Outline

Definition

Classification

Description

Phonemes and Allophones

Transcription

Allophonic rules
 definition

Consonant sounds are the sounds in the

production of which two articulators come
together so that the airstream is
obstructed and can not get out freely.

eg. /p, k, s, t, j/
Speech organs (articulators)
 classification

24 English consonants are classified

according to 3 criteria:

Place of articulation

Manner of articulation

Voicing
place of articulation
1. Bilabial (upper lip+lower lip)
/b, p, m, w/
2. Labiodental (lower lip+upper teeth)
/v, f/
3. Dental (tongue+teeth)

, 

4. Alveolar (alveolar ridge+tongue)
/d, t, z, s, l, n/
place of articulation
5. Palato-alveolar (hard palate+alveolar
ridge+tongue)

, , d,
d, t,
t, r

6. Palatal (hard palate+tongue)
/j/
7. Velar (soft palate+tongue)

, k,

8. Glottal (vocal cords)
/h/
manner of articulation

1. Plosive (complete closure+sudden release)

/b, p, d, t, g, k/

2. Fricative (narrowing resulting in audible

friction)

/v, f, z, s, , h, , , /

3. Affricate (closure+low separation)

d, t

manner of articulation

4. Nasal (complete closure+air escape through

nose)
/m, n, /
5. Lateral (closure in mouth centre+air escape
at tongue sides)
/l/
6. Approximant (slight narrowing but not
enough to cause friction)
/w, j, r/
 voicing
Voiced Voiceless Voiced Voiceless
b p m
v f n
 
d t l h
z s w
  j
d t r
 k
 classification of consonants
bilabial labio dental alveolar palato- palatal velar glottal
dental alveolar

plosive + b + d + g
- p - t - k
fricative + v + + z +  - h
- f - - s -
affricate + d
- t
nasal + m + n +

lateral + l

approxi + w + r + j
mant
Description of consonants

1.Plosives 4. Nasals

2.Fricatives 5. Laterals

3.Affricates 6. Approximants
 plosives

Features

Stages of plosives

Description
features of plosives

Place of articulation

Force of articulation

Aspiration

Voicing
place of articulation

/p, b/: bilabial

/t, d/: alveolar

/k, g/: velar

 force of articulation

/p, t, k/ /b, d, g/

more muscular energy, less muscular energy,

stronger breath
weaker breath

FORTIS LENIS
 ASPIRATION

Voiceless plosives /p, t, k/

in syllable-initial position

ASPIRATED
 voicing

Voiced plosives /b, d, g/

in word-medial position between voiced sounds

FULL VOICED
THREE STAGES OF PLOSIVES

Closing stage: articulating organs move

together to form obstruction

Compression stage: air compressed behind

closure

Release stage: compressed air escapes

abruptly
 description of bilabial plosives

soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut off,

closure by lips

lung air compressed

vocal folds wide apart: /p/

vocal folds vibrating: /b/

lip closure released, air escaped /p, b/

 description of alveolar plosives

soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut off,

closure by tip and rims of tongue, upper alveolar ridge

and side teeth

lung air compressed

vocal folds wide apart: /t/

vocal folds vibrating: /d/

alveolar closure suddenly separated, air escaped /t, d/

 description of velar plosives

soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut off

closure by back of tongue and soft palate

lung air compressed

vocal folds wide apart: /k/

vocal folds vibrating: /g/

linguo-velar closure suddenly separated,

/k, g/
air escaped
 description of glottal plosive

vocal folds closed

silence

no vibration of vocal cords

vocal folds suddenly separated,

air pressure below glottis released

eg. It’s empty. / /

fricatives

Features

Description
features of fricatives

Place of articulation

Force of articulation

Voicing
place of articulation

/f, v/: labiodental

/,  dental
, /:

/s, z/: alveolar

/, /: palato-alveolar

/h/: glottal
 force of articulation

/f, , s, / /v, , z, /

more muscular energy, less muscular energy,

stronger breath
weaker breath

FORTIS LENIS
 voicing

Voiced fricatives /v, , z, /

between voiced sounds

FULL VOICED
description of labiodental fricatives

soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut off

closure by inner surface of lower lip and edge of upper teeth

lung air compressed, friction

voiceless: /f/

voiced: /v/

air released
/f, v/
 description of dental fricatives
soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut off

closure by tip and rims of tongue and edge, inner surface of

upper front teeth and upper side teeth

air causes friction

voiceless: /  /

voiced: //

air released /
,  /
 description of alveolar fricatives

soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut off

closure by blade of tongue and upper alveolar ridge, side

rims of tongue and upper side teeth

air causes friction

between tongue and alveolar ridge

voiceless: /s/; voiced: /z/

air released
/ss, z/
 description of palato-alveolar fricatives

soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut off

closure by tip and blade of tongue and alveolar ridge, side

rims of tongue and upper side teeth

front of tongue raised

friction between extensive area

of tongue and roof of mouth

voiceless: //; voiced: //

air released /, /

description of glottal fricative /h/

Only in syllable-initial, prevocalic positions

Voiceless

no closure

air expelled from lung with considerable pressure

friction throughout vocal tract

 features of affricates

beginning as plosives but ending as fricatives

the plosive and the fricative being homorganic

eg. church /t t (but breakfast)

t  t
 description of palato-alveolar affricates

soft palate raised, nasal resonator shut off,

closure by tip, blade and rims of tongue, upper alveolar

ridge and side teeth

front of tongue raised

closure released slowly,

friction between blade of tongue and

alveolar palatal of roof of mouth

; voiced /d/
voiceless /t
; /t, d/
 nasals

Features

Description
 features of nasals

Total closure within the mouth at some point,

air escaped into nasal cavity

No audible friction is produced

 nasals are voiced

 description of bilabial nasal

lips closed, mouth chamber closed,

soft palate lowered

resonance of nasal cavity added

to those of pharynx

air released
/m
m/
 description of alveolar nasal

closure by tongue, tip ridge and

upper side teeth,

soft palate lowered

resonance of nasal cavity added

to those of pharynx and that part

of mouth chamber

air released /n
n/
 description of velar nasal

closure by back of tongue and velum,

soft palate lowered

resonance of nasal cavity added to

those of pharynx and that part of
mouth chamber

air released

* Only after /, e, , ,
/ /

 description of lateral /l/

Clear /l/ & Dark /l/

soft palate raised, nasal resonators shut off,

closure by tip of tongue and upper teeth ridge

air escaped on both sides

 CLEAR /l/ DARK /l/
before vowel and /j/: look other positions: feel

front of tongue raised front of tongue depressed,

towards hard palate, back raised towards soft palate,
front vowel resonance back vowel resonance
 approximants

Palato-alveolar approximant /r/

Bilabial approximant /w/

Palatal approximant /j/

 description of
palato-alveolar approximant

soft palate raised, nasal resonator

shut off, tip of tongue held near
to but not touching rear part of
upper teeth ridge, central part of
tongue lowered

airstream escapes without friction

/r/
description of bilabial approximant
/w/
soft palate raised, vocal folds vibrate

tongue in position for back close-mid to

close vowel, moving away immediately to
position of following sound

eg. weather. which, twin

description of palatal approximant
/j/

tongue in position for close-mid to close

vowel front, moving away immediately to
position of following sound

eg. yawn, senior, use

Phonemes & allophones
 PHONEMES ALLOPHONES

Definition the smallest segment different realisations of

of sound that can the same phoneme
distinguish two words
 ideal object  physical manifestations
Features • abstract • real and concrete
• limited (44) • unlimited
• Difference between • Difference between
phonemes is allophones is phonetic
functional difference. difference.
Example ‘cat’ & ‘bat’ ‘speak’ & ‘pick’
‘cat’ & ‘cot’ ‘note’ & ‘teeth’
 transcription

Broad transcription

Narrow transcription
 BROAD NARROW
TRANSCRIPTION TRANSCRIPTION
A transcription that A transcription that shows
uses a simple set of more phonetic details by
symbols. using more specific symbols,
or by representing some
allophonic differences.
Also called phonemic Also called phonetic
transcription transcription
Consists of phonemic Consists of phonemic symbols
symbols between two and diacritics between two
slanting lines square brackets
peak /pi:k/ peak [phi:k]
twin /twin/ twin [twoin]
20 Allophonic rules
 rule 1
-voiced
+stop when syllable-initial
+aspirated
/p,t,k/

eg. ‘pipped’: [phipot]

‘testy’: [thεsti]
 rule 2
Obstruents = plosives + fricatives
/b, d, g, v, , , z

+voiced when syllable-final partially

+obstruent voiced
except when followed by a
voiced sound

eg. ‘try to improve’

but ‘bad girl’

 rule 3

when at end of phrase

+consonantal longer

eg. bib, did

 rule 4

+approximant after
-voiced
/w, r, j/ [+aspirated, +plosive]

eg. twin [twoin]

cue [kjou]
 rule 5

-voiced
after /s/ at the beginning
-aspirated
+plosive of a syllable
/p, t, k/

eg. spew [spoju:]

stew [stoju:]
 rule 6

before voiceless sounds

+vowel shorter
in the same syllable

eg. cap /k
kp
but cab /k
kb

back /b
bk
but bag
b

b

 rule 7

at end of syllable
-voiced longer

eg. cap /k

kp
but cab /k
kp kb
kb

back /b
bk
but bag
b
bk
b

 rule 8

+plosive
before [+plosive]
/p,b,t, unexploded
d,k,g/

pot]
eg. apt [

kot]
act [

but ape
ep

ep

 rule 9

-voiced +glottal
after vowel and plosive
+plosive
at end of syllable -voiced
/p,t,k/
+plosive

eg. tip [ti p]

pit [pi t]

kick [ki k]
 rule 10
-voiced
before nasal +glottal
+alveolar
in same word plosive
+plosive
/t/

eg. beaten [bi n]

but beaten [bi%tn]

bi%tn]
 rule 11

+nasal at end of word +syllabic

/m,n, / and after obstruents

eg. garden
a%dn

chasm
kzm

but film
flm

 rule 12

+lateral at end of word

+syllabic
/l/ and after another consonant

eg. paddle /pd

pdl

pdl

channel /tn
tnl
tnl

but file /fa

fal/
fal
 rule 13
-voiced
+alveolar between stressed vowel -voiced

+plosive and unstressed syllable +tap

/t/

eg. fatty /f

fri
(AE) but /f
fr fti
(BE)
ft

data /de
de r(
(AE) but /de
de t(
(BE)
 rule 14

+alveolar
before dental (, )
/d,t,z,s, +dental
n,l/

eg. sixth [sks

sks]
sks]

wealth [wel
wel]
wel]

but well /wel/

 rule 15
Front vowel: /, i:, e, 

+velar before more front vowel

more front
/g,k, /

eg. cat /k
kt

kept /kept/

give /
v

v

 rule 16

+lateral after vowel and before another

/l/ consonant or end of word velarised

fal/ but life /llaf

eg. file /fa
fal af

talc
tl
tlk
but lack /llk

 rule 17

in open syllable
+vowel longer

eg. see /si:/ but seed /si:d/

 rule 18

in stressed syllable
+vowel longer

eg. cite /ssat

at
but citation
sa*te(n
a*te(n

*te(n

 rule 19

before nasal /m,n, /

+vowel +nasal

eg. ban/b
bn
but bag /b
b

 rule 20

+front before
retracted
+vowel syllable-final /l/

eg. heel /hi:l/ but heed /hi:d/

pail /p el
but paid /p

pel ped
ed

 outline

Definition

Classification

Description

Phonemes and Allophones

Transcription

Allophonic rules
 Exercise

insect
gesture

sudden
effect

mother
fishing

market
danger