie&! dll b. u..tt, !C-32 (J) r.qulr.r rlrt rb. tl|taL buckh lritltra
rh.lll bc not 1,..r ri& 6t of rh. ou!.td. alr"o.tcl ot th. .t1!!, lor l.t. rha!
tbr.. ct!c. th. h.|tl !hlct!.ra. rh. b.l.dc .touD E.iHtlt l. ro Dot .r-
c.ral !L. outr:litc (tt6.r6t ol tbc ^lro,
rldlt, lhur lsy:
llaill. crorrn r.dtr[, t - 27 i!.<37.3t5 t!.
llllde l lcllc s.illu., Ir 4 tu.>(0.06 r 37.375 - 2.24 r!. (!) v.3!cl to bc Po.t e.lil hclt t:clted !t 1]'00'F fo! 3/4 hout
(Un-33)
tllcbcr. r€qult.d: lrA-a (d) (b) drxl.'tE Dclrtu.1bl. off.et of ctrc@fe!'nt1a1 JolEt' ' 3/16"
I- (c) .Pot cxllllitloE ot e'ldcd lotnts Pet UP-52
a . 1.00 fot rcalcrs t.rA (a)' u{-91(a) (1)
(2SE)-(0.21)
---!I!-- tot LIt - 2114 - 5.75, @ 3/32" rclnfotctEg bc!d: w-35
No of!r.! P!.Pst!t1on n.cc!.mv bett'en hcld ind sh'll b'c'u!! thlckltlt'er
x. r.4o (tbl D^i.2) 1/8 ln' ux-g(c)
t+ do no! illff.! bv Eolt lhrd '
+ 0.053
"o={i3t}*32}={i:4-rzsr
- 0.568 + 0.063 th.l.l. lulfrcG of h..d 'hrU not d'vlrtc(r)
t +c- 0.531 thu.!or. gr. h.rd phr. thtct!$r of 0,688 b (tt/16) ."'.-ir'i. lltO" rtoD 27'r rrdlus uG"81
1e
I
r-r/2", b.v€l 30' fo! $eldh8
 6t6 5tf
APPENDIX

Data Sheet for Relnforcement Calculafions (UG.3Z, -40)

Relnforcement Calculatlons for E Inch Nozzle

She1l -€r--s€.d- (€!ecrfv l

r. R.1afore.r.!t lcqut.d: Itc-37
d..crlption: (Iontltudhal butr Jcl.nt, dcJbte eelded, poEr vetd . {.260 r.. ln,
near treaEed, spct fBClotraphy) A - (a) (!!) (F) - (7.?50) (.550)(1) ^
desi'" pr66'ore ........,,"....,.,....,,. p 5_gll!tl !t trl colslil.lctl !o h.v. t.LDfolc1ng vrLu:: !G-40(d)
Jo1!! err1c1€ncy ..,.. ...,,...,...,,..., E lu5 A- l! th. not!1c eru elthto lh'
-f ' s.t..l lD th. 3h.Il . rvrtlibt'
!€*lDLo alloeabte slres6 . !. i . .. . ,. ;i.ii rlsll thtcb.i. fo! r'lEforc'E nt:
.
corlo61on all@ence
,

.h.11: (15.50-8.525) ('r37) - ,942 3q, rn.

llBrde rsdlu' .' Dorzr!: (8.623-7.750) (.137) (15,000/17'500) - .103 3q' ln.
r".-,. .;';;;:.",'..';;;;-;;",.';.,,."-
*a€+{+ (s!€clfy) befolc
"""t', "-
coiloBion atr. (cf ttc-4b)
D@rnal,h1c'.!e.6, .,rc''ii.ve of
I \ . 1.045 so. ln.
".,.J::':,i:,:::'.1,.1..i::
bhlEle lequlred thlcknels (!efere.(€:
#*
U6-Z,) ... .....,.... ._ ;;; A- - Ectrl' ln th. aotrl. rlll oultlil' th' 'h€11
!btcy!!t3
- ' rv.ll.bl! fo! r!bfotc@'D!: At - .J9Etr x. i.r.
rsr-;jta-o (.438-,$e) (2)G)
€xce8E "
thlckDea€ ....., ,...........,. r_t_ 0,137
(.43S-.139) (2) (1.s95) t" belo' for h :-:913-cs.:-$.:-
2, Norzle A- - r.L1 ritil.il .| t.i.3lorc@cat '!d !'trt b 'lircbo6t
tlalertal uEed: se€lless s.eet pt!€, sA-i06. clede B (s3h - rililoil tolaforcrocrt (U2
toaxlD@ aUorable 6t!es3 . !.... <,.. ...
80) Lach Phtc' 8-5/8 :D bv 14-5/8
j.n'l.e ittuere! of lblshcd r,.;,"r"; :"";r;;";'...:: oD)
"".,r"r
ndlnal thlcksess excluslr€ 6f
:tr* (.50O) (r4.525-8.525)
.3.000 rq. 14.
co!!.€ron 6Uoasn4. . . ,.. . .. , . r o'rt3fi! of
thlcknese lequlled for hrrp.Ere6s ,U"-rtl ,.....,.........
0.438 in. o4-belt tnch fuU ftU€t s'ld! 'losad
,_] ;;; i.raiotcf"g Plrtc .!il srolad noztlc srll:
tTPR. (.50) (.50) (.50) (4)
. .50O .q, b.
- -
3. sk€rch
".le1nforc.€Eepr ,:rhar*-ra-3fii3#isi
of
GE :{ol-:?r
dto€nslors 4: - g.soo b.
6id seidlns deialt (W_15._X5._1E.1 'o.
3. Ifdth ol .!.s of t.luforc.DcDt nolEil to v'sscl nrll:
oc-40(e)
(2.s) ('587) - 1.720 1D.

(2,5) (.438) .1.095

rn= O.l3b ptl,3 .dd.d -.1ofo!c.ocut :-9=!9q
h - 1.595 (th13 toverD6)
Y6 -- o,2q3 4. sr@rtY:
relDfotcco.!! uacdt
Al: sli.U r[a aoz . .....".'""' 1'045

Lz' aorzle ............,".,..""" 0'954

.ilahil letufoic.o.rt rod ttclds'. !:Eg

a aee g!LEgLl@{'
658 APPENDIT
APPINDIX

and Selection
Attochmcnt Weldlng for 8-tnch Ouflet (UW-fS, -16) It-Inch Lap'Jolnt l'lange Attachment

fo! !o
rtrd 6h'11 rnd t'l[fo!c1!8 '!r'rgth
l. lllo!.!1c .t!.3!G6 1p vc1d6: (Tbt. Un-lsJ r.l chcck tleldbg b'r'c'! noztl'
(!) ccabiDcd 6at rlit 31d€ loadLlt €rr.s6 1n brrt ,.1d6 I ot.h".^od hvillollrllc fotc'
'ril LB butt .'']d' (rbl n$-15)
(17500) (0.74) - ;:;;; 6t!c' 10,500 PE1
12,950 }rt '""'
(b) cmblned .[d ind s1d. lo.trlls 6t!!86 tD flllct eeld€ (u,sOO) (.60) '
of butt r"1it (cf 'h!* 4 for
drDdlloDs)
(17J00) (0.49) - ;.1;..;.; 195,450 tb.
E,560 ?.1 (ro'500) -
2, Strhrth of l,l€1d6: (r) (s,525) (.687)
!orc! to bslil' ilt'!'tet o:
noz'rc
(r) outer ftuer s.Ial b.tr..! ves6cl ratt lDd r.hfolcbg plar€ ;'";..t".Dd 24,700 tb.
(n/4) (?.750)' (525) '
6\ 04.62512) (0.500) (Es5o) - 9E,500 lb. *r' ro! b'd!o3t!tlc 'Dd
(b) :;:"'.;:'";;; ,.,u .'*' 195,460>24'700 lb. .
butt rr.ld b.tr..r v.sr.l r'ru .nd !6rzt! !'eU '.
foic' 4o0 l!'
(n) (8.52512) (.687) (12r9s0) . PlP lt rEr)t's ltd Flttrt'gs' uB'
(c) f1U€! !r.1d b.tt'ecD lorrl. |!it r.lDforclDS phr.
1.20,500 lb, 2, Fror A161 315.t192 srlrL
(1) (8.6?'s12> (0.500) (8550) . !.!.il .! 565 Ptt rt 50' F'
38,000 r!. FtoD vtti'6'! cttrlogt
(d) b!!! ultd b3rt'!.! aoz.tc ndl rlil t.bto!c!.!8 ph!.
(n) (8.625/2) (0.500) (r2950) - D,'!b!! of boltt
87,600 rb. .1t' ot bolt'
E$!: 13 lnchli
(r) .tt.!gEh 1n !.n.toD of rh. pL!. rroov.d firC-41(b)(2) boll cltcf ill'Dltct """"'""' tDchcs lons
8'625 oD bv ?'625 lD bv I
(17500) (.550) (8.6?5) - ,, o.. ;:;.;t 't!rb 'Dd' 1^5 ln' saskot - i2 rn' (D bv I tn' D -
831000 $. ;: ;;;; crirl'os' ts'
(b) .r!.Dgth of !.trt 1D vcrr.I rrtl .v.lhbl. for r.lnforc.r!.!t
(17500) (.137) (15,50 - 8,625) - 15,500 11.
(.) rclEJorc6!6r lord e.!tLd by rh! ro:rt.|'rtl
(15000) (2) (.438) (.687) - 9,030 :.b,
+ (15000) (2) (.2ee) (1,59i) . 14.330 It.
23,380 tb.
(il) rclDfolc.o.a! 1o.dt c.rrLat by r.l.DforctoS lhtc
E3!000 - (15,500 + 23,380) - 43,120 th.
4. -9.w.:
(r) 16.d !o bccrrrt.d !y rltrcb.it r.hforc.o€nr
E3,000- 16,500 - 55,500 tb,
rtr.Dtrh of rtt.clDllr - 98,500 + 120,500. 219,000 Ib.
(b) lord to b. clrrlcd by lorzh ritl - 23,380 L!,
atlen8th ol rttrchElDt - 120,500 :.b,
(c) r6.d to bc c.Flcd bt r.hfofcllt ptrt€ - 43,120 tb.
.r!.n8th of rttrclE.nt - 98,500 1!.
Attr.hD.Dr elldl[g ls lrtlsf.ctor?
 cto 661
APPENDIX
Prollmlnary Derlgn of tE.Inch Inregrel
l.lrnge
Prellmlnary Deslgn of lE'Inch Integral Flange

- (27,L25)
^c - (24.525, d.!tr! p!G..ur! - aBlestos sasket HlI1 be us€d 19 lnch ID bv 22 I'ph @
ll ,. ^ r/rS lnch flat '
S2S
:rrna!d.318n rt!.!i r ]2,OOO
Dort d.8tgn .t!€si . 2O.OOO
z, Flon Table 2-J.2t
try 1.250 ln. Dl.s!t.! bott!
root .!e. - 0.943 iq. tn, (8
,!i e6rtEar. basrc sasket Beatitts f,ldth, \o = G/z)(n - 19)/2 = o'?5o i^'
8. . 0.553 1n. rlitth, b = (1'/z) -dffr = o'D3 rn'
B.crlon fo!
I radlar effective €€,sk t sea,tjns
f
), locatlon of g.sk t load reaction' fabk
frary. 2_5'2
h hub
fi
K--
olcttca6
W d= 22'o'2(o.4)t) = 22'o ' 0'866
G = 21'1?r in'

Y
r. hub l.Drth, r, i-'JE . \\n r"-;;l;; . ,.0,,,
2. c.nt€r 11n. bolt cilclc to hub l (r.j)Db _ tly h r 3,00 1!.
3, DlntltlD bolr cllc]e itl.ecrcr for ! o.j)(r,25) - r.875 tly R.2.00 1n.
4. bo,, Bpaclna - g rn. or (2.25ror):'.;Xn; ]',:,i'li:.', trrC.24,0in.
r. nu!b!! of bot!! . r(21.0)/2.Er r 26,s
t?y 24 bolr!

Itr@. lhtt the hydrosEatlc.n.t fo!c€.

the sssk€r leactron, .rd to
dl&€re!' rle assue.r
22 lnch
r. dcal&r hydros$tl" *.,;,;,;--';,:,:;jil,I,;;i"" " *" - T":t;;;;T"i;",
"-l'-1:.'lr*tl"'
'' :"ffi;:3df,?il,;ioi?o':;oii .'".,
:Ti",*'"
(thlB cobP.rlB favolablv $lth
24)
3. elr2 - (Lr2)(0.s63 + 1.0) - .?82
4. fo! th€ crttlcat s.ctlon !t 15,875
. ,.",o- ;;; rii.-iiii-tl,(,lj:'i:1,;,':.l;i(ii:ffiiiio.l.,";;
5. "oo,"roro!
Auo,ablc bott road on s€cior "- 1",,.n ",
= (20,!oo)j0.443) -'ir,ruo ]'o.nrn
5. raBb€r te.ctloD - L8,B6o_(U2a\ G/4) (zz2) "
- 18,800 _ 8,330 - ,o,rro,*.n*,
<szsj
7. bendlEt Dooent at crlttcal lecrlon
- (18,860) (Ll2) (24,o - 18.438) - (ro,53o)(r/2)(22,00
- 52,500 - 18,750 - 33,850 tb. tu. - 18.43s)

8. cdlcutatld thlck!rcse for taillat fl

uc/r'
JT'r]il"""' %'
(uA-s2)
12,o0o - (33850) /(r/" u.,rii.t,,
..t - 2.65 1'l.
calculatsd lhlc*ness !o! lolrglrudlnat tryt.2.75 1n.
nub 6E!.s6 (UA_52)
(12,000)(r.5) - (33.850)lQ/5)(2,42r(s,2)
10.
:, e.z _ q,aa & 8I - 2,15 tn.
r€v16e estbateit ftange dlDcns1ons usrirr
aI - 2.00 h c. 15.875 + 2(2,00 + 1.875) - 24.625 1n,
R - 1.875 1n A - 24,525 + Z(t.25) - 27 -I25 tn.
h - (3)(2 -.563) .4.31 .ay 4.50 1!.
 663
APPiNDIX

Bllnd Flange for l8-Inch Manway Flange

(c)(2)r t - a rld/s + t ' 78!nrc/sd3 F&' uc-34(J)

I, !r@ uG-34 ',

( 2r.13-r SZ Fro6 shect IO: n ' 453'000 Ib'

:!'c' QI2) (24 '625-2L'133) ' r'745 16'
d ' G ' 21'$3 1!'
B ' 184'000 lb'

Psi (sA-181 c1'6s forSlot)

3. rroD shcet 1: s - 17,500 ?O

DESICT COIIDIIIOI{S
pcrrurc,r- 525 pri t!op.!.tu!.. @! C - O.3o UG-34(d)

g.rr.., #'rat tqge.ro:. Fl"tD r z?'aD - 2.359

2.359 + 0.061 - 2.422 u6€ 2-112 thlcls"63

rddlat cortoslo! lltotaoce I

5. Sk.tch of bllniM!!8'

2-114 b. dla., sPot face fo! Euts

I-5l8 lD. dla.

2-Ll2 La,

1/4 tn.

a,zt6

AT,LOI'A3II STRESSES

II'IESS CAI,CI'IJITIONS
lolgl.tudtral hub .tt.!3r
- (fu) /(r.e
S"
!!dl.el fLrs. .tr!!!, sR - (€x)/(!t") -
!raa6!t.l fhng. !rr..., S- - (nt/
3,Zoo
664 66!
APPTNDII APPENDIX
Dolo Sh€ca for Relnforcement Calcula ons (UG_37. .40)
R€inforcement Cslculations for l8'Inch
Manway

Alternate Method: Load Calculations Based on Nozzle and Vessel O'

D'
1. sh.u ..-.fl..t-{ !p.cl fy)
d..cllPtlod:
*:f+:+:i*tr!lsr,-_cr!!b""1d.d.,.,t ""1@, 1. roral(load rld of !'rEfolcaleEt
- 333'000 1b.
d..lar p!!!su!. ,.. .. .... .. p 525 e.r.
i:r5!iliig,r'"-
loht .fflc1€ncy or retiro'!c'eit . ]!.
Drtbuo .llor,!bt. lticls ......,.,.....
, ,.. .,....
,..,....,
E 0.85
s 17.500 prt
'' ""'tfi.9i HTlJ:li",S:$,*'a 192,300

corroslon alloe.rc.
0.063 1n.
,.'.'""til,?i ?fi:l:;:li ii::tt.;'*' salr'!hlcraeE6 . 10,310 1!.
lDltd. r.d1us of .h.Il,--elr-rr-qr erora r.Cr--, e- .lsr,-^t.-n
---r.a&.-(!p.clfy) .bcfolc corro.io! atlorarc. 1. lddcd ..,,.,., a,
.Fh.-1o.1 .. -* E*i"tJd ""-t. ".u['j..'i,;'e6su!' ln Dozzl€ - 9,450 h rb.
L, K.D t8 1p. - 16,260 rb. cot!.
!oEl 1 thlchr.!3, .xclulive of corroslon ltloelnc. . . . . . . , . .. (s25) (18) (1.72)
Elnlelr !€qut!.d thtches3 (!.fe!cnce uc_27) .€! .hc.r 4
....,..,. 0.687 ln. v'63'r r'au tbtckncss
. 15, 000 h 1!.
. ... ., ,... . t! 0.550 1n. '. "'.Ti!o8i ?;;"b'?i:,;llo;i"'o'
(.500) (z) (1.72) (15,000) 25,800 1!. co!r.
.
".''iii.!Li"i"ti,$l-;:llii;,'": :":":::*
iio:iioi - is,iso r.rzl'10,310+ e'550
1.5,860
19,E50
lb, .6t.
$' cor!.
" r'hfolc'Dent
t- Lo.it to b€ csrrlcd by rdd'd . 124'840 lb. .5t.
.xc.33 lhlcla.us 333.000 - 192'300 - 15'660 120'840 t!. cor!'
.,.,..r !_r, 0.137 ln iillooo - rsz'loo - 19'850 (h ' 1'72 1D')
2. Nozzl.
8. Are! tcqul!.d of add'd !'b!o!c€o'dt . ?.13 h.2 cst'
lrtellal ! r.&t€.s ar..l plpe.
ur.d 5A_106. clad€ ! (Sch 40) 124,840/17,500

'' -* :i.'fi"*"";inl',i'i:*
E :ri!ur! .11@rbt. srr.l3
ln3td. dl.roete! of flnt6hed op€ing h colrod€d cordltlon .
r.5.000
'**ii"vi-il4' :ttt?l rD bv 27'5 ,o'b o! . .-.^.
('75) ('7s) (2) (1/2)
' 7't2 ta'Z

roElnat thlcltless a(clualv€ of colloslon aUorance , , .

.. . ,.. .,... d 17,0 1n, r'e1d6
' : +*16.l!_
...,...,,..... t .500 ln.
thich.sr r!qu1!ed for hoop .t!.Bs (UG-27). ,. ..,. .. .. ..... ,.. ,..... . ' 10. StllDarh of lebforclacnt rdded . 134,400 lb.
.304 ln. (7,58) (u,s00)
.." - rci:+fu:ilt tudth
"---"(i:5t(.e87)
h
of 6ta of r!bfo!c'D!Dl'(Eh16 bE 1.72 1n.
' 1.72 1r' tover's)
Skerch of lltnforceE.rt slrh dtuen6lopE and,eldlnr detall (Uw_15._15._18) oa
( 2.5) (.500) ' 1'25
p1u6 rdd.d
'.*. ' l:ti snlo|Al!
tr, =.SoO o'tal t"ovc'l
road calcd.lEeil to hev' €t'1't€d 1n th'
t-r.=.'b4 (52l) G7.37512)(L8)
fo! t'lD-
StrcDAth ot Detal ,! vcss?l vall ivs11abl!
38,350 lb.
,60 (,13?) (34-18) (17'5oo)
fo! reinfotc'ocot 19,860 r!,
tl+ DIA StlcEgth. of nozzle 'sll 'vru!bl' 134.400 1b.
str.dSth of rdil"d lctufolc'oc[t lotal 6t!€$tth - I9?,-0!!-l!.
the load calculated to
b.cau6e the total 6tt'ngth trc€ed6 the il.31F 16 GatlgfactorY
hsr,e €:(16t.d 1n th. lcta1 r'oov'o t
 c66 &,
APPENDIX
Dota Sheet for Relnforcement Calculadons
(UG-37, .4()) ln Dished Head
Relnforcement Calculatlon for 4'Inch Nozzle

1. sh.U or H..d (sp.cltv)

o..cllptlonr dbh€d, 27 tach crorrn r.dlus. *ca of !'lhfolc'Dent - 56,600 Ib.
d.slgn pr.s!u!€ .,.,.............,_
4 lnch tpuckt€ rldlus '''"Eli?iL;?,:i"i:!;t':*ii'
rolnt €rrlcr".cy . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . : ::: ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' P
'. ..i::i!l(;:,i;.: f!l"-,ift.;''!et.torc"e"
525 p.{l . 3t,200 tb.
E'<ite .lro$sbte E

corlos1on ellorance".,""",...
. .....,.,.....,..
",.,... :,''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
. .....,,,................. s t7.500 prl ,. ".i::i!},::;":"1:;iii,f;:il hcrd e'r'1'chlct$esa - 5,110 Lb.
c h, not'le
rnsl.e redlu. or she11, o! ,,",." ;;;';;;;";:
;_.;;;;;"'..
0.063
4. Iolit crrrl.d by lotzle tr1l 'lu' to P!t'6ur€ 1n
- 2,350h Ib.
tphellca] radlus (!p.crfy) beror€ corro6r.or (525) (4.50) (b)
itro,aac€ 1s of nozlle erU outBlde of h'rd thlcv'lle63
add.d ,. ..... .. ,. ,. .. 5. 6t!en8th -
:: t'#*
8'220b Lb.
(.2?4) (h) (2) (r5,Ooo)
;:$": .' .: :: ::
H*lll"L!i";'i1"""1:'x;:uc-37(b)' 6. 6tt.Ee!h of Dozzl. r.11 rvrtl'bl' fo!
"' .'i,iii"iielito--
r'1Efolc'Deal
('3!' h'1)
z,rso)c') - 11,000 ]b. .3t.
uA-4(d) t! - 9,160 lb. .o!r.
E ' r, !t. 1 """' ll* 5,140 + 4,020
load to b. crrrl.d bt tildcd rebfotc'ocnt Ib. crt.
cxce88
'' .rE!ffi:E - i-#-4j+Ar=-sEi 33:333 : 8i:i331*;13!'- 5E,600 - {4,740
-
-
10,400
13,850 lb, corr.
thlckle6.
2. Nozzl€ """"1"" t-t! rr.! t!qu1r.d of tildcil tclafolc" !! b. Itt
- 0.694 6q.
eat.riat used: s€apl€ss ,tett ptpe. 10,400/15,000
S4_106, clade B, schedule 80 Fc! of rclDfolc.lcnt u!.d: tson 5/8 tnch f1l1'! a'eldt
Da:(letrD aUoralte st!!3s
.. ,...,.. iiJa.'.iii'i-rr"" cxtcnsto! Eo22]' Inlld€ of h'rd
s 15.000 p.r (.525) ( ' 625) (' 5) (4)
- .781 tq. b.
lns1i'e i,rsDete! of frEtsh€i, .".,,;;.;;.;;;;.; ldcldEr - .342 sq. b.
;;;;;;;;.....:..: d aor21.: (.625) ('274) (2)
DcelDar. thrck..s. e*.lusive 3.9s1 1p.
or ..r;""r""
lb'
,hlcknes. r€qu1led ., o*".L *#
"rr*"--^:--
**,"'iiXl,i']lllll......:. :.. :.. "ii98il tii,iSS'i'iS?i,iili3', - 18,810

'- - GE{"',u -.##Ifi.rrtft%, '' "sric--s'l' vtil!.h of r!.. o! t.bfotc'o'!t' i

h . 0.565 14.
,. . <2.5) (274)
sr@s!,
loril crlcul.t.d to h|vc 'ttl!!'d 1r !b' E !!I t'Dov€il 33,400 Ib.
G2s\ /.rl2' (27 + 1.25)(4.50)
.r?.nrrh
- -i,z-igl of Dc!41
h herd rve1llble to! lelnfolc'ocnt 13,050 1b.
<t. poz - t'50)(17t5oo)
9,150 1b.
.!rc!8th of Dozzlc aall tv'tlablc to! t"nfo!"o'Dt
14. 18.810 lb.
strcaEth of !.ld.il r.l.folcr[clt
!ct.1 itlcntth 41,020 10.
lb' Gxc'ed6 th€ lold of 33'400 tb'
b.ciuse th. tot.l strGrtth of 411020
thc dlsis! ls .!!l3f'ctorY
. ^to
 APPENDIX

,
MATERIAL SPECITICATIONS

Tubes

Seamless

CARBoN STEEL ASMB SA-179 cold drawn'

ASME SA-210' sPecifY grade'

APPENDX E r,ow ALLoY T** i:MB it-?33; ,o** o"u".

specify grade'
SAMPLE OF VARIOUS llrcs AIIoY STEEL ASME SA-213'
ASME 5A-268' sPecifY
grade'

MATERIALS FOR PROCESS NICKEL AND NICKEL A[oY ASME 5B-163' specify alloy and
temper'

ASME SB-234' specify alloy

and
EQUIPMENT ALUI,flNUM AND ALLl4I\ruM ALI'oY
temPer'

ALLoy
coppER AND coppER
iiil| |i.lll, |fl-1,il llli ill lilill.
Welded
resistance welded'
CARBoN STEEL ASME SA-214' electric
SA-249' specify grade'
HIGII Au-oY STBEL ASME

ShelIs,Chonne|s,Covers,F|ootingHeods,TubesheEts,ondF|onges

PtPe
G^rade B or Grade A'
CARBoN STEEL ASME 5A-106 seamless' A'
ASME SA-53 Grade B or Grade

SA-335' specify grade'

I-ow AILoY STEEL ASME

A[oY STEEL ASME 54.-376' specify grade'

IIIGH
ASME SA-312' sPecifY grade'

ASME SB-241' specify alloy

and
ALUMnfl,\4 AND ALUMINT'M
A[oY'
temPer.

Coppen AND coPPER ALLoY' ASME SB-42'

668
. ASME SB-43, sPecifY temPer'
 ato 671
APPENDIX
Plat
Foryings
CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA_2g5 Grade
C for plates up to 2_in. rhick.
CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA-105 Grade I or II'
ASME SA-S15, specify grade.
ASME SA-181 Grade I or tr'
ASME 5,{_516, specify grade.
ASME 5A-266 Class I or 2'
Low Au.oy STEEL. ASME SA-204 fuebox quality,
speciry grade.
L,ow AND IIIGH Au-oY SrBEL' ASME SA-182' specify gpde'
ASME SA_203 Grade B firebox quality ior plates
ASME 5A-336, sPecifY class'
to 6 ft thick.
ASME SA_387, specifi grade. ' ASME 58-160' specify temper'
NICKBL AND NICKEL AIr-oY
ASME SA.357 ASME 58-164, specify temper and class'
IIrcH Au.,oy STEEL. ASIVIE SA_240, specify ASME 58-166, sp€cify temper'
type.

NTCKEL AND Nrcrcr Ar,roy. ASME 58_162, specify ternper. ALUI"ff.IUM AND ALUMINUM ALLoY' ASME SB-247' specify alloy and
temper.
ASME SB-127, specifu temper.
ASME 58-168, specig temper. Bolting
Al-ulvrtrutvr AND AruMtrnM Aury. ASME SB_209, specify alloy and Stu/s artd Stttd Bolts
Emper.
Au,oY STEEL. ASME SA-193, specify grade'
CoppER AND CoppER Arioy. ASME SB_ll, specify type.
ASME 58_96, specify alloy. NICKEL AND NICKBL ALt oY ASME 58-160' specify temper'
ASME 5B-169, speci$ alloy and temper. ASME 58-164, specify temper and class'
ASME SB_171, specig altoy. ASME 58-166, sPecifY temPer.
ASME 58402, specify alloy.
ATLoY ASME SB-2 I 1 ' specify ailoy and
ALu\,m{uM AND ALUMINUM
Castings temDer.

CARBoN STEEL. ASIVIE 5A_216, specify

grade. Nurs
ASME SA-352.
CARBoN STEEL. ASME SA-194 Grade 2H' minimum requirement'
l,ow Alroy STEEL. ASME SA-217, specig grade.
grade'
ASME SA_352, sperify grade. AIIoY STEEL. ASME SA-194, specify
IIrcH ALLoy STEEL. ASME SA_351, specify
grade. NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOY. ASME 58-160, specify temPer.
' ASME SB.IS' specify temPer and class.
CoppER ALLoy. ASME 58_61 valve bronze. ASME 58.166, specify temPer.
ASME 58-62 cast brass.
specifY alloY and
ALUm{uM AND ALUMn'rL'4 ALLoY' ASME SB-211,
GRAY IRoN. ASME SA_278 Class 30. rcmper.

ALUTTNUM AND ALUMTNUTVi ALLoy.

ASME 58_26.
 APPENDIX

UNDER THE ASME BOITER

AND
APPROVAT OF NEW MATERIATS
PRESSURE VESSEL CODE

A. Code PolicY
Pressure Vessel.Commiftee to
1. It is ttle policy of the ASME Boiler and
'' ;d.il;.'i;;il.ion s""ti* n onlv such Specifications that have been
in
for Testing and Materials
adopted by the Amencan Society
approval will normally be for
2. lt is expected that requests foi CoatSp#fication.
APPENDX F materials for which tn.r. ,.'t'nSiV
For other materials'
to develop a Specification which can
request should be rnuO" to 'CiTN{
Le^oresented to the Code Codmittee'
REQUIRED DATA FOR
B. MechonicolProPerlies
MATERIAL APPROVAL IN THE l. Together with the Specification for
the material'-the inquirer shall
sfess
fumish
values for
to but" ailoyalte
the Committee with uO"qout" ouil-on-*ttl"h
ASME SECTION VIII CODE inclusion in the applicable stress ible'
The data shall include
elongation' creep strength'
values of ultimate
and stress-
il;;;;dd."l.futh, reductio;i;a'
and welded joints over the.lang:-1f-.temperatures
rupture strength of base metar
etty treatment that is required to produce
at which the materiut i, to u" ot"O'
healt
ue'fuiii Ott"tiu"o' Adequate data,on the notch
the tensile properties strouto
ii"titt temperatures must he furnished'
toushness in the proposed
'ung"
temp;;a;iunge contimpluted witl be usetul to the
Seriice experience in the
Committee.
2'Ifthematerialistobeusedinvesselstooperate.underextemalpressure,
sfess-strain curves (tension titp*1ti*l shall be fumished for a range of
"t
design temPerature desired'

C. WeldobilitY
intended
data on the weldability^of material
The inquirer shall furnish complete tests
and performance
for welding including <lata on piocedure secton 'qlalification
x
w-etaing tests shall be
made in accordanc" *itr' t'"
or
"qliitt"nis which the
i" material is to be used'
made over the full range tr friJt""tt to ar
Pertinent information, such ul t'"ut tt"ut-"nr.Jequ]red: -suj::etibility
be given'
in *elding the material shall
ffi;;;; il;ount or
"*p"ti"nt"
D. PhYsicol Chonges
characteristics and the degree of
It is important to know the structural stability
-^i
i"tpttutut". of new materials' The
retention of properties *itft "-pJt*t treat-
as forming' welding' and thermal
influence of fabricution p'""ui"i totft
ments of the mech*i""f p"p"tt[t '
Jo"iiltty' .-d ti'tt":At:: of the material
i"r'"i" a degraclarion in eroe-el::.Tav be cool-
encoun-
;fi.i,ilil;il"'i"irv *n'ges of exposure or heat Eeatment'
tered. Where particot' t"tp"'ut*"
672
6f4

ing r0tcs, combinetions of mechanical working and thermal treatmenh,

cotion practices, and so on, cause significant changes in the
properties, microstructure, resistance to brittle fracture, and so on,
it is of prima
importance to call attention to those conditions which should be avoided
seryice or in the manufacture and fabrication of parts or vessels from
material.

E. Potenls

The inquirer shall state whether or not the material is covered by patents
and
APPENDIX G
whether or not it is licensed and if licensed the limitations on its manufacturt.

F. Code Cose
F O R P ROV
ID IN G
.
P NOC-T
..-DATA
O U NE
FOR CODE CHARTS
In exceptional circumstances, the Code Committee will consider the issuance
of
a Code Case effective for a period of three years permitting the use
of a material
provided that the following conditions are mec -FOR
l. The inquirer provides evidence that a specification for the material ic
EXTERNAL PRESSURE
before ASTM.
The material is commercially available and can be purchased within tho
DESIGN
specified range of chemical and tensile requiements and other require-
ments described in B.
The inquirer shows that there will be a reasonable demand for the mate-
rif by industry and that there exists an urgency for approval by meang
of a Code Case.
The request for approval of the rnaterial shall clearly describe it in ASTM
Spelincatiol foll, including such items as scope, process, manufacturc,
conditions for delivery, heat teatment, chemical and tensile requ E-
ments, bending properties, testing specifications and requirements,
workmanship, finish, marking, inspection and rejection.
5. The inquirer shall furnish the Code Committee with all the data specified
inB0oE.

675
 676 APPENDI
q aPPENDIX
On occasion the ASME Boiler and pressure Vessel Committee is rcqucsrctr ((r
provide for a new material chan for external pressure design such ai thosc irr
Appendix V of Section VIII, Division l. The SGDE/SCD requires reliable rlttu
upon which to base the construction of charts. The SG is not in a position to
develop or evaluate the required data. Consequently, the SGDE recommends thc
following procedures to be followed in providing the SG with adequate and
reliable data.
1, The compiling and evaluation of material data are rightfully the re-
sponsibility of the Subcommittee on hoperties of Me1ds. The threc
subgroups involved would be the SG on euenched and Tempered Steel,
the SG Strength-Steel and High Temperature Alloys, and the SC
Strength-Nonferrous Alloys.
2. Upon receipt of an inquiry for a new chart, the secretary should refer the
inquiry ro the appropriate SG of SCp. The SG shall ditermine whether
or not adequate data are available or whether the inquirer shall be re-
quested to supply the required data. The SG should screen and
evaluate
the data and forward them to the SGDE with their commenrs or recom_
mendations. The Materials SG should clearly identify the material and
define its use as to product form and, where applicabie, any restrictions
on the method of fabrication of the completed pressure vesiel (i.e., heat
heatment or welding limitations).
3. It is su€gested that, to expedite processing of inquiries, a specific individ_
ual might in some cases be designated as the member iesponsible for
liaison with SGDE. This member would be responsible for the trans-
mission of approved data to SGDE.
description of the data required for proper preparation of the design charts
_ _A
follows. It is felt that these are minimum requirements for the preparation of
reliable charts. The use of so-called typical stress-strain curves based on a
statistically significant volume of data may be satisfactory if the region between
the proportional limit and the yield shength is accurately reprisented. The
developrnent of the tangent modulus in this region is a critical step. It is sug-
gested that this description be prepared in a form suitable for attachment to any
requests for material data from an inquirer.
A copy follows of a description of the method used to derive the material
curves on the charts directly from the laboratory stress-strain curves. It was felt
that this procedure might enable the Materials Subgroups to better evaluate our
data requirements. The balance of the lines on the chart are functions of the
geometry of the vessel, and so do not change with material of construction.
DATA NEEDED BY THE SG EXTERNAL PRESSURE FOR THE
PREPAMTION OF CODE CHARTS FOR EXTERNAL PRESSURE DESIGN
For the use of the SG on Strength Properties and the SG on Nonferrous Mate_
nals.
677
l. The nrinirnurn specilied yield strength or yield point (statc which) as
given in the specifications for the material.
2. Stress-strain curves representative of the material at the following tem-
perarures:
(a) Ambient (room) temperature.
(b) The highest temperature for which coverage is desired'
(c) One or more intermediate temperatures as may be desirable to
facilitate interpolation on the chart.
Temperatures at some multiple of 100'F are preferred'
The shess-strain curves should extend to at least the 0'37o offset point
(to ensure being able to obtain reliable values of the tangent modulus to
O.2Vo offset). Consideration should be given to extending tests to higher
values of strain for possible future use with stress intensity values in the
elasto-plastic range. (This is much less expensive than to run additional
tests at a later date.)
Stress-strain curves in compression are preferred. It is recomrnended
that compression tests be made in accordance with ASTM Specification
E-9, Standard Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic Materials'
Stress-strain curves from tension tests will be acceptable if there is
sufficient background of information to show that there is no substantial
difference between the stress-strain characteristics of the material in
tension and compression. Data should indicate whether tension or com-
pression tests were made.
3. The expected properties of the material at the temperatures described
above, for material having the minimum specified properties, are as
follows:
(a) Yield strength or yield point (state which).
(b) Proportional limit.
(c) Elastic modulus (state whether by the dynamic method or from
stress-strain curves).
4. The condition of the material as stated in the specifications, for example,
annealed, hot finished. cold drawn. temper. and so on'
5. Stated whether intended for welded construction. The above data should
properly include the effect of the heat of welding on the properties of the
rnut".iut. It it acceptable in such cases to use data for the material in the
annealed condition .
6. The inquirer should supply data from at least three specimens at each
temperature and that these specimens should preferably be taken from
more than one "production lot" or "heat."
 ,.Q

^i
iiri
.t:
ir
APPENDX H
CORROSION CHARTS
"i?

I
i:t
i:t
trl

t"t
I rl
1"t
t"l
I 8l
| 31

l;t
l3l
tl
i
t^t
rl 3l

!l il
't"l
tI
,t .:t
't"l

.-".;*, ,,",^, ., " ".. 1 :Y:l;:li":i "'"" """"^'".'"''"'" ""

'" '

Corro3ion chorls courtesv o( t}E Nooter CorPototio'' St l-oois' Mo'

679
678
 I
6l
a a
,,i..'-:''l': I
tt iI ti
':
l.
:X:l'..i:: ; ;tl ':

ri

il
rlll r ll'i il i '1.'ll
I
i

i
;
!
ill:il:lilt .:- l
-l
ti t::
t^""
lr li litl
ti lit ti
i
i ,G
I i
.i
tw
Ti
ii *l
:l
rii ^",1
;r*-
l% Ti "l
.!l iil
it tl
IT

t; t:
il

680 68r
 ;{

APPENDIX

VARIOUS ASME DESIGN

EQUATIONS
l

l
I
l

I
i..
:l!:9,
l

l
lrl

ll
l

642
683
 t-. I
oll ^l

El sl ol ql I
qt
ol al
ol*
@l
nl
ilr-lc-l
?l
xl ..
*
RI

oqlg
u'^ +l* ol cr o16
EE qt +l* +l& +l& c.l
JI- /rl lle.l
r..t |
6dt :l 8 U^ Tl
I
aa v)
&l el I

a.t {l €l =l
ill
vl
C] [.l \l EI
wl
-:t q,l AI {il

r* ls "l;
l- ll @lo
9^ l.E le lo I

fte
='d sl? *F
l&
-lg 11
q) sl+ nl? Hl; n[ nle ;l:
Fd ta(
$l?
IE la
ul* afu lo< la< lo Klt l\rr lr
lE ro

li
fr.
lc^l

re lt lft rq l* lt lr-
(l)^ sl* lft la ld ^l-
El; El* dlL El*
Fl+ > t>
t?
!.=
rl? rl? Rl? gII FII ri)
3 lu lR .it., !1\ ld
lu lH
(ir v
R
lR tca
lc.l l+
lH ltrl
l?r
lc.l
cil

E E --^S*
:l

A
g, F* F, gest E E $ *EEl" H*
Bg $e :t $Eg 'l tE .i
e

$e $

685
6U
 Toble J.l Roundobouf lt Full X-Royed

FULL S POT
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
F X-RAY X RAY
FULL SPOT
L SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
L X-RAY X_RAY

J, E. t.o .85 t.o t.o

HEAD s,.R Ot
too% loo% looo/o too,/o
APPENDIX
J.E t.o I.O l.o .85
,= 5r
JOINT EFFICIENCY FACTORS qQ too% too% rco% looY.
SHELL
2!)
2 J.E
Y,', t.o t.o t.o .85
o/
z too% IOO/o too% too%
9

Toble J.2 Roundqbout ls Portiol X-Royed

FULL SPOT
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
n X'RAY X.RAY
FULL S POT
SEAMLESS sEAMLESS SEAMLESS
L
L X-RAY X. RAY

J. E. t.o t.o .85 I,O I,O

LJtrAN
too% too% too%' rco% too%

ia J.E t.o t.o l.o LO .85

,= s,
''E-
rco% too% too% too% na%
6
SHELL
29 J. E, .85 .85 .85 .85 Q5
=ii
== t-
z
o no% too% too% rco% too%

697
 Tobb J.3 Roundqbout lr Spor X-Royed
l-l- NO 5EAIVLEsS SEAMLESS
X-RAY
FULL SPOT
SEAMLESS
L X-RAY X-RAY

J, E. .85 LO t.o
HEAD sf.R
too% 63 lo 6)./o
APPENDX K
J.E LO .85 R5
>=
q u-, ^t^
t 6)
^-O/ /o too% roo% SIMPLIFIED CURVES FOR
SHFI
EXTERNAL LOADING ON
I

zi" J.E .85 .85 .85

56 too% too% too% CYLINDRICAL SHELLS

Toble J.4 Roundobout ls Not X-Royed

tA SPOT
SEAMLESS SEAMLESS sEAMLESS
D X- RAY

FU LL SPOT
tL SEAMLESS SEAMLESS
X- RAY X-RAY

J. E. t.o .85 t.o t.o

TI-EAD
q 6U /o too% ^-o//o
6) ^- o/
6a /o

cio J.E t.o t.o 85 .85

==
g<D 80% ^-o//a
63 too% taao./
tww /o
qHFI I

2 i," J.E .70 .85 .85 R5

fi
G6
2
1
too% too% too% lOOo/o
689
688
 .,Vr|!-.'dp... " f{tr

| | | I tttl | | | ttl t.o ,,",,'_

Nr

M,
/\,'^
/No
:
\:
\" L
3
J J
z
Bending str$s = I(, [,| tt".ottd"tMcD K,lNv,i)ld"Tll'l"ll
#, Mambrane 3tres =

=
-_//
7l-
/

0.001 0.q)1
0. t0 1.0 '1.0 10.o
| 0.0 0,r0

'' ,/D-r
Figut K. I t'{o.crt tl6 a @"/ tn) duc to an ex".nol cir.",mfrronr'ror mon,.nr ,,L on o circuro. cyrnd".. (d"/'{i.) luc to on trLrnol mofieni i'lc on o cird,,lor qlind€r'
figurc K,2 , .mbrono forct N6,a

690 691
 '.,Mm*-- . ., ?rL!!4. .rrlllltrtr

rrtttttl I | | lll llrr

t4s

Mo

\ 0.t 0

'".,,**j"ilj;*N E
\o
cq
{
Bendins strels = ff, t,nr', lr,rr.,, Mombrane stress = *"t*,,,, to.rtr7lffi
" * \t 0.01

\T\\-
''1
\
0.001 0.001
0.10 0.10 r 0.0 1.0

r = --js-
,E_r
F'o'rrcK'3,{om*r,{k,(d./roducroon.xtlmor '/D.r
ro.,girudinor mom.nr /lt on o cir.oror cy'indor. Fig!ru X.,t lrt mbrsn€ tor.e NF,a (d"t/r.) doe to on €xlrrnol nomcnl 14 on o circulor Eylindar.

692
693
 ."'!M'RF'*..-

t.o I I | | | lll
-

=\

\
0.10
D!,lT

N
3

;a
Bonding gtre$ = ,(, (ttt', d /
=
Eenditg rtre$ = tr, {it(,
0.01
,00f
T
'- \
2(x) V
6m

0.001 I tl I ttl
0.r0 1.0 to.o 0.10 1.0
- 'lo a= 7"1./6)T
,/DF
Figir. K.6 Bcnding mdnGnt ir(,,it.lu.lo on.xtornol rodiol lood on o cirorhr cylinder' 't'l'/Pon longi|vdlnol
Fi$r. K.5 Lnding morn€nt t{(&A du. lo on od.rnof rodiol food P on o .ir.ulor qlindf'. tl/p on oxi., l,|,/P on lrols€rt. qxb.
longihdinol arb, ,t{a/P on frunwrn <uit.

695
694
 F*-- ., --,
'!U;|F "a?.e!.r,ry@!

1.0
I tt tl tttl

\.",

ri t--
e
{ J
E

lvlembrane 9tr6ss = I(, (Nt c.6flnft

0.01

0.00t
0.10 1.0 0.001
0.10 1.0

,/aA ./87
Figuro K.7 rrtemhrone iorce r.,h,a t/p due io on .x|€rnsl rodiol lood p on a cirorlor
cylind.r (rqnw.r.. orh).
Figure K.8 ,rt mbrcnc lorc6 N(,rI/P due io on sxi.rnol rodiol lood P on o cirsrlor <ylinder (loqgiludiml
arir).

696
697
 -,wF6'-*- .,.._.-*".- *rr'w'|
Converrlon to SI Unltr

Multiply English Units Bv Factor To Get SI Units

Ilch 0.0254 Met€r

U.S. gallon 0.003785 Metef
Foof 0.02832 Metef
Pound mass 0.4536 Kilograrn
Pound force 4.448 Newton
psi pressure 6,894.8 Pascal
Bar 100,000 Pascal
Btu 1,055.056 Joule
APPENDIX Horsepower (550 ftlb/s) 745.7 Watt
Fracture toughness (ksi V-in) 1.1 x 106 Pa Vm
CONVERSION TABL "F cF - 32)/1.8 'c
General Conversion Units

Multiply By Factor To get

Foot3 7 .48 U.S. gallon

Bar 14.50 psi
Mile 5280 Foot

Conversion to English Units

Multiply SI Units By Factor To Get Enelish Units

Meter 39.370 Inch

Metef 264.201 U.S. gallon
Metef 35.311 food
Kilogram mass 2.205 Pound mass
Newton 0.225 Pound force
Pascal 0.m0145 psi pressure
Pascal 0.00001 Bar
Joule 0.0m9478 Btu
Watt 0.001341 Horsepower (550 ft-lbh)
Fncture toughness Pa \6 0.9091 x 10-6 ksi Vin
"c l.8c + 32 T'

699