Klaus-Peter Brand Volker Lohmann Wolfgang Wimmer Substation utomation Handbook Comprehensive description of Substation Automation and the coordination with Network Operation to obtain both erformance and cost benefits by enabling enhanced Power System ManagementCopyright © 2003 by Klaus-Peter Brand - Klaus-peterbrand@ ieee.org Volker Lohmann volkerlohmann @ bluewin ch ‘Wolfgang Wimmer - toptools @ bluewin.ch Neither this book, nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, elec- tronic or mechanical, nduding photocopying, micro- filming, and recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the permisson in writing of the publisher. Publisher: Utllty Automation Consulting Lohmann, Im Meyerhof 18, CH-5620 Bremgarten, Switzerland hetp//wnw.uac.ch This book is printed on acid-free paper Text and illustrations: Klaus-Peter Brand, Volker Lohmann, Wolfgang Wimmer Cover illustration: Werner Lehmann Concept Designer: Kurth Winiger, CH-8050 Zurich Pre-Press: Romy Schiitz, CH-B050 Zurich Print: Jutte-Messedruck Leipzig GmbH DE-04329 Leipzig Printed in Germany ISBN 3-85758-951-51 Table of content eV auawne Table of content About this Book Introduction and Scope Challenges with introducing Substation Automation Primary Equipment in Substations The Functions of Substation Automation Substation Automation Structure Substation Automation Architectures Asset Management Support New Roles of Substation Automation Wide Area Protection Standards and Quality Definition for Substation Automation The System Standard IEC 61850 for Substation Automation Phase Models of Substation Automation Systems Benefits of Substation Automation Guide to SA System Specification Strategy to Cope with the fast Changing Technology Trends and Cutlook References Glossary Annex 5 15 31 43 93 141 151 183 197 211 279 301 313 325 339 345 349 353 367 Table of content uv2 About this Book 2.1 Preface The purpose of this book is to bridge the gap in mutual understanding between those readers, who are well experienced with the technical requirements, design, construction, testing and operation of primary equipment in substations eg. circuit breakers, isola- tors, curent and voltage transformers or power trans- formers etc, and information technology (IT) oriented readers, who are involved in the development, design, production, and application of modern intel- gent electronic devices (IED) intended to be used for Substation Automation (SA) Systems. When the first microprocessor based substation con- trol systems (SCS) were built, the prime objective was to provide the same functionality and make them work as reliable and fast as conventional control systerns. The system inherent problem to be solved ‘was the fact that the serial bus communication caus- ed a bottleneck for the system response times in comparison with conventional paralel.wired control systems. This SA system behavior made the commu- nication within the substation a key issue for the per- formance of SCS and numerous propriety communi- ‘ation bus systems and protocols were implemented due to the lack of Intemational Standards, The con- sequence was that all the SCS were vendor specific ‘and IEDs from other vendors could not be used in such systems due to the lack of compatibility The users were not happy about this situation as they felt to be restricted to a specific vendor if they inten ded to extend their control systems. On the other hand, many SCS were implemented by small compa- nies and based on general purpose programmable logical control (PLC) systems that could not provide the required functionality or meet the fong term ori- ented systern compatibility requirements, which are typical for the electric utility business. On the other hand, many of these small companies did not last for a long time because of commercial problems and many of those SCS can neither be extended nor be maintained due to the lack of spares and specific system knowledge The awareness of these problems leads to an ob- stade for the acceptance of the new technology and for the large-scale implementation of SCS. This caus- ed pressure on the reputable vendors of SCS to stand- ardize the communication within substations as well as the engineering approach and the formal descrip- tion of the functionality in terms of a substa-tion con- figuration language (SCL), The main objective was to achieve interoperabilly between IEDs that originate ‘rom different vendors The authors have been personally involved in the process, which was triggered by IEC and EPRI, to standardize the communication and all its system related aspect has resulted in the new IEC 61850 standard for communication within substations which is available in the year 2003, The authors are proud to highlight in this book some achievernents made with this standard. The objective of the descrip- tion is to make all those decision makers in utities, who are sceptical and fear the problems involved with proprietary communication, confident that the new standard provides a comprehensive solution for the interoperability of IEDs from various vendors, who commit themselves to support this new standard in their IEDs, When the design of IEDs to be applied for SCS systems was based on cornmon main stream hard- ‘ware components as well as on modular functional lioraries for control that were quite similar to functio- ral ipraies for protection, it was possible to integra te control and protection systems in comprehensive systerns for substation autornation (SA). The authors were personally involved with the development and implementation of a comprehensive platform for multipurpose control and protection IEDs. Therefore, the focus of this book is on SA rather on SCS with22 separated protection. The objective of the authors is to make those readers with a background in substa- tion control or protection confident that the integra- tion of both functionalities leads to cost effective sys- tem solutions that have the same safety and availabi- lity as systems with separate IEDs for control and for protection. The integration of the control and protection functio- nality to SA makes effective substation monitoring, primary equipment condition and support of modern systems for maintenance and asset management possible as an addtional benefit that can be derived from SA. This book describes the realization of such concepts, which lead to en enhancement of the over- all power system management. The objective is that the readers, who wish to evaluate the commercial benefits that can be derived from SA, become aware that such an cost/benefit analysis has to take those additional benefits into account. In view of the fact that SA systems can be used for the condition monitoring of primary equipment like cuit breakers, instrurnent transformers and power transformers, the description of this equipment in this book includes the critical components, which are sub- ject to wear and aging. The objective is to make users of SA systems aware of this new possibilty and to provide developers of SA application with back- ground knowledge of the citcalty of the primary equipment. ‘Apart from substation related issues, the implemen- tation of SA enables new strategies related to power system protection that counteracts wide area distur- bances and avoids power system collapse. With the aid of new digital sensors for the detection of volta- ge and frequency instabilities, wide area protection systems can be implemented that provide the sys- tem operator with early indication of incipient pro- bblems in the grid in order to put him into the posi- tion to initiate counter measures early enough that the power system integrity s maintained. SA enables automated corrective actions that reduce the respon- se time to problems significantly IF sudden loss of generation or increase of load caus- € instabilities so fast that the operator has no chan- ce to react fast enough, SA can be used by the wide area protection scheme for rapid automatic load shedding to compensate for the loss of generation and to reduce the load Because of this new role of SA, the scope of this book as outined in Chapter 3 has been extended beyond the traditional functions to describe wide area protection schemes and their interaction with SA. The objective is to make system planners and operators aware of the new posshilties that are offer- ed by SA in conjunction with wide area protection systems and power system optimization concepts. 2.2 About the Authors 2.2.1 How SA has started The idea to substitute conventional relay logics for substation control and analogue protection relays by digital technologies based on microprocessors and serial communication commenced in 8BC in the late 1970ties. Study groups were established in BBC Baden/Switzerland and BBC. Mannheirn/Germany. The key people of that time in BBC Baden were Jorgen Kopainsky and Klaus-Peter Brand, who deve- loped very systematically the basic specifications and concepts of SA. Woligang Wimmer became involved in these early activities when engineering issues have been touched, and Volker Lohmann was represen- ting the gas insulated substation (GIS) division in this team. Many customers were approached during this time with these new ideas, but the users were not veryenthusiastic and receptive, and no utility wanted to take the risk to run a pilot project. One of the main obstacles for the acceptance were the utility orga- nization. The reason was that substation control, pro- tection and communication were considered to be separate disciplines and, consequently, each was organized in separate departments. As the SA approach integrated the whole lot in one system, the idea of separate departments became obsolete, which was perceived by the corresponding depart ment managers as a threat This situation changed drasticaly, when BBC was awarded by ESKOM South Africa with the world-fist 800 kV GIS "ALPHA" on 14th of December 1982. This spectacular order has created a huge innovative momentum not only in 88C for the development of a complete new size of GIS but also on ESKOM'S side with regard to the readiness to accept new ideas and technologies. [1] The key issue for the ESKOM'S acceptance of a microprocessor based substation control system (SCS) was the complex and large 800 kV GIS substa- tion layout comprising 12 switchgear bays that would have required a very extensive interlocking scheme, if it had been designed by relay logics. In view of the fact that more than 100 contacts of auxliary switches and relay contacts would have had to be connected: in series for one single interlocking expression in Boolean algebra, ESCOM considered such a solution ‘a8 impracticable und unreliable The much better solution was the BBC proposal to substitute hard- Wited interlocking by 2 microprocessor based expert system, called “Topology based interlocking scheme" which was based on general rules rather than on Boolean Algebra expressions. This new idea was developed by Jigen Kopainsky, Klaus-Peter Brand and Wolfgang Winner. [3] The development and implementation of this first SCS in ALPHA was first headed by Jurgen Kopainsky and later by Hermann Schachermayr, the customer requiremerit specification and engineering was made by Bernhard Sander, [2] and the function plan pro- gramming for the bay controllers by Fritz Wittwer, while Volker Lohmann was the project manager of the total contract comprising the 800 KV GIS deve- lopment and delivery as well as the SCS part. Five years after the order, ALPHA was successfully commissioned on 31st March 1987 within the sche- duled delivery time. After the merger of BBC and ASEA to become ABB (on 10th of August 1988, the progressive activities on SCS in Switzerland were allocated to the protection division of ABB Switzerland, which was headed by Jean Gantner. A new group for the SCS business development was established with Volker Lohmann as manager and Klaus-Peter Brand, Wolfgang ‘Wimmer, Helmut Hager and Otto Preiss as members Of the first core tear. Two years later, this division became the new company ABB Relays AG, which ‘was managed by Otto Lanz 1h ABB Relays AG, the worldirst commercial com- mon hardware and software platform dedicated for the protection and control of HV substations was developed under Fred Engler, who was head of the development department. This innovative and revo- lutionary approach enabled to merge protection and control functions into one integrated system and to allow modem SA functions. The commercial break-through of this new platform was enabled in conjunction with the first PC based MicroSCADA from ABB Finland, which was used as station level HMI, and with the complementary new range of microprocessor based protection relays and. bay control units from ABB Finland for distribution applications. The market acceptance was achieved in the course of the first SA projects in Switzerland and in the UK. The key people for the successful comple- tion of these demanding projects were Otto Preiss, ‘André Kreuzer and Kurt Frei 22222 10 2.2.2 Curriculum Vitae Klaus-Peter Brand was born 1948 in Neustadt ad Aisch, Germany. From 1967, he studied physics and mathematics in Germany at the Universities Ware: burg, Kiel and Bonn, In Bonn, he got his Master Degree in Physics in 1972 (Dip Phys.) and his PhD (Or. rer. nat) in 1976 by a work about Interstellar Plasma Physics, From 1976 to 1982 he worked in the BBC Research Center, Baden, Switzerland in the area of SF6 plasma physics (SF6 arc in high voltage breakers). He intro duced the onine literature search facilties in the Research Center. From 1982 to 1988 he acted as Senior Engineer in the department for "Power System Analysis” of BBC, Baden, Switzerland making load flow and EMTP cal culations. He participated in the team for the intro- duction of “Substation Automation" jointly writing the Function and Engineering Specification, and design- ing the System architecture, He joint the project team for the pilot project in Substation Automation of an 800 KV GIS substation and was involved in the deve- lopment and application of the topology based interlocking method. He further acted as co-editor of the company owned Handbook for Electromagnetic Compatibility After the merger of ASEA and B8C to ABB, from 1988 to 1995 he was involved in the substation automation (SA) business development in ABB Relays/Baden, Switzerland to set up the engineering activities, sales support and to contribute to the design and realzation of pilot projects. in the local ‘ABB organization he was product manager (PM) for SA and he acted globally as chaiman of the market requirement group to define the next ABB genera~ tion of SA systems, From 1995 to 1999 he was PM of the ABB Panorama concept for Network Control and SA and coordinated Klaus-Peter Brand the PM activities in ABB Network Partner/Baden Switzerland, He particpated in the successful imple mentation of the ISO Certification process and was responsible for the definition of the PM process. He further provided sales support for complex projects, and established the first ABB Internet based market- ing tool for Panorama In 2000 he moved to the ABB University Switzerland to manage, conduct and develop training courses, mainly on the subjects of Power systems, Electro- magnetic compatibility, Substation automation and Communication. He has further set up @ new curricu- lum for Project managers. Since 1990 he is working for CIGRE SC B5 (former SC34) as working group (WG) and task force (TF) convener. Since 1995 he is member of the editor team in WG10 of the IEC technical committee TC57 for the Standard IEC 61850 “Communication Net- works and Systems in Substations” He is further member of TKS7, the Swiss National Mirror Cornrmit- tee of TCS7, and he is Senior Member of IEEE Volker Lohmann was born 1940 in Milhein-Ruhr, Germany and studied Electrical Engineering at the Rheinisches Politechnikum Dusseldorf, Germany. He gained his professional experience from more than 30 years of working with Brown Boveri Cie (B8C) and ‘ABB Switzerland in various management positions and fields related to high voltage (HV) substations, HVVolker Lohmann Gircuit breakers (CB), gas insulated switchgear (GIS) and substation automation (SA). He started his ca- reer 1965 with research in the application of HV power electronics for High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) and variable speed drives. After several years in research he moved into the sales and marketing organization for HV circuit breaker and gas insulated switchgear (GIS) as sales and project manager. In 1982 the world's first 800 KV GIS project offered him the opportunity to initiate the development and im- plementation of the first BBC microprocessor based substation control system (SCS) as the project mana- ger. His coauthors were member of the project team. In the course of the merger between BBC, Switzerland and ASEA, Sweden, in 1987 he was res- ponsible for the product management for SCS and protection and was involved in the development of a multifunctional and software library based platform {or inteligent electronic devices (IED) for control, pro- tection and monitoring of HV substations. In 1995 he came memiber of the ABB Business Area Mana- gement Team for SA and protection and was world- wide responsible for the product managernent and strategic marketing of SA systems. He retired in 2002 and started his own company for Utility Autornation Consulting, where he is presently working. Wolfgang Wimmer was born 1947 in Bad Schwartau, Northern Germany. He studied Mathe matics and Computer Science at the University of Wolfgang Wimmer Hamburg, where he also graduated in Computer Sdence about Deadlocks in Communication net- works. After five years working for the Deutsches Elektronensynchroton in Hamburg, where he wrote compilers and implemented the base software for a packet switching network, he moved to Brown Boveri & Cie (BBC) in Baden/ Switzerland, There he started with the design and implementat- on of a train control system and became member of the technical committee TC7 “Safety and Relabilty” ‘of the European Workshop on Industrial Computer Systems (EWICS). He was further involved in the design of engineering systems for remote terminal units (RTU) and Network Control Systems. During this time, he was also member of the IEC technical com- mittee TC6S to develop the standard IEC 61508 “Safety in Industrial Electronic Systems’ His involvement in substation automation started in 1983 with participation in the development of a topology based interlocking program, and continued with the introduction of micoprocessor based con- trol systems for the substation automation business After the merger of BBC with Asea in 1987, he conti- nued with these activities in the new company. ABB with foaus on engineering processes and tools. He is currently occupied with the development of substa- tion autornation and monitoring systems at ABB/ Switzerland, and he is member of the IEC TC57 work- ing group WG11 as editor of the upcoming standard IEC 61850 for Communication in Substations, part 6. 222 125 12 2.3 Acknowiedgements There are quite a number of colleagues to be men: tioned, who have contributed directly or indirectly to this book by cooperating with us over more than 20 years for a longer or shorter time. They have helped to collect the basic information, to elaborate market Tequirement specifications, to establish the SA bus: ness, to develop advanced ideas and to maintain the high level of the state-of-the-art. Most of them came from our internal business environment in BBC and ABB respecively, but there have been other impor ‘ant contributors from customers and even from chal lenging competitors. There have always ively discus- sions taken place, not only in our every day working life but also in intemal and external meetings, in International Conferences, as well as in Intemational Organizations like CIGRE and IEC and the assodated ‘working groups. In order to avoid that some contri butors are not mentioned below, we first would like to express our cordial gratitude and appreciation very generally to all thase colleagues, we were privileged to work with on the subjects of SA and communica- tion within substations. Some of these colleagues we like to mention are listed below in alphabetic order as they have been intensively involved in our activities in substation auto- mation and in our involvement in the IEC 6185 stand- ardization, each of them in a very particular way: Lars Andersson (ABB Switzerland) Carl Byman (ABB Sweden) Christoph Brunner (ABB Switzerland) Rudolph Dinges (ABB Germany) Fred Engler (ABB Switzerland) Kurt Frei (ABB Switzerland) Séren Forsman (ABB Sweden) Helmut Hager (former ABB Switzerland) Antti riakaia-Ranta (ABB Finland) Jirgen Kopainsky (former BBC Switzerland) André Kreuzer (former ABB Switzerland) Lars-Gunnar Malmavist (ABB Sweden) Carl-Gustav Oesterbaka (ABB Finland) Martin Ostertag (ABB Switzerland) Otto Preiss (ABB Switzerland) Bernhard Sander (former BBC Switzerland) Hermann Schachermayr (ABB Switzerland) Leif Williarnsson (ABB Finland) We further thank our company, ABB Switzerland, that gave us the great opportunity and support to build up all this know-how in an inspiring international environment, which has finally been converted into numerous SA products, systems, and projects. We further express our appreciation to Géran Lind, Head of the Division Utity Automation System in ‘ABB Switzerland for his continuous, encouraging and supporting interest in our book, as well as his Sub- division Manager, Yves Baumgartner, for selecting our book as offical reference for ABB internal and exter- nal training in Substation Automation. 24 We would like to hear from you This is the first edition of the Substation Automation Handbook In view of the fact that the technology is developing very fast and that it will enable further enhancements in functionality and application it may be desirable to produce further editions. This occa sion would be an excellent opportunity to introduce comments and modifications, which may be raised and proposed by some of our readers, Therefore, we encourage you to contact us via E-mail and to help that the next edition can be improved accordingly. 2.5 Readers Guide In the area of substation automation there are work- ing people with different professional background, Very often, this leads to a lack of mutual understanding between people with power system back ground, who eg started their professional career before PCs became a common working tool, and computer scientists, who are familiar with the modern way of thinking in the computer age. They, however, usually lack of the understanding of the pr mary equipment and the particular requirements for making electronic equipment work in the harsh envi- ronment of HV substations. Apart from this, they are not aware of the sensitvty of the power system pro- cess and the impact of the control actions that are initiated by the IEDs on the power syste behavior. The authors are well aware of this conflict and the lack of mutual understanding from their personal background in switchgear and substation automation as well as from their extensive experience in © Gas insulated switchgear (GIS) research, design and application, The development of substation automation concepts, software functions and components. «The marketing and introduction of SA business as well as negotiating SA contracts, managing projects trouble shooting and + last but not least from more than 20 years of teaching and conducting SA workshops in many parts of the world Many SA projects became a disappointment for users as well as for the suppliers as they failed to meet the expectations with regard to cost effective-ness. The reasons were always very similar: the users were not in the position to specify their requirements and the suppliers were not aware of the genuine needs of their customers. The main motivation to write this book was the awareness of the need for such a SA Handbook as a contribution to improve the mutual understanding between the two conficting parties. Al readers are invited to read Chapter 3 “introduction and Scope" to get familiar with the general way of thinking and the related vocabulary. In addition to chapter 3 the readers may chose those chapters that cover their missing knowledge. The objectives of the authors are «To transfer their extensive know-how of all the aspects related to the technical, functional and commercial issues around SA to all decision makers in utlity management, system operation, system planning, engineering and maintenance who wish to improve their personal knowledge in this field (Chapters 4,9, 10, 15 refer). # To make the power system oriented readers aware of the new possibilities and benefits that can be exploited with the implementation of substation automation systems (Chapters 4,9, 10,11, 15 rete. # To make the readers with a background in conventional control and protection systems (Secondary systems) familiar with the specific performance and safety aspects of SA systems that comprise integrated numerical protection and control functionality (Chapters 6, 7 8 refer) ‘© To make the readers involved in the development, design and application of IT in terms of intelligent electronic devices (IED) and for SA aware of the specific needs of the power system and the safety and availabilty related aspects of substation con- trol and protection (Chapters 6,7 8, 12,13 refer) © To provide the readers, who are involved with engineering, testing and commissioning of SA systems with background knowledge with regard to SA systems architectures, availabilty and safety aspects as well as to the allocation of functions in a SA system (Chapters 6,7 8 refer) To convey decision makers in utlties the message that the implementation of SA throughout their substations offers new chances for the utilities to improve their internal processes to the extent that the overall costs in power system operation and maintenance are drastically reduced, the return on investment is accelerated and the productivity as well as the profitabilty of the enterprise is signif- cantly improved (Chapters 4, 11, 15 refer). 25 1326 14 Table 2-1 provides a more detailed guidance for the readers with various background and experience to select the chapters that may be of particular interest to them to complement their specific knowledge with information around SA Chapters | Readers 3/415 /6 |7 | 8 | 9 |10| 11} 12 |13 | 14)15 |16 |17 18 |21 Students x X|X1X|X x x Beginners in ‘Computer science, Power systems, Financal planning, ‘System operation X|X|X) xX |XX X|X |X} xX] Xx Decison makers: system planning, ‘System operation Design/engineering, Maintenance X|X X|X|X x x X{X Developers x x|x{xtx x x} x x; xx Engineering spec. x x|x [x |x x x] x x x|x Protection spec. x X}X)X |X X|X1X X|X |x x SCADA spec. X|X|X|X |X |X |X] XX x X 1X x Testing/comissioning x X| XIX 1X X|X|X Maintenance X[K) xX X|X x x System planning x{x | x]x x[x[x x Table 2-1. Readers Guide 26 References [1] Volker Lohmann (BBC/Switzerland), Andrew C. Bolton (ESGOM/South Africa) Gas insulated switchgear developed for 765 kV, Moder Power Systems, February 1985, published by United Tiade Press Ltd, London/UK [2] Eric Engelbrecht (ESCOM/South/Africa}, Semhard Sander, Hermann Schachermayr (BBC/Switzerland) Integrated control for ECOIV!s 800 KV ALPHA Substation, Transmission and Distribution, ‘Modern Power Systems, October 1987, published by United Trade Press Ltd. London/UK {3} Klaus-Peter Brand, JUrgen Kopainsky, Wolfgang Wimmer - Topology based interlocking of electrical substations, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery PWRD-1, 3, 118-126 (1986)3 Introduction and Scope 3.1 Scope 16 3.2. Electric power as sensitive basics of our today’s society 16 33 The electric power system 16 33.1 The long and complex path from power generation to power consumption 16 332. The power production 16 333. Three-phase system and current, voltage and frequency 7 334 The transportation of electric energy by the network and the related voltage levels 18 335. Some comments to voltage levels in electric power systems 19 336 The consumption of electric energy 19 3.36.1 The definition of root mean square values 20 3.4 Specific Aspects of the Electric Power System 20 34.1. The power flow 20 3.4.1.1. Production equals consumption 20 3.4.1.2 Base load demand and load peaks, variation of demand per day, week 21 3.413 Power flow controlled by physics of the power network 3.4.14 Many voltage levels for transmission and distribution 3.42 Power generation, network stability and energy quality 3.42.1 Dispersed power generation (DPG) 3422 Complex network with stabilty problems 3.423 Power quality 3.43 Safety aspects 3.43.1 High currents, voltages and surges 3.432. Electomagnetic interference and high-frequency noise 3.433 Protection 3.5 The Role of the Substation for the grid 35.1 Node functionaity 352 Access to the power and power network 3.6 The Role of Substation Automation for the Network Management 3.6.1 The Power Network Management System 361.1. The structure 3612. The overall tasks 362. Local Functions in Substations 363 The local support functions for Network Level Systems The crucial role of communication n Automation Systems Short definition of Substation Automation Systems The History with Remote Terminal Units 373. From RTU to SA 3.8 Substation Automation Solutions 381 Commercial questions behind substation automation solutions 382. Benefits of Substation Automation 383 The realization of SA automation 3.9 References Table of content34 16 3 Introduction and Scope 3.1 Scope The topic of this book is Substation Automation, Before we can go into this fascinating and powerful automation area, we have to get some idea about the role of the substation and its automation in the electric power system. Behind all we can see the importance of electric power for our society today. 3.2 Electric power as sensitive basics of our today's society We all use the benefit of electric power in our every days life, Already for a long time, the dean electric light has extended the day up to 24 hours both for work, services, and pleasure. A fot of heavy work has taken over by electric powered machines, Medical instruments and the complete infrastructure of hospi- tals rely on electric power. In every home, we find many devices from vacuum cleaner to TV set all depending on electric power. Our complete telecom environment and all our information technology with all its computers rely on the unlimited availabilty of electric power. The strong impact of power on socie- ty is seen by any shortage of electity or blackouts happening from time to time, How does the system look that provides allthis power? 3.3 The electric power system 33.1 The long and complex path from power generation to power consumption Despite of some efforts in decentralized power pro- duction, power generation and power consumption are separated from each other at least for bulk power. Few production centers feed milions of cor sumers. Therefore, large transmission and distribution networks are needed to link both partes (Figure 3-1). ‘An introduction to power systems is found in [1} 332 The power production Most electric power is produced by fossil (oi, coal) or nuclear power plants. These types of power plants produce steam, which drives turbines and the con- nected generators providing electric energy (Fig 3-2). Alot of power is produced also by hydropower Figure 3-1 This schematic picture indicates the countrywide interconnection of power production and consumption by the networkAf Controller Steam ——» > tain SU Figure 3-2 Turbine and generator (including Pf and QV contro) valve contror Controtiable 333 Voltage [Mechanical] Power L plants where the water flow is the driving force. Wind farms (driving force wind) or photovoltaic cells (direct production of electric power) produce a small but increasing fraction of electric energy. The electric power production is subject to some dedicated sys tem features, which have to be considered from the beginning 33.3 Three-phase system and current, voltage and frequency Photovottaic cells ike batteries produce electric ener gy with constant voltage and current called direct cur- rent (00) The production of electric power with the above mentioned rotating machines, where cols are mov- ing in changing magnetic fields, provides a sinuosoi- dal, aterating current (AQ). Since these machines (Figure 3-3) have usualy three poles cisplaced by 1/3 of a complete tum we get a three-phase system, ie ‘three-phase belts (windings) with induced sinuosoi- dal altemating voltages feeding three conductors, with sinusoidal altemating current (AC) each displac- ed by 1/3 of 360° resulting in a displacement of 120° (Figure 3-4) ‘stator winding Phase belt a Phase ¢ — phased == Frequency 3phase _|4P +140 Electric Power Stator winding Phase bett a Phase? -—~ Phased Figure 3-4 Three-phase Power System (Phase Currents with Amplitude normalized to 1) 17334 18 This rotation frequency gives the frequency both of the voltage and the current. Common values for the power frequency are ie, 50 Hz (eg. in Europe) or 60 Hz (eg. in US) For some few railway systems, also 167 He (formerly 16 2/3 H2)is in use. Current refers to conducting partides (electrons) moving through a conductor. Its driving force is the voltage with the same frequency buitt up by the magnetic field in the generators. Basically, power is calculated out of the product of current and voltage. Considering the phase shift (angle difference) described by sing or cos between current and voltage or not, we get three types of power, ie. the apparent power (5), the reactive power (Q) or the active power (R). The last value is what provides the electric energy to work for us (See section 336.1), The three-phase system is advantageous as the three displaced phases fit well to rotating machines whit- ‘out dead’ point, and no retum conductor is needed under fault-free conditions. The advantage of AC systems is that its voltage can be transformed to higher and lower levels by trans- formers being based again on changing magnetic fields in the transformer coils. These magnetic fields result in inductance and the related electric fields in capacitance of each wire. Both effects have to be added to the Ohmic resistance of the conductor. The result is the impedance meaning losses and phase shifts of the sinusoidal currents and voltages. The advantage of DC is that only the Ohmic resistance has to be considered, These advantages of DC are used also for power transmission by High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) lines. With these features, we have started already to touch the transmission and, distribution of electric energy. 3.3.4 The transportation of electric energy by the network and the related voltage levels Since production and consumption of energy are nor- mally separated, a sophisticated network or grid of conductors like transmission lines and distribution cables has to connect both the producers and con- sumers of electric energy (Figure 3-5) The conductors have some resistivity against this cur- rent described by the above-mentioned impedance consisting of inductvity, capacity, and resistivity, Overhead lines and cables form the network and, to some very small extent, gas isolated lines (GIL). In plans of such networks, the conductors for all three phases are shown as single lines. The nodes in this network are substations providing faclities for switching on and off the connections. in addition, the transformers are placed here normaly. Generators produce power at voltage levels of about 10 k\. This voltage has to be transformed up to the level of the connected transmission network. This is done by separate transformers (block transformers), (or more advanced, by transformer windings integrat ed in the generator itself (power former). Depending con the capacity and length of transmission fines need ed, high and very high voltages are used for trans- mission, typically from above 100 kV up to about 1000 kV. At the other side of the transmission lines, these voltages are stepwise reduced by transformers to the subtransmission and distribution level of the network (100 KV to 10 kV) and further down to match finally the voltage level of the consumer (below 1 KV in the most cases). Such a network is shown schematically in Figure 3. ‘consumption (motors) Figure 3-5 Schematic network diagram with different vottage levels3.3.5 Some comments to voltage levels in electric power systems The different voltage levels found in electric power systems are not dassified in any standard as low vol tage (LV), medium voltage (MV), high voltage (HV), extra-high voltage (EHV), or ultra-high voltage (UHV). In most countries, safety laws are connected with such a dassification; national differences exist in this dlassification. Only the limit between LV and MV is very commonly fixed at 1 KV, see eg, IEC 60038, The lassification limits have been very often created because of historical technical steps in switchgear technology. To avoid too many alternative solutions and too dose voltage levels, in IEC 60038 recommended sequen: ces of voltage levels are given, but without any refe- rence to any voltage level term, Another common dassifcation of voltage levels refers to the type or purpose of the network applied, eg. if it transmits power over long distances between gene- ration and load centers, orf it distibutes power from some transmission end point to the users of the load center. A common example for AC (alternating cur- rent) is « Distribution level (3.6 - 36 kV): Circuits transmitting power to the final retail outlet, mostly with a radial structure « Sub-transmission level (175 - 145 kV): Circuits ‘tansmitting power to distribution substations and to bulk retail outlets, mostly with a linear or/and ring structure «© Tiansmission level (725 - 765 kV): Circuits trans- rmitting power between major substations of interconnecting systems, and to wholesale outlets. These transmission lines are further divided into’ ‘* High voltage (HV): 115 - 245 kV * Extra high voltage (EHV): 300 - 765 kV * Utra high voltage (UHV): greater than 765 kV Direct cutrént (OQ) systems may be classified com- monly as follows: # Low voltage (24 - 250 V): Auxiliary power in power plants and substations, control circuits and, occasionally, utiization power in some industrial plants # Medium volta industry « High voltage (greater than 600 V): Long distance bulk transmission, submarine, and major system interconnections (300 - 600 V): Transportation it should be noted that such a cassification is very often a characteristic for protection devices (istribu- tion protection, transmission protection, etc) and, there fore, may vary to some extent from supplier to sup- plier. To follow the increasing demand of electric ener- gy, the functionaltes are allocated to higher voltage levels, eg, in big cties energy is distributed at HV in a ‘typical distribution network structure. 336 The consumption of electric energy Big consumers like machines and other industrial equipment are using three-phase energy supply at medium voltage level (below 50 KV) The private consumers may use three-phase supply for heating equipment like cooking and deaning equipment. For all other purposes single-phase sup- ply is provided. in any case, the vottage level for pri vate consumers is at low voltage levels below 1 KV. For heating only the time average of the AC power is, effective. These time-averages for current, voltage and power are called ims (root mean square) values. The ever-present electronic devices rectify by their power supplies the AC to DC as needed by their elec- tronics. 336 1934 33.61 The definition of root mean square values Instantaneous values of voltage and current U =Uosinat 1 = Iosin(ax - 9) Us and lp are the amplitudes of voltage and current respectively f = 2a is the power frequency @ ‘is the phase angle difference between voltage and current Time averages means effective values or ims (root mean squares) Io v2 leg = f Tosin(at —g)dt = a Is r leg = [ Iosin(ax-g)dt T = 2s je is the period of the current or voltage Active Power P plvoroa 1 Uolo| sin axtsin( at ~ gat = Ingles cos Without going more into details, the formulas for Re- active Power (Q) and Apparent Power (5) are Q=l Ug sing S =I =O? +P? The apparent power S shows the maximum for transmission over a line with ¢= 0, ie. when capaci- 20 ‘tance and reactance do not exist or are compensa: ting each other perfectly. The reactive power Q shows the impact of such elements, Since Q degrad- es the transmission capacity for P and influences the voltage profile of the power system, producers or consumers may have to pay a penalty. 3.4 Specific Aspects of the Electric Power System In addition to the features mentioned above, the electric power system has many characteristics, which are based on physical laws, equipment features and user behavior. All these aspects have to be consider- ed for design and operation of the power system, ‘The most important ones are listed below. 3.4.1 The power flow 3.41.1 Production equals consumption The production of power has to be more or less equal to the consumption since means for power storage are limited today (Figure 3-6), The most powerful means are pump storage schemes, but also pressure storage facilities, spinning wheels, batteries and fuel cells are used to some small extent. Powerflow Generator Transmission Load (motor) Figure 3-6 Mechanical equivalent of an electric power system showing the balance between generation and consumption3.4.1.2 Base load demand and load peaks, variation of demand per day, week There is a slow changing base load demand over the year, but also strong load peaks depending on hour, day, week and weather conditions are occurring, It depends on factors fke when and how people are working in factories and offices, using cooling and heating systems for their houses, and whether a football game attracts all people to use their TV sets. 3.4.1.3 Power flow controlled by physics of the power network Which way the power is flowing from production to consumption depends on the impedance Z ofthe link- ing lines and cables (Figure 3-7). The impedance Z is composed by the Ohmic resistance R and the induct- ance L along the conductor and the conductance G and the capacitance C between the conductor and ground. More details see eg. in (1) Stepwise adjustable or tunable capacitances and reactances can be used to influence the physical impedance given by the properties of the lines and cables. The most modem equipment for impedance tuning and, the corresponding control of power flow are FACTS (flexible AC transmission systems). They allow continuous control over a very wide range of impedance, All such measures imply losses of power but these are at least partly compensated by the increased transmission capacity of the line achieved Lax Rax Gax = Cax — « —____ Figure 3-7 The (differentia) line impedance Z composed of LR, C G per length unit of the fine. 3.4.1.4 Many voltage levels for transmission and distribution For optimizing both the power transmission and dis- tribution, cfferent voltage levels have been introduc- ed, Higher voltages allow power transmission over long distances with lower losses; lower voltages sim- ply the safety problems in small distribution areas or at hore. 3.42 Power generation, network stability and energy quality 3.4.2.1 Dispersed power generation (DPG) ‘As mentioned already above, the power system may be characterized in most cases by large production centers (coal fired, nuclear or hydropower plants), which are remote from the load centers (consumers of any kind). Today, there is some tendency towards dispersed power generation in smaller units near to the consumers. Ths shift is supported by the ineas- ing use of “altemative” power (small hydro, solar, wind, biomass, etc) and new concepts like co-geners- tion of heat and electricity 3.42.2 Complex network with stability problems Since the electric power is produced by a large num ber of rotating machines with dedicated load charac tetistcs, static or transient instabilities may occur due to the interactions via the associated network Therefore, network control of other means have to assure by proper measures that the network is kept within a stable range. This stabilty provides eg, the constant voltage and power frequency needed by the consumers. Stable systems mean also that no collapses or blackouts occur and that power is provid ed with a high quality and availabilty (Figure 3-8). 342 21vis 20 ry os ‘Maximum power ‘capability rem Figure 3-8 System stabil: PV Operating Curve for Transmission Lines (V, fixed source voltage, variable load voltage, P power delvered to oad, P, maximurn power) 3.4.2.3 Power quality Power quality means mainly availabilty and stable fre- quency and is either assumed for given or negotiated in specific delivery contracts. These contracts may re- quire availabilty of electric energy without any inter ruptions down to some milseconds, constant power frequency and stable supply voltage (Figure 3-9). Power quality (example voltage) 3.43 Safety aspects 3.43.1 High currents, voltages and surges Electrical power systems are operated at high voltage levels, which may endanger human life or cause da- mages for equipment. Therefore, adequate isolation, its supenision against damages, and proper ground- ings essential. High currents may produce both ther- mal effects and electromechanical forces, especially in case of short circuits. Lightning strokes and switching operations may cause transient surges that proper protection means Ike surge arrestors have to be applied, 3.43.2 Electromagnetic interference and high-frequency noise ‘Arcing strokes and re-strokes are caused by switching of isolators and result in high-frequency transients (Figure 3-10). Therefore, effective grounding of switch- gear is not only requested at power frequency condi- tions but also for high frequendes. Proper grounding and shielding avoids all effects, which may disturb or destroy electronic equipment inside and outside the substation Due to the small radius of overhead conductors, the high field strength at their surface produces smal discharges along the line. These discharges depend- ent on weather conditions (moisture) produce not only energy losses but also high-frequency. noise, which may disturb electronic devices nearby. In most countries, the interference values and noise levels have to be kept within ranges specified by Standards (see chapter 12). Nevertheless, such inter- ference determines also the environmental condi tions for electronic or numerical substation automa- tion systems induding protection 2}‘Sour ade onde 0 9 200 400 600 800 1000 ns t er Figure 3-10 Measured voltage during dosing of an Isolator shows very high frequent behavior action as source for electromagnetic inter- ferences (EM) Figure 3-11 Short crcuits and protection 3.4.3.3 Protection Reliable power supply is important, power equipment is costly and the high voltages and curents may cause damages both for people and devices. Short Greuits occuring in the transmission system on gene rators (G), transmission and distribution lines or on the loads (L) have to be detected in the shortest pos- sible time and the associated equipment must be protected (Figure 3-11), Therefore, adequate protec tion functions implemented in dedicated protection devices are installed to safeguard the operation of the electric power system. ‘Any short circuit happening somewhere in the net- work is detected by process data supervision. Dedi- cated preprocessing, processing and data evaluation results in a trip command to the process (circuit brea- ker). Data storage and information to the HMI sup- plement the protective action | aRorEonONCONTROL ORITSVETEN 3433 2335 24 3.5 The Role of the Substation for the grid 3.5.1 Node functionality The substation is the node in the electrical power net- work, which connects the lines and cables for trans: mission and distribution of electric power. The elect- cal node is the busbar in the substation. To cope with the dedicated needs for reliability and availability of the electrical power supply various busbar schemes are in use lke single busbar, double busbar, 1" brea- ker arrangement, ring bus, and H type Circuit breakers and isolators are installed to connect or disconnect the incoming and outgoing lines with the busbar. The power flow is actively controled and routed by these switching devices, ie. by opening and closing the circuit breakers. For reliable insulation in case of open lines, disconnectors or insulators are associated to the circuit breakers. Since these dis connectors cannot break power, they must only be operated with the associated breaker in open posi- tion. To provide safety for maintenance earthing swit- ches or temporarily earthing devices are used to assure that the area under maintenance is without voltage and dead. introduction to switchgear see chapter 5 and [3]. in addition to the switchgear, there may be transfor- mers in the substation to connect busbars at different voltages if applicable. The tap changers of the trans- formers control the voltage in between. Voltage drops across the transmission lines between substations occur because of the capacitance and reactance of the lines, the voltage may be adjusted also by adapt- able capacitor banks or reactors, which serve as sour- es or sinks of reactive power. Depending on the voltage level and other boundary conditions, there is lot of different switchgear (some- times called primary equipment) installed in substa- tions. They ate described in chapter 5. The isolation medium may be air @air isolated substation - AIS) or SF gas (gas isolated substation - GIS) or a combina- tion of both Some few compact HV substations are indoor and housed in buildings but the majority of HV sub- stations is outdoor and subject to severe cimactic conditions ‘As mentioned above (Figure 3-7), the series impe- dance and the shunt admittance of transformer, ines and cables of the power system determine the power flow. However, the switchgear in the sub- station may also mit this power flow, The maximum allowed continuous rating is given mainly by the ther- mal withstand capacity of the conducting material and the withstand capacity of contacts against magnetic forces. In addition, the short circuit breaking capacity of the circuit breakers limits the maximum power allowed being connected via the network 35.2 Access to the power and power network instrument transformers measuring the actual volta ges and currents deliver the essential information conceming the power system status. Both the power frequency and the local power flow is calculated out of these values or measured by dedicated power meters direaty The switchgear in the substations and the inter- connecting transmission and distribution lines are the high valued assets of the power system owner in power business terms. As faults and failures do not only degrade the devices but cause also losses in power delivery, the status of these components is supervised or monitored in the substations for asset management depending on the monitoring techno- logy applied and the owner's maintenance philoso. phy. Al these means in the substation provide the inter- face accessing the power system, ie. for changing the actual topology, for measuring voltage and current, and for providing data about the assets. This access may be used either by human operators or by auto- nomous automatics like protection functionsThe switchgear will be described in chapter 5. The system and functions for controling, monitoring and protecting the power network in the nodes and their relation to the overall network management wil be explained in paragraph 36. 3.6 The Role of Substation Automation for the Network Management 3.6.1 The Power Network Management System 3.6.1.1 The structure The power network management system is a multi level hierarchical control system. The highest level, e.g the National Control Center (NCC) manages the com- plete network; subordinated control levels eg. repre: sented by Regional Control Centers (RCC) manage some regions. The lowest control level isin the sub- stations where the Substation Automation System controls the node and provides direct access to the power system (Figure 3-12) NETWORK SE LEVEL ee AREA 1 Network control SUB- STATION LEVEL ‘SUBSTATION 1 ‘SUBSTATION 1 | L— switchgear ‘Switchgear [— Power transformer Power transformer F— Meas. transt. U, 1 Meas. transf.U,1 — aux. devices | ux. devices REGION / NATION Network control At the various levels, different tasks or functions are performed referring to the allocated parts of the power system. From the view of the substation, all functions performed in the substation are called local functions and all functions at the higher control levels are called remote functions. Therefore, the complete network control systern may be reduced to a two- level system model at least in the context of this book Since a lot of local functions provide subsidiary sup- Port to remote functions, the interaction of these func- tions with the network management functions has to be discussed as a whole. Figure 3-12 Hierarchy of the network power ‘management system ‘SUBSTATION 1 SA [— swtcigear }— Power transformer Power transformer [— Meas: transt.U,1 Meas transf. Uy — aux devices Aux, devices 36 253.6.2 26 3.6.1.2 The overall tasks The main task of power network management be- sides direct control (network control system) is ener gy management (EM) which controls not only the balance between production and. consumption of ower but also the path of the power flow taking into account economical and other cateria. Energy management has also to take care of power system and to assure the availabilty and quality of the elec- tric energy. It exchanges business-related data with the business information and trade system of the uti lity concerned. The power network management system has to acquire all the data like voltage, current, power flow, and the status of all inks of the entire power system. In addition, it has to control all the switchgear installed in the numerous substations. This task is called super- visory control and data acauisition (SCADA), zy = 0| Zu, = 0 Figure 3-13 The Kirchhoff’s Laws Inherent differences in the acquisition equipment and the common time base cause some inconsistencies in the data retrieved from the substations. Therefore, a consistent data set of the entire power system has to be generated by the so-called state estimation. This means nothing more than the iterative verifica- tion of the complance of the entire network with the Kirchhoff's Laws (Figure 3-13) Another task of the power management system is the management of ali the assets. Asset manage- ment and all supervisory functions may be processed in on big central computer of, more commonly, in many interinked computers 3.6.2 Local Functions in Substations The two most local functions are the data acquisition from the power grid via the switchgear including instrument transformers (sensor, sensing) and the activation of changes by commands to switchgear devices that can be switched or changed (actuators, acting). The values for power frequency, active and reactive power may either be measured directly or alaulated out of the measured values for current and voltage. n addition, the power quality may be moni- tored Such data acquisition allows many local functions lke supenision of the power network and controling the data flow at substation (node) level. These data are transmitted to any function interested on, maybe up to the NCC level. The fastest interacion between sensors and actuators is provided by the most local and autonomous automatic function, ie. protection, which issues a trip command to the allocated circuit breaker in case of a detected fault. Slower local auto matics are voltage regulation and local load shedding in case of power shortage or danger of instability. In addition to the power system, its most costly com= ponents, ie, the switchgear is monitored as well pro- viding all data important for maintenance. Apart from the power system, also the substation automation system itsef including protection is monitored, super-vised and self-supervised. incase of any failure, either corrective actions can be locally initiated or alarrns can be issued All substation related information can be accessed via the local station HMI, which can also be used for local operations. Since in normal situations nearly all sub- stations are running unmanned and remotely con trolled, data and commands are exchanged via com- munication links with the remote network control center. 3.63 The local support functions for Network Level Systems In case of remote operation of a substation, the basic role of the substation automation system as source of power system information and sink of power con- trol commands is stil valid. All passive and active ele- ments of the switchgear are supervised and protect ed. The most protection functions will stay autono- mous in the substation. Process data are provided pre-processed to informa- tion for the remote network control system, Auto- matic functions in the substation can reduce the heavy load of the functions residing on NCC level in the network control system and accelerate the res ponse time to contingencies to maintain power sys- tem integrity. The local data from the substations may be also used to control the global performance of the power net- work, to prevent any kind of instabilities (voltage, fre- quency, rotor angle, etc) and to avoid cascade trip- ping resulting in wide-area disturbances and black- outs. Such systems use not only the data from the substation for decision making but also interact with the locally installed protection devices modifying their parameters according to the changes in the power flow or power system topology (adaptive protection) Very often, condition related data from all substations in the network are collected in Monitoring Centers to qalaulate trends and to elaborate maintenance and planning strategies and to elaborated a pragnosis for the future behavior of power system. Therefore, the substations are the backbone of a global asset mana- gement system, Summarizing all the mentioned features, a substation automation system can be seen as both the most decentralized part and most important part of the overall power system management 3.6.4 The crucial role of communication The overall power management system is a distribu- ted system. its lowest but most important level is sub- station automation. Therefore, reliable communica tion plays a crucial role for reliable power system ope- ration. The fast advances in communication techno- logy provide many new opportunites. However, the very specific functional and. performance require- ments and the long lifetime of power equipment impose some hard technical and commercial con- straints, which have to taken into consideration 3.6.4 2737 28 3.7 Substation Automation Systems 3.71 Short definition of Substation Automation Systems The definition of Substation Automation Systerns (SA) can be done stepwise. The most straightforward definition is that a Sub- station Automation System performs all the local tasks desctbed in section 36.1, ie. providing « local and remote access to the power system + local manual and automatic functions # communications links and interfaces to the switch- gear, within the substation automation system and to the network management system These functions may be performed more or less combined in a lot of dedicated Intelligent Electro- niic Devices (IED) for control, monitoring, protection, automatics, communication, ete. The functions of sub- station automation are desaibed in chapter 6, the substation automation structure in chapter 7 3.72 The History of Remote Terminal Units Historically, the only interface between the switch- gear and the network management system was a Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) in each substation. The RTU was a central unit containing a lot of inputs and ‘outputs, nearly no focal functions but the communi- «ation interface to the remote network control center. RTUs and NCC both together formed the Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition system (SCADA). A SCADA system is primarily used to monitor, control and manage the power system remotely by human intervention to deliver electrical energy as per delivery contracts. it provides real time status information (both analogue and digital) as well as historical infor- mation to the operator and supports his decision making for effective supenisory control. In addition, the action of protection lke start and trp is induded as simple yes/no information. 3.73 From RTU to SA In contrast to RTUs, Substation automation systems perform all the loca tasks mentioned above in a more or less decentralized structure. The functions indude all the automation of actions that are required to manage the specific substation, whether it isto iso late and earth a feeder bay, or to collect condition- monitoring data. Therefore, it indudes the collection and storage of a vast amount of data that are related to substation based equipment and the surrounding power system itself (eg, fault location details, distur- bance recording etc). The structure of Substation ‘Automation is described in chapter 7, its architecture in chapter 8. The communication function of the RTUis also need- ed in the SA, but is changed to a communication interface. In most cases, this function is implemented in a gateway IED, Depending on the communication protocols used this gateway has to convert the pro- tocol in both directions also (protocol converter). The information collected and stored in distributed devic- € (IEDs) of the SA will be communicated to the SCADA master via this gateway. Note that also pro- tection devices are seen as part of the Substation ‘Automation integrated by the common communica- tion system, Protection functions may be also imple: mented together with control functions in one single (ED. Depending on the functionality and availability request- ed jin the substation, its geographic extension and commercial boundaries, RTUS will remain 2 conve- niient solution for a lot of substations. Reverse, RTUS may be defined as most simple substation automa- tion systems also, Some comparison is given chapter 8. The trends and outlooks for the future developments are addressed in chapter 18.3.8 Substation Automation Solutions 3.8.1 Commercial questions behind substation automation solutions Generally, one can think of many dedicated solutions, however, one has always to take really a hard look at the cost efficiency of those solutions and find a just fication for the selected implementation of SA, For this purpose, some key questions have to be answer- ed lke © What is the impact on capital expenditure budget? ‘© What is the impact on the operating expenditure budget? # Will ll the proposed services/benefits be utlized and is the approach cost efficent? These questions have to be discussed in the context of the benefits of Substation Automation. 3.8.2 Benefits of Substation Automation In order to decide whether it is @ benefit to use SA, any utlty must firstly know, and secondly decide, what kind SA services shall be implemented, For the elaboration of an implementation strategy, the utility is faced with the following questions © What are the technical objectives of SA. and how does each service contribute to meet the objectives? © What are the main business objectives of SA and how does each service contribute to meet the objectives? ‘© When the boundary between utilities and custo- mers is inside the substation, is it expected that the customer should have similar systems/IEDs and whether they should be integrated with the utility? Both the most basic requirements and the highest benefits of SA systems are to minimize the number of outages and outage times, to decrease operating costs, increase productivity and to improve power system performance. How this is fulfilled will be shown in the book, One of the original means is to automate actions, which have been previously executed by operators. This could be realized at least partly by hardwired logic instead of microprocessors. The full benefits provided by the microprocessor-based IEDs only are derived from + easier design of complex logic by software induding designable levels of functional integration, «all the additional opportunities and services, hich can be provided if al the information is available in digital format and shared between IEDs. To improve the overall technical and economical management of the power system, one would want to access all data stored in any IED from anywhere. Depending on the communication link in the sub- station, Substation Automation Systems provide this opportunity either via a dedicated link, via the corpo- rate network (intranet) or via Internet selected by security requirements. Utities may even give dedi- cated service access to suppliers or limited user access to major custoners for data that may be rele- vant to them: The benefits of Substation Automation are further discussed in chapter 15. 3.83 The realization of SA automation. Bearing in mind the fast changing information tech- nology, the development of systems and products for Substation Automation should be done in a well- defined sequence of phases. Some of them are of interest for customers also 38 2939 30 The project execution shows also well-defined phases Important for the customer isto safeguard his invest- from specification to maintenance requiring a dose ments in spite of the fast changing technologies cooperation between customer and supplier. The Recommendations how to reach this goal are given project has to meet all standards mentioned in chap- in chapter 17 ter 12 if applicable. All what has to be considered for a successful and harmonic project execution is dis- cussed in chapter 14. 3.9 References {1.1] Olle | Eigerd - Electric Energy Systems Theory, 2nd ed, Mac Graw Hil, 1982 {1.2} Olle |. Elgerd, Patrick. D. van der Pulje - Electric Power Engineering, 2nd ed, Kiuwer Academic Publishers, 1997 [2.1] Walter A. Eimore (Ed) - Protective Relaying Theory and Applications, Marcel Dekker, New York (1994) (22) Helmut Ungrad, Wilibald Winkler, Andrej Wiszniewski- Protection Techniques in Electrical Energy Systerns, Marcel Dekker, New York (1995) 3] Switchgear Manual © ABB Calor Emag Schaltanlagen Mannheim, 10th revised edition, Cornelsen Verlag, Berlin, 20014 Challenges with introducing Substation Automation 4.1. Substation Automation, the ineluctable way? 4.1.1 Necessary conditions to install new technology in, substations 4.1.1.1 Electrical network consideration 41.1.2. Utility socal aspect 44.13. Final customer aspect 4.1.1.4 Utility business policy 41.2. Advantages and drawbacks of new technologies 41.2.1 Socal Aspects 4122 Finandal aspect 41.23 Network and energy management aspec 41.24 Final customers aspects 4.1.3 Key success factors for the introduction of SA technology 4.13.1 Basics rules to preserve independence and to succeed 4,132. Find a global commitment inside your utity 41.33. find a financial indicator to chose what must be made frst 4.1.4 Condusion 42 Management and Utilization of Substation Data 43. System Performance Aspects 43.1. Backward compatibility to allow integration with existing systems 44. Justification for Substation Automation 44.1 Typical Justification Scenarios 442. Perception of Substation Automation 443 Substation legacy systems and practices 444 Opportunities and justifications 445 Benefits of substation automation integration 445.1 Design Benefits 4452 Operation Benefits 4453 Maintenance Benefits 4454 Reliability Benefits 4455 Reduced cost 45 References 32 32 32 33 33 34 35, 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 36 7 38 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 a a1 4 TT 42 42 42 4 Table of content 314a 32 4 Challenges with introducing Substation Automation 4.1 Substation Automation, the ineluctable way? Twenty years ago, the frst local automatism appear- ed in electrical substations. Some of those automa- tisms were used to eliminate earth faults by opening and dosing cyclically the feeders in HV/MV substa tions, others were in charge to permute automatical- ly the transformers in EHV/HV substations. These automatism were so slow that both the operating staff and the customers could follow these protection and optimization procedures. Today, the information technology (IT) has progressed in such a way that wide area protection schemes can be realized that are in the position to protect the en- tire power system relying on co-ordinated defense plans. They are the utimate barriers intended to pre- vent the spreading of losses of synchronism through out the ultlty network Distributed computers, satell- te based time synchronization and communication, broadband communication networks and inteligent substation automation systems and phasor measure- ment units (PMU) are involved in such protection schemes. As the response of operating staff is too slow with the legacy technology in emergency situa- tions, the emergency control goes through all the automated control systems to operate globally in less than 05 second. In the meantime, electromechanical, static, electronic and fully digital technology have been successively installed in substations. The average outage time for end customer went down from 2 days to 10 minu- tes per year. Utilities are now selling quality of the electricity rather than power of the electricity. There are world-wide utilities who ask themselves the question: Must we do it? Can we do it? What will the advantages and the inconveniences be to install fully digital substation control systems together with the advanced functionality? The authors try in this, book to provide answers to these questions and explain various options how to do it depending on customer benefits, operating philosophies, business environment etc 4.1.1 Necessary conditions to install new technology in substations We think that four different aspects have to be con- sidered in connection with the implementation of new technologies in substations. These involve the electrical network, the utilities social aspect, the end customer aspect and the utiities policy aspect. All have to be analyzed in detal 4.1.1.1 Electrical network consideration Digital substation automation systems improve the control of the network. All basic functions like tele- control, local control, event recorder, disturbance re- corder, numerical protection, automation of substa- tion automation (SA) systems are interacting with the entire power system contro} + The tele-control functionality allows the SCADA operating people to have a good overview control con the network, They receive supervision informa- tion and can operate the switchgear with the highest relabilty. « The control functions allow the operating people to run the substation as if they were inside it User friendly human machine interfaces (HMI) provide the right information at the right time. Easy to operate and to understand are the Qualities of the control interface. We. cannot find any operating people who are used to SA stil prefer conventional hardwired substations and restricted HMI‘The sequence of event recorders with time tagging at one milsecond, which are incorporated in the IEDs for protection and control provide comprehensive and precise information and can help protection people to improve the global protection scheme (of all SA have the same time reference). + The disturbance recorder that are included in SA allow the network maintenance engineers to analyze a faulty part of the network Numerical protection relays improve the quality of the protection. This equipment can be set with very good precision and their behavior can even be dynamically adapted to changing condition and topology. « Automation is a very important point. This allows the SA to have self-response to problems and to arrange in a predetermined configuration procedure the topology of the network in few seconds. This cannot be equaled by the best SCADA operating people. Commencing the installation of digital substation control systems requires very few conditions on the electrical network. Existing SCADA can be used because SA can be adapted to their communication protocol Static or electromechanical relays can still be used even if the SA implies digital relays for new installations. Existing substations can be enhanced stepwise, SA systems can easily be connected and coordinated with switchgear placed on the lines and ables 41.1.2 Utility social aspect Substation automation leads to unmanned substa~ tions and thus fewer operating people. This is a fact and may mean a taboo aspect and an obstacle to introduce substation automation systems. On the other hand, it can be a very important advantage in cases when the substations are located far from the operation point. Considering the flexibility of opera ting people, we assume that with a good training and good documentation, average operating people have no problem to operate correctly a digital sub- station automation system, locally or from remote. With the integrated self-diagnostic facility in connec- tion with a centralized maintenance center, just a few maintenance people are necessary. SA makes pre- ventive maintenance obsolete and allows changing {0 “ust in time maintenance” practices with the aid of condition monitoring facilities. In addition, SA means reduced time to design, erect and test substations, Projact teams can be reduced in number because of the fact that substation automa- tion systems are simpler to design, install and test. This means, however, that that the introduction of SA, must be carefully prepared by the utilty. Although the socal consequences are important, the benefits for the utlty have to be given priory. There are less people involved but those need higher qualification and their jobs are more challenging 4.1.1.3 End customer aspect ‘Substation automation systems improve the quality Of service and thus have a positive impact on the relabilty the power supply to the end customer. SA decreases the number of human errors as SCADA people ate enabled by means of digital interlocking schemes to control the complex topology of the power network with higher reliability. Such guided 44.13 334114 34 control decreases the number of operating faults, especially in emergency situations. Precise analyses of fault conditions are processed by the SA The disturbance recorder incorporated allow to detect weak spots in the network that the interrup- tions of power for the end customer are minimized, Automated functions allow the SA to control the levels of voltage, frequency and network stability. The time that is necessary to initiate counter measures is around 200 liseconds. This number has to be com- pared with 5 seconds that is needed by the SCADA people to respond to disturbances. Self-diagnostic included in the SA allows the mainte- nance people to repair very quickly the fauity equip- ment. 4.1.14 Utility business policy The influence of digital control systems on the utility business policy is very significant as SA implies the review of the technical, operating and maintenance policies as well as the financial policy. The technical policy is involved because of changing to SA, tities can lose the control on what will be installed in their substations. Typical problems occur when utlties buy different SA systems under a price consideration only. The cheapest solutions change with the years. Five years later, the utility has seven different suppliers, with seven or more different systems, a lot of spare parts, and big difficulties to manage corectly the difficult situation, when small companies do no longer exist The introduction of SA also means optimization of the substation and reducing the global lifetime cost of the substation. if an utility tries to install a SA without reviewing the design of the substation (civil Figure 4-1 Costibenefit analysis of new HV/MV Substations over 15 years of operation Cost/Benefit Analysis of New HV/MV Substations 100.00 ~ 80.00 60.00 40.00 20.00 0.00 Relative Costs in % 1°23 4 5 6 7 8 eos 9 10 114 12 13 14 15 Years of Operation mmm SCS way Conventional —«—Accumulated benefitsworks, trenches, building, location of the cubides etc) they may have'to pay an extra cost premium of up to 20 %. Operating and maintenance polices have to be re- viewed to exploit the full benefits of SA as well as operating procedures, maintenance periods and repair actions, repair actions. ‘The financial policy has to be changed as the intro: duction of new technologies requires consideration of the costs for the total life cyde of the equipment (Figure 4-1), The cost/benefit analysis of a typical new SA system (here SCS) for a typical HV/MV substations in com: parison with conventional control reveals the follow- ing facts: 1. Lower initial investment costs (-10 %) 2. Lower amortization costs for the frst 3 years 3. Lower maintenance cost during 15 years 4. The accumulated benefits over the assumed 15 years life cycle sum up as return of investment to 160 % of the initial investment cost 4.1.2 Advantages and drawbacks of new technologies 4.1.2.1 Social Aspects The new technologies may reduce the number of people necessary for SA design, erection, test, opera- tion and maintenance, but they also free people to take care for other important business aspects lke quality of services, optimization of the network per- formance, improvement customers interfaces and power system planning, Apart from this, the new technologies improve the knowledge and skills of the People with regard to customer focus. 41.2.2 Financial aspect The new technologies enable utities to earn more money, The global ifetime costs of the computerized substations are lower than conventional. The reliabi- lty is greater and the power interrupts are shorter. But, the implementation of new technologies requir- 5 investments not only because of the financial benefits but also due the fact that the knowledge for maintaining and spares for repairing conventional relays is less and less available, Utiities need to rebuild or rethink their social policy, as well as opera ting and maintenance poles. They need to buy fea~ siblity studies or to make prototype substations. 412 41.2.3 Network and energy management aspect The new technologies allow a better optimization of the network by using Energy Management Systems (EMS) linked with digital substation control systems, Typical examples are: + The integrated substation control systems receive @ command from the operator for load shedding and can exeaute this operation very quickly to safeguard the network stability. «In emergency situations, oad shedding can be initiated by voltage or frequency monitoring devices automatically to counteract wide area disturbances that may caused by cascade tripping, «As all substation control systerns have the same time reference, itis possible to analyze globally the response of the protection schemes of the network and in case of a fault to analyze precisely why, where and when this fault has occurred 4.1.2.4 End customers aspects The new technologies improve the quality of service ‘and power qualty, reduce outage times and increase the satisfaction of final customers. 35413 36 4.1.3 Key success factors for the introduction of SA technology 41.3.1 Basics rules to preserve independence and to succeed One of the most basic rules forall utlties that intend to introduce the SA technology is to stay indepen- dent from vendors and to stay in a position that they have the choice of the equipment. But this indepen- dence has a cost aspect, as an utility cannot afford to have 10 different suppliers for SA systems because of the implications involved with regard to spares, main- tenance and training, Utities need to carefully choose the optimal solution and to buy the best solution to their problem of their problems. AA very important issue that assures independence is the strict rule to accept only systems that are design- ed in accordance with Intemational Standards, prefe- rably with IEC 61850. This is of particular importance for the communication within the substations. IEC 61850 is the only standard that provides an open architecture and assures interoperability with IEDs from various vendors, who offer compliancy with IEC 61850 implemented. In the process of introducing the new technologies, it is highly recommend that utilities start with feasibility studies to elaborate requirement specifications that correspond to their specific needs. For the sake of independence, its recornmended to select two com- petent suppliers only and to ask each of them to pro- duce pilot installations including the complete func- tional and technical specifications, The operating peo- ple should have their specific man-machine interface and the maintenance engineers should obtain the documentation in accordance with their specific documentation style guide. After the pilot installation is available comprehensive factory acceptance tests should be conducted using a primary equipment simulator for product approval Such a product approval procedure should be applied only once to assure that the right and feasi- ble product is received on site. As an utlty primary task to maintain the quality of service rather than to maintain suppliers equipment, utities may prefer to sign 2 maintenance contract with the supplier to keep the SA equipment up to date. Such an approach will ensure successful implementa- tion of the new technology and the required inde- pendence at the same time. It may be cost efficient to sign delivery contracts with the suppliers for several substations over a time pe- riod of 3-5 years. Prices will be reduced and the ut ties teams will not have to spend time on new sub- station control system designs 41.3.2 Find a global commitment inside your utility A lot of different people and disciplines are involved during the introduction of substation automation systems. A good way to success is to involve all the categories of people who will be involved with the new technology, 4.1.3.3 Find a finandial indicator to chose what must be made first The crucial question for an ulilty is whether itis eco- nomically justified to invest in new technology for their substations and when the investment has to be made and to what extent it should be done. A good approach to make this judgment is to evaluate the shortcornings in quality of services. Such shortcomings could indude: «Lack or failure of power generation + Lack or failure of transmission Lack or failure of distribution # Lack or failure of accountingTo evaluate all these parameters is a very complex task and it is suggested to define a single non-per formance factor called “Non Distributed Energy" (NDE) to analyze the shortcomings in service. This NDE is a new unit in the local currency by kWh, which represents the difference of money between the two states of power system: 1, The utility is able to deliver the energy to the end customer and 2. The utility is not able to deliver The valuation of the NDE is a very sensitive action because the NDE is not only the benefit by kWh but indudes all the activities of the utility, For national or state utilities, the NDE will indude the lack of quality ‘of energy, that this factory cannot produce and then cannot grow and cannot pay its people and they can- not use electricity because they cannot pay or buy electric equipment The NDE does not indicate where to invest but indi- cates when and how much to invest. Ths is the frst step. The NDE is also used to sort the projects and give priority between two projects, (The NDE is also a very good parameter to control the level invest- ment in a utility It can be used with great benefit by the management board for financial regulation) But non-qualty of service translated in NDE alone is a poor approach, if we do not consider other parame- ters as well. Level of voltage, frequency, reactive power transfer, number of long and short time inter rupts are important parameters. One part of these parameters is involved in network stability. Therefore utlties use as a more complete approach quality parameters, which are often the time of inter- Tupts coming from the electrical network and stations failures (F-Time) and time of interrupts coming from works on the network and the substation (W-Time). Historical and detailed information of these two para- meters is very important so as to be able to deter- mine where to invest to increase the quality of ser vice, The FeTime parameter has to be- cut in short time <200 ms and long time >= 200 ms (FS-Time and F- Time) because these two kinds of failure do not have the same impact forthe final customer. Generally, FS. Time are not very sensitive for the end customer except if this one uses programmable logic compu- ters without using UPS. FS-Time is coming from fault on the lines (trees, storms, lightning...) and FTime is commonly coming from stations or equipment. Repeatability of non-quality is a very important aspect 100, The situation involved by twenty energy prob- lems a year is more than twice as worst than the situation involved by ten energy problems a year. It seams that the customer disappointment is propor tional to the square of the default number. To eva~ luate ths fact, we propose to use a formula like: Cost=A*E*N'+ B*E* NDE where Ais a utility coefficient in currency E: is the power cut in kWh NN: is the number of faults B: is an utility coefficient NDE: isin currency/kWh with this approach, every utility is able to determine what to invest and when to invest and if we consider the substations, the uty will realize rapidly that the costs that are caused by conventional hardwired sub- station control systems and old protection relays are very significant. 4.1.4 Condusion Moving to substation automation system is an ine: {uctable way but is not done without consequences. Generally, we can find advantages for the end custo- mer, but the way to provide these can be difficult for utlties. Examples from European or North American utiities can not easily be transferred directly to the rest of the world World-wide knowledge is a good guarantee for suc- cess in such an approach. This know-how may be leamed assisted by world-wide active companies but the major part of the thoughts must be done inter- nally. This approach is necessary to avoid great deception and disilusion in the years to come. 414 3743 38 A2 ‘Management and Utilization of Substation Data Dedicated hardware devices for process data record- ing that were previously provided for data retrieval from the control center now become functional modules that are integrated into the IEDs. The RTU merely acts as a gateway to provide access to these data, which are transmitted to the relevant historical data base for storage and processing. These data comprise: ‘* Sequence of event recordings « Disturbance recordings #* Quality of supply measurands « Statistical metering for power system planning purposes ‘Accounting information With these new features an SA system can be provid ed by the most cost effective functions like: ‘System-wide under-frequency load shed- ding: Dedicated IEDs monitor the system volta Ges, currents, frequency and power and are com- municating peer-to-peer on a real time basis over the corporate wide area network (WAN). In case of power generation deficit detected they deter- mine the most suitable location for performing load sheccing on the basis of real time vohage instability studies, power swing predictions and actually measured loads. * Redundant protection and control functions: The introduction of serial communication at process level allows IEDs to share analogue and digital data on a real time basis and to perform mutual back-up functions. An IED acting primarily a5 protection device may incorporate also back-up control functions that are used, if the associated JED for control is faulty. The associated IED for control may have a back-up protection functiona: lty that can be activated automatically, if the pro- tection IED has failed to operate. + Intelligent power system voltage control: The active and reactive power flow in the network can be tracked system wide by means of a dedicated voltage control function. As it knows the position of all transformer tap-changers it can automatically adjust them from remote, and it also can switch capacitor banks, or initiate of load shedding etc. There may stil be some obstades like processing power and speed of a typical WAN/LAN, to apply such new functions but they may become reality in a not too distant future. 4.33 System Performance Aspects In order to assure that the SA system performs ade- quately to conventional systems, the following per- formance related aspects have to be addressed: © Security, reliability, dependability and speed in ‘order to ensure that the protection functionality is not degraded and has highest priority at all times « Flexibility, expandability and forward compatibility with newer systems to ensure that future expan- sion can be accommodated at minimum costs 43.1 Backward compatibility to allow integration with existing systems A. secure control hierarchy and_ corresponding interlocking has to ensure that remote control from the SCADA as well as local control from the substa- tion HMI is safe by verifying the validity of controt actions before execution. Redundancy of equipment and/or functionality has to ensure that a single hardware failure does not expo- se neither the power system nor primary equipment to unsafe and undesirable operating conditions.44 Justification for Substation Automation 4.4.1 Typical Justification Scenarios to large commercial orindustrial (C8) customers. The | 4.4 Most tities today have identified potential benefits future success of many utilities depends on main- available from the implementation of automation to ‘ining their large customers who may be subject to their operations. These benefits generally fall into two —_Stfong market competition. C&l customers typically distinct categories: strategic and tangible. The strate- subsidize reduced residential rates and are therefore Gic benefits result from programs designed to impro-_@ most valued corporate asset ve the customeris perception of quality reliability and ; added value. Tangible benefits are derived from pro- Tangible - The benefit/cost ratio of the application is rams to increase the abilty of the organization to 9%ater than 1 under the assumption of chosen eco work better, faster, and cheaper. Table 4-1 includes nametric model. Tangible benefits of automation examples of benefits falling under these categories, _™ayinclude deferral of planned capacity addition pro- jects, reduced operation and maintenance costs, Many utilities believe that automation of their power Improved functionality, and reduced costs as compar- delivery systems can improve system reliabilty and €4 with conventional non-automated alternative sce lower-operation and maintenance costs if applied _natios. correctly, The following important justification scena- rios are recognized by many utilities as necessary consideration before capital resources can be com- mitted to a spectic substation project 4.42 Perception of Substation Automation Strategic - Automation project must improve power __Untilrecently, automaton in the substation has meant Quality, reliability of service and information available the presence of a SCADA remote terminal unit (RTU) to many utility engineers. A recent Newton-Evans sur- Strategic Benefits Tangible Benefits improved quality of service Reduced manpower requirements Improved reliability Reduced system implementation costs Maintenance/expansion of customer base Reduced operating costs High value service provider Reduced maintenance costs ‘Added value service Ability to defer capacity addition projets Improved customer access to information Improved information for engineering decisions Enterprise information accessibility Improved information for planning decisions Flexible Billing Options Reduced customer outage time Table 4-1 Examples of strategic and tangible benefit 39444 40 vey indicated that RTU would be primary information processing task handler for the majority of those polled (54 %). 35 9 percent indicated the require- ment for a separate processor - other than an RTU, 15 % preferred a PLC-based approach and another 15% indicated a combined approach using both technologies. Approximately 30 % of those surveyed indicated that they had not yet forrned an opinion on the type of substation platform that would be imple- mented, All of these answers ate, of course, right. For the purposes of this book substation automation is defined as a microprocessor based system that inte- grates and processes substation status, analog and control information and communicates with local and/or remote devices. Actual, the capabilities of equipment that qualify under this definition are quite varied, SA systems range from simple RTUs to fully networked PC/PLC systems that manage WANY/LAN input/outputs (V0) and provide advanced services for the substation environment and mainstream distribution automation functions. 4.43 Substation legacy systems and practices Transmission substations have received the lion's share of automation devices in the past because of the importance of their reliability to system opera- tions, Automation devices at these sites include RTUs, fault recorders, sequence of events recorders (SERS), annunciater panels, and a few microprocessor based relays. Input/output (V/0) to these devices is typically via hardwired connections to instrument transformers (via transducers), field and local status contacts, inter- Posing relays, and mimic style control panels. The dominant protective devices are electromechanical relays. The local operator interface is generally a con- trol panel, analog meters, annuncater window boxes, and recording devices of various types. Communication links, other than voice grade tele- phone connections, are typically between transmis- sion subs and master stations via microwave, fiber optic, or dedicated telephone lines using relatively slow data transfer rates from 1200 to 9600 baud. Most distribution substations today have a limited number of IEDs. Many have RTUs, but few have been provided with automated SER fault recording and microprocessor based relay systems. Connectivity is similar to that mentioned above for transmission sub- stations. Maintenance practices at legacy substations involve labor intensive routine on-site manual inspection. Field devices such as circuit breakers, switchgear, transformers and load tap changers are maintained routinely without detailed information on operation of these devices. 444 Opportunities and justifications Many opportunities exist today to design, operate and maintain substations using better, faster and cheaper devices and service methodologies. These effidencies are accomplished by eliminating unneces- sary redundant systems and using microprocessor based controllers to manage information supplied by IEDs. Typically, substation automation passes justification tests under the following conditions. New construction - the substitution of RTUs, mimic style control panels, annunciaters, sequence of events recorders (SERs), fault recorders, cable/conduit systems, and significant control room space with SA reduces the cost of new construction while vastly improving functionality. SA is a “no brainier" for new substations.Significant retrofit or expansion of existing substation - capital projects that add new’ bays, ‘transformers or switchgear can easily incorporate SA retrofit projects cost effectively. Legacy systems can bbe replaced or integrated into the new SA infrastruc- ture. Upgrading the WAN to high speed capabilities such as Ethernet speeds - RTU architectures nor- mally communicating with SCADA master stations at 1200 baud will not be compatible with the high speed data transfer and synchronizing required by modern WANs. New or replacement RTU, annunciaters, sequence of events recorder, fault recorder, or electromechanical relays - the integrated SA plat- form wil include the functions of all these dedicated devices plus an order of magnitude of additional func- tions and all ata significantly reduced price 4AS Benefits of substation automation integration Integrated substation automation systems provide improved benefits in the functionality, design, opera- tion, maintenance and reliability of the substation operating environment. The architectures of most substation automation solutions vary significantly and include smart systems, black box proprietary solu- tions, and open WAN/LAN solutions using off-the- shelf commodities from the PC and PLC marketplace. The following lists categorize and summarize the potential benefits available from a well integrated substation automation architecture using PC HMI, SUbLAN, IED relays, and remote modem access. 4.45.1 Design Benefits « Standardization of the user interface and improved user access. « System architecture standardization for uniformity Cf operation and building SA/DA upgrade paths. + Elimination of unnecessary redundant equipment. + Reduced substation infrastructure including wiring, conduit, wire channels, controltelay panel space and control house size. 445 + Easy upgracabilly using mainstream hardware and software. + Protocol independence. « Distributed computing and communication hub for simplified integration of distribution automation (DA). 4.45.2 Operation Benefits © Uniform HMI for data access. « Interoperability of EDs. « Integrated alarm log and sequence of events reporting. ‘Custom display and reporting capabiity from integrated database ‘© Automatic logging of HMI accesses and operating activities. ‘© Programmed logic for automatic reconfiguration of busses and/or feeders. ‘© Network (peer to peer) messaging between substation server nodes and other WAN nodes. 445.3 Maintenance Benefits ‘© Data for relaying, metering and communication service is available locally or rernotely. ‘¢ Each IED can be directly accessed (locally from the PC HMI or remotely via modem) from ‘easy to use HMI for configuration, setting and diagnostic reporting, « Predictive maintenance is possibie from automatic analysis of equipment operating history. + Supervision and management of transformer, load tap changer, and circuit breaker internal operations optimizes just-in-time maintenance. 4145 42 4454 Reliability Benefits ‘© Uniformity and consistency in HMI operation procedures reduces the chances for operating errors, ‘Integrated and sequenced databases provide accurate information for problem analysis and maintenance # Monitoring of all station equipment ensures that failed equipment is detected and repaired before led upon for service during system disturbances. « Reduced customer outage minutes resulting in improved reliability indices, # Reduced chances for operator switching errors, + Quick isolation of faults and restoration of service to unfaulted feeder sections. 45 Reference 4455 Reduced cost benefits # Reduced costs for new construction. Reduction of unnecessary trips to read alarms, relay targets, and station logs. «Readily accessible relay operation information, fault location data and alarm log for operators will help reduce line patroling and problem investigation time, and thus outage time, # Reduced training costs because of uniforrn database, HMI, customized screen format talored for ease of use. « Integrated database information, comprehensive problem reporting and a future expert system an greatly faditate of maintenance and repair activites, thus reducing costs. # Maintenance scheduling can be strearniined and optimized for a cost effective and efficient program, by using the ad documentation « Distributed computing hub to manage the substation and connected feeder environment + Shared access to the enterprise WAN by SA and DA devices. Ryan Bird - Justifying Substation Automation, Black & Veatch, http//tasnet.com/justa shtrnl5 Primary Equipment in Substations 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1. Condition Monitoring 5.2. Switchgear installations 5.2.1 Classification of switchgear installations 533 Single line diagram and busbar configuration 53.1. Definition of Switchgear 532 Common circuit configurations 533 Special configurations, mainly outside Europe 534 Configurations for load-center substations 5.4 Substation Structure 54.1 Cirauit Breaker Bays/Feeders 542. Bus coupler bays 5.43 Connections of Instrument Transformers 5.5. Switching Equipment 55.1 Grcuit Breakers: 55.11 Circuit Breaker tripping operation 55.1.2 — Requirements for control of circuit breakers 55.121 Phase-discrepancy monitoring 551.22 Anti-pumping control 55.123 Non-stop motor operation 55.124. SFe gas monitoring 55.125 Localremote control 55.126 Energy monitoring 55.127 Autorecosure 55.128 Synchronized switching 5513 Definitions 55.131 Auxiliary switches 55.132 Opening time 55.133 Total break time 55.134 Arcing time 55.135 Closing time 55.136 Operating cycle of circuit breakers 55.137 Monitoring of circuit breakers 55.138 Rapid or autoreclosure 551.4 Ciitical CB parts to monitor 552 Disconnectors and Earthing Switches 553 Switch disconnectors 554 _ Instrument transformers 554.1 Definitions and electrical quantities 5542 — Current transformers: 5542.1 Definitions for current transformers 55.422 Selection of current transformers 5543 Voltage transformers 5543.1 Definitions for voltage transformers 45 45 46 a7 47 4g 51 52 53 53 54 54 57 7 57 57 57 57 57 58 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 59 60 61 61 61 62 62 62 65 65 5 Table of content 4355.432. Inductive voltage transformers 55.433. Capacitive voltage transformers 5.5.44 — Non-conventional transformers 55441 Adive non-conventional transformers 55442. Passive non-conventional transformers 55.443 Cable connection to protection devices 5 55.444 Serial connection to protection devices Table of 555 Innovative HV switchgear technology content 55.5.1 Modem design concepts 5.5.5.1.1 Process electronics (sensor technology, PISA) 5552 Innovative solutions 55.5.2.1 Compact outdoor switchgear installations 55522 Hybrid switchgear installations 556. SF gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) 556.1 General 55.62 SF, gas as insulating and arc-quenching medium 55.63 — Gas Density Monitoring 55.64 Components 55.65 SMAREGIS 557 Surge arrestors 5571 Design, operating principle 55.12 Application and selection of MO surge arresters 558 Transformers 5.5.8.1 Transformer connections 5.6 Voltage and Power Factor Control 56.1. Transformer control and voltage regulation 56.1.1 Change over switches 561.2 — Onload tap changer (OLTO) $61.3 OLTC control $.6.1.3.1 Local control 56.1.3.2 Station and remote control 56.133 Automatic control 562 Power capacitors 562.1 Compensation of reactive power 563 High voltage reactors 563.1 Current limiting reactors 5.63.1. Voltage drop and voltage variation 5.63.1.2. Reactor circuits 5632 Shunt reactors 5.64 FACTS 5.7 Static Var (reactive power) compensation (SVC) 571 Applications 572 Types of compensation 572.1 Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) 572.2 Thyristor switched capacitors (TSG) 5223 Thytistor switched capacitors/thyristor controlled reactor (TSC/TCR) 44 5.8 References 66 67 oy 68 69 69 70 70 70 n ” ” 73 3 B 4 78 76 7 78 78 79 81 82 82 82 82 82 83 83 83 84 84 85 85 85 87 88 90 90 90 90 90 1 925 Primary Equipment in Substations 5.1. Introduction ‘The idea to include this chapier in this book is to pro- vide background knowledge about the primary pro- ess in terms of switchgear installations, various single line diagrams, switching equipment, and modem fle- xible AC transmission systems (FACTS) to readers who have their professional expertise mainly in IT applications or in secondary equipment for control, protection and monitoring. The descriptions of the main primary equipment that is located in distibution and transmission substation, ie * Gicuit breakers ‘* Disconnectors and earthing switches '* Switch disconnectors «Instrument transformers + Innovative switchgear technologies «© SF gas insulated switchgear (GIS) «# Surge arrestors ¢ Transformers, are detailed enough that the interaction between substation control, protection and monitoring can be explained In adcition to this, the attention is drawn to those citical parts of the primary equipment, which are subject to aging and wear. The descriptions of FACTS applications is induded because they are mentioned in Chapter 11 “Wide area protection” as counter measures to maintain power systern integrity in case of the occurrence of mutt: contingencies. 5.111 Condition Monitoring Utiities can save themselves time and money by employing a step-by-step condition-based, rather a purely time-based, maintenance strategy for the pai- mary and secondary equipment. Generally, time-based or usage-based maintenance is a suitable strategy if degradation is gradual and pre- dictable. However, curative maintenance is also requir ed as numerous defects cannot otherwise be pre- vented or detected, In the case of some parts, the possibilty of failure is constant, even if there are very few signs of aging. However, in the longer term, there will always be some kind of degradation process involved, For exemple, in the case of static parts, such a process may take 50 years or more. However, if maintenance is only performed when necessary, based on the condition of the component (condition: based maintenance, or CBM), overall savings on maintenance tasks can be achieved, Indeed, field experience has shown that savings of 20-30 % are possible The condition of @ component is estimated through inspections, diagnostic tests, monitoring systems and (parti) dismantling one or more samples. When app- lying CBM, there must be at least one condition indi cator and proven expertise in the assessment of de- gradation. The key issue is to detect degradation before failure occurs and apply an ‘expert-ule’ to define what will happen next and when, Condition monitoring includes acquisition, recording, processing and visualizing measured quantities to allow early detection of faults in important equipment such as circuit-breakers, power transformers or instru- ment transformers. According to intemational surveys conducted by CIGRE, the operating mechanisms and the electrical control drauits in crcut-breakers are the primary source of serious faults, ie. faiures causing operational disruptions. The most common sources 51 4552 46 of failure are the mechanically actuated parts such as electro-mechanical relays and signaling contacts in the electrical control circuits and in operating mecha- nisms for the primary equipment. In order to increase the internal system reliability the electronic hardware and software is self- monitored. Condition monitoring requires careful evaluation of the large quantities of measured data because only the combination of status acquisition with inteligent assessment procedures results in a knowledgeable diagnosis and initiation of the necessary maintenance steps. Special algorithms for reducing the data and calculating trends are basic for a monitoring sys- tem, The P-F curve for the condition degradation over time (Figure 5-1) represents ie. qualitative connection between the condition of a component and the time. As a result of wear, the fault mechanism starts at a speaifc time t,, ie, the condition deteriorates until time t, when the degradation is detected at point P, which is designated a “potential fault In general, it can be assumed that from this time the state of the system continues to deteriorate, usually with increas ing speed until the fault (point F) actually occurs at time ts. A typical example for such a response is the aging mechanism of oil/paper or plastic insulation or leakage in gas-insulated switchgear installation The objective of condition monitoring is to detect the degradation at point P with suffident assuracy, so there will be sufficient time, to take appropriate action to prevent the fault within the time interval between point P and point F CBM Indicator Starting point of degradation Detection point of degradation 4 4 5 t Figure 5-1. Conehtion degradation over time 5.2 Switchgear installations A switchgear installation contains all the apparatus and auslary equipment necessary to ensure reliable operation of the installation and a secure supply of elecricty. Three-phase AC high-voltage switchgear installations with operating voltages of up to 800 KV are usec for distributing electricity in towns and cities, regions and industrial centers, and also for power transrission, The voltage level employed is determin- ed by the transmission capacity and the short-circuit capacity of the power system Distribusion networks are operated predominantly up to 123 KV. Power ‘transmission systems and ting mains round urban areas operate with 123, 245 or 420 KV, depending on local conditions. Over very large ciscances, extra high powers are also transmitt- ed at 755 KV or by high-voltage direct-current sys- tems. Switchgear installations can be placed indoors or out- doors. $F, gas-insulated switching stations have the importent advantage of taking up little space and being unaffected by pollution and environmental fac tors. Indoor istallations are built both with SF gas-insulat- ed equioment forall volage ratings above 36 KV and also wh conventional, open equipment up to 123 KV, SFe zechnology, requiring very ite floor area and building volume, is particularly suitable for supplying load centers for cities and industrial complexes. This, kind of equipment is also applied in underground installations. Outdoor switching stations are used for all voltage levels from 52 to 765 kV (Figure 5-2). They are built outside cities, usualy at points along the cross-coun- try lines of bulk transmission systems. Switchgear for HVDC applications is also predominantly of the out- door type Transformer stations comprise not only the HV equip- ment and power transformers but also medium- andlow-voltage switchgear and a variety of auxiliary ser- vices. These must additionally be accounted for in the station layout Depending on the intended plant site, the construc tion of a switchgear instalation must conform to IEC requirements, ANS! Standards or particular national codes, The starting point for planning a switchgear installa- tion is its single-tine diagram. This indicates the extent Of the installation, such as the number of busbars and branches, as well as their associated apparatus. The most common Gircuit configurations of high and medium-voltage switchgear installations are shown in the form of single-ine diagrams in chapter 53. 5.2.1 Classification of switchgear installations Switchgear installations in terms of substations are commonly classified by function, which is related to the voltage level. While there are no utility wide stand- ards, typical classifications are as follows: « Distribution (36 - 36 kV): Substations trans- mitting power to the final retail outlet. * Subtransmission (175 - 145 kV): Substations transmitting power to distribution substations. and to bulk retail outlets. mn (725 - 765 kV): Substations trans- mmitting power between major substations of interconnecting systems, and to wholesale out- lets, The voltage levels are further divided into: ‘¢ High voltage (HV): 115 - 245 kV Figure 5-2 220 kV outdoor substation * Extra high voltage (EHV): 300 - 765 kV ‘Ura high voltage (UHV): greater than 765 kV « Direct current systems can be classified as follows: ‘© Low voltage (24 - 250 V): Auxiliary power in power plants and substations, control Gircuits and, occasionally, utlization power in some industrial plants. ‘¢ Medium voltage (300 - 600V): Transportation industry «High voltage (greater than 600V) Long cistance bulk transmission, submarine, and major system interconnections. 5.3 Single line diagram and busbar configuration The busbar configurations for high- and medium-vot- tage switchgear installations are governed by opera- tional considerations. Whether single or multiple bus- bars are necessary will depend mainly on how the systern is operated and on the need for sectional zing, to avoid excessive breaking capacities. Account is taken of the need to isolate parts of the instala- tions for purposes of deaning and maintenance; and also of future extensions. When drawing up a single line-diagram, a great num- ber of possible combinations of incoming and out- going connections have to be considered. The most common ones are shown in the following diegrams. 53 47531 48 5.3.1 Definition of Switchgear symbol Designation | Features -. Disconnector | Mechanical switching device, providing an isolating distance in the open postion. _ itis capable to open or dose a circuit if ether a negigible current is switched or if there is no significant change in voltage between the terminals of the poles Gieuit Breaker | Mechanical switching devices are able to make, carry and interrupt currents under — pt Draw-out Gircuit Breaker normal conditions in the network and cary and close onto currents under speci- fied abnormal conditions in the network, eg, in the case of short circuits Mechanical switching devices 2s above but withdrawable to provide in the open position an isolating distance with the affect that separate disconnectors are not necessary, Link ‘Mechanical link to outgoing or incoming overhead lines or cables (ine feeder) and transformers, reactors respectively (transformer, reactor feeder) ~ Earthing Mechanical switching devices for earthing and short crauiting circuits, They are — switch | capable of canrying currents for a specified time under abnormal conditions, eg. short circuits Current ‘The primary winding is incorporated in the HV line and caries the current flowing om transformers | in the network It has vatious secondary cores for protecuon and metering with 2 rated output of 5 to 60 VA depending on the rated burden at 1 or 5 A. Inductive Inductive voltage transformers are transformers of low output with wich the voltage voltage is proportional to and in phase with the primary voltage. They are used to transformer | transform the HV t6 be measured to a secondary voltage to be fed to measuring and protection devices, eg, primary rated voltage 110 000/V3 V, secondary voltage 110/V3 V. Power The purpose of power transformers isto transfer electrical energy from systerns transformers with one voltage U1 to systems of another voltage U2. Surge arester Surge aresters are used for protection of important equipment against over- voltage particulary transformers, from atmospheric overvoltages due to lightning and switching over-voltages.5.3.2 Common circuit configurations me 532 TTT a oo Tit = ) ) } ) Double busbars in U connection Low-cost, space-saving arrangement for installations Single busbar with double busbars and branches to both sides. Suitable for smaller installations. Sectionalizer allows the station to be split into two separate parts and the parts to be disconnected for maintenance purposes. 0 4 4 ) ) ) Composite double bus/bypass bus This arrangement can be adapted to operational Double busbars requirements. The station can be operated’ with a double bus, or with a single bus pl bus, Preferred for larger installations. Advantages: dearing Wich ig connected to tne ard trersformes feeders, and maintenance without interrupting supPIY. The bus coupler can be used as line circuit breaker via Separate operation of station sections possible fo the bypase bus | and bus I Busbar sectionalzing increases ope- rational flexibiiy 49532 50 42 )\) 7 \ \ . \ I | | Double busbars with draw-out circuit-breaker In medium-voltage stations, dravw-out circuit-breakers reduce downtime when servicing the switchgear, also a feeder disconnector is not necessary. | ih ' ‘ y Lg ep oe Two-breaker method with draw-out circuit- breakers Draw-out circuit-breakers allow to built very econo- rrical medium-voltage stations. There is no need for busbar or feeder isolators and a bus coupler. For sta- tion operation, the draw-out breaker can be inserted in a aubide for either bus | or bus I LY [Ss Prd Double busbars with bypass busbar (US) The bypass busbar is an aditional busbar connected via the bypass branch, Advantage: each branch of the installation can be isolated for maintenance without interrupting supply, with the bus coupler acting as line circuit breaker. + ' Triple (multiple) busbars For vital installations feeding electrically separate net ‘works or if rapid sectionalizng is required in the event of a fault to limit the short-circuit power. This layout is frequently provided with a bypass bus533 Special configurations, mainly outside Europe -_| \\] rs | Double busbars with shunt disconnector Shunt disconnector “SD” can be used to by-pass the CB of each line feeder that it can be maintained with out supply interuption. In shunt operation, the bus coupler CB acs as the line CB. -) , ' ’ ‘Two-breaker method with fixed switchgear Gircuitbreaker, branch disconnector and instrument transformers are duplicated in each branch. Busbar interchange and isolation of one bus is possible, one branch breaker can be taken out for at any time without interrupting operation, oN DeSes APES NAAN A 1f-breaker method Fewer circuit-breakers are needed for the same flexi bility as above. Isolation without interruption. All brea- kers are normally dosed. Uninterupted supply thus maintained even if one busbar fails, The branches can be through-connected by means of linking breaker C 533 ' T T “I CI Cross-tie method With cross-tie disconnector “DT”, the power of line A «an be switched to branch A, bypassing the busbar. The busbars are then accessible for maintenance = | een NN , Ring busbars Each branch requires only one Grcuit-breaker, and yet each breaker can be isolated without interupting the power supply in the outgoing feeders, The ring bus- bar layout is often used as the first stage of 1 Ye-brea- ker configurations. 5153.4 52 5.3.4 Configurations for load-center substations Single-feed station And B = Main transformer station, C = Load-center substation with drcuit-breakers or switch disconnec- toFs (SD). The use of switch-isconnectors instead of Grauit-breakers imposes operational restrictions Wo Double-feed station Ring stations Switch-disconnectors are frequently used in load-center substations for the feeders to cables or transformers. Their use is determined by the operating conditions and economic considerations. “ with circuit-breakers “1 cr =a H connection with switch-disconnectors Lf H connection with three transformersL) Ring main cable connection allowing isolation in all directions 5.4 Substation Structure Overhead line Bay unit and cable bay earthing (GIS) eB! BBI BB! ais eel Bel seu 025 at) \a2 ai\ \a2 — as ao aol as 7 oss oss (QO: Gircuit breaker, Q1, Q2: Busbar disconnectors, 25,08, Q15, Q25: Earthing switch, SA: Surge Arrester, T: Transformer, G: Generator, GB: Generator breaker (designation numbers according to DIN) Line and cable bay. The earthing switch Q8 eliminates capacitive charges and provides protection against atmospheric charges on overhead lines. Simple ring main cable connection I Cable loop 5.4.1 Circuit Breaker Bays/Feeders Circuit breaker bays are structural elements for feed- ing, distributing and interconnection of the power flow. Transformer Generator Bay Bay ao¥_ as gov 08 " aH — SA SA T T Stationary unit earthing switches are used in SF; gas insulated switchgear (GIS) to provide temporary earth ing to avoid danger in case of maintenance, Transformer bay. Feeder disconnectors are usually not provided because the transformer is disconnected at both high voltage and low voltage sides. The earth- ing switch Q8 is recommended for maintenance work 54 53543 54 5,42 Bus coupler bays in the configurations in chapter 5.4.1, the tie-breaker branches are shown in a simple form. Experience shows, however, that more complex coupling arrange- ments are usually needed in order to meet practical requirements concerning secutty of supply and the necessary flexibilty when switching over or cis- connecting Division into two bays is generally required in order to accommodate the eauipment for the breaker bran- ches. BBI BBI BBI an BB IL BBIL BBII a2 a2 Qt Q2 a a2za1) )az at) )azat )a2 Qo Qo Qo Bus Coupler Bus Sectionalizer 6 Tie Bus Coupler 5.43 Connections of Instrument Transformers 8B! The instrument transfor- TT Bll mers are usually placed beyond the circuit-breaker QO, with voltage transfor- mer TS after curent trans- former T1. This is the cor- rect arrangement for syn- chronizing purposes. Some 1S kinds of operation require te, the voltage transformer a beyond the bay dis- connectors, direct on the cable or overhead line, and Sectionalizer If the instrument transformers cease to function ‘when the bypass is in operation line protection of the branch must be provided by the instrument transfor mers and protection relays of the bypass. This is pos- sible only if the ratios of al instrument transformers in all bays are approximately equal. The protection relays of the bypass must also be set for the appro- ptiate values. Maintenance of the bay instrument transformers is easier and can be done during bypass operation. If capacitive voltage transformers are used which also act as coupling capacitors for a high- frequency telephone link, this link is similarly inopera- tive in the bypass mode5.5 Switching Equipment 5.5.1 Gircuit Breakers High-voltage circuit-breakers are mechanical switch- ing devices capable of making, canying continuously and breaking electrical currents, both under normal Gircuit conditions and, for a limited period, abnormal Circuit conditions, such as in the event of a short cr cuit. Circuit breakers are used for switching overhead lines, cable feeders, transformers, reactor coils and capacitors. They are also used in bus ties and in instal- lations with multiple busbars to allow power to be transmitted from one busbar to another. formers (ABB) in air insulated substation (AIS) Spedally designed breakers are used for specific duties such as railways, where they have to ex- tinguish longer-burning arcs (longer half-wave) in 16 2/3-Hz networks. Breakers used with smelting fur- naces frequently operate with reduced actuating force and lower breaking capacity. This leads to less wear in spite of the high switching frequency and to long service intervals 5.5.1.1 Circuit Breaker tripping operation Circuit breakers (CB) use the energy of an electric arc for short circuit current interuption as explained in Figure 5-4 Shortly after energizing the tripping coll the main contact starts to travel with very high speed from its dosed position (1) into its open position (4). The arc starts burning as soon as the fixed and moving contacts separate (2) and continues to bum until the short circuit current (|) becomes zero (3). The very high arc temperature (10000 °K) causes the arc quenching medium, which may be oil, compressed air of SFe gas, to become fully ionized plasma and to generate a very high blasting pressure. This effect is used to cool the arc down (self blasting principle) and to accelerate the moving contact (single pressure breaker) The plasma is conductive and makes the current flow to continue. Ifthe travel distance of the main contact is long enough at the zero point of the current and if the arc has been cooled down to the extent that the dielectric strength of the arc quenching medium has regained its insulating withstand capabiliy between the open contact, the transient recovery voltage ‘occurring across the open contact. cannot re-ignite the arc. The CB has successfully tripped the short cir- cuit current The decision whether the current can be interrupted or notis made at the citical contact position (3). the 5, wu 5 a5.5.1.1 distance between the contact opening is not big enough at current zero then the current is interrupted at the next current zero point after another 20 ms, This means that the arcing time can vary between approx. 15 and 35 ms depending on the contact separation in relation the proximity to the next current zero point. ‘Are quenching chamber with fxed and moving contact 56 imma @ ® ® Separation Intermediate Figure 5-4 AC current interruption process There are mainly four critical factors that determine the interrupting capability of a circuit breaker: 1. Contact speed provided by the CB operating mechanism, which may be a spring drive, or a hydraulic drive, or a combined spring/nydraulic drive, or a compressed air drive in case of an air blast CB. 2. Blasting pressure provided by the arc quenching medium and the shaping of the fixed contact nosel 3, Magnitude of fault current 4, Magnitude and rate of rise of the transient recovery voltage The first two critical factors are related to the CB ope- rating condition, and the third and fourth factors are related to the fault and network condition wy cc Mae contact o_o son contac Figure 5-5 Short circuit current interruption The process of the short circuit current interuption (Figure 5-5) starts wth the contact separation at tp. AS long as the short Grcuit current |, continues to flow the voltage occurring over the open contact is the voltage drop across the arc Usa. AS soon as the arc extinguishes at t; because of the fact that the driving current |, has reached its zero point, the transient recovery voltage U, appears across the open contact with a fast rise, high amplitude and frequency. The high values of transient recovery voltage last for approximately 3 ms only (E) until the low frequency recovery voltage Us appears (5). Voltage level and frequengy of the transient recovery voltage are influence by the line inductance (L,) and line capacitance (C). Circuit breakers are subject to a number of switching duties depending on location and network conditions with varying characteristics of the transient recovery voltage. The most important ones are: «Short circuit current interruption «© Shortine faults interruption © Out-of-phase switching + Small inductive current switching in connection with transformers disconnected from the load ‘© Capacitor current switching in connection with capacitor banks.5.5.1.2 Requirements for contro! of circuit breakers 5. 1 Phase-discrepancy monitoring Breakers with a single-pole operating mechanism are equipped with phase-discrepancy monitoring to assure that all three poles have closed after the com- pletion of a dosing operation. f one or two poles have remained in the open position, the monitoring detects this phase discrepancy and, after a preset waiting time of about 2 seconds, a tripping of the dlos- ed poles is initiated 5.5.1.2.2 Antipumping control The anti-pumping control prevents repeated, un desied operation of one or more breaker poles if an existing OFF command is followed by several ON commands, They must then dase only once followed by a lockout, ie. it must remain in the OFF position regardless of whether and how long control com- mands are applied. 5.5.1.2.3 Non-stop motor operation Depending on the design and the type of switching cycle performed, the pump or the compressor requir es a specific period to restore the consumed energy. If there is a leak in the system, the motor will run more often or will run continuously. Continuous run- ning is detected and reported as a fault. 5.5.1.2.4 SF, gas monitoring The breaking capacity of a gas-insulated circuit-brea- ker is dependent on the gas density in the breaker chamber. This is measured by a temperature-com- pensated pressure gauge. If the gas pressure falls below a specified value, an alarm is triggered, and if it falls further below @ second spezified value the breaker is blocked 5.5.1.2.5 Local/remote control To allow work on the breaker, it an generally be con- trolled from the local control cubicle; control can be switched from remote to local by a selector switch. 5.5.1.2.6 Energy monitoring The air or oll pressure is monitored and controlled in pneumatic and hydraulic operating mechanisms by a multiphase pressure switch. The pressure switch has the following functions: «# Control of compressor or pump motor © OFF blocking, ON blocking, autoreclosure blocking, dependent on available pressure. A pressure control is not required for spring mecha- nisms, They have a gate control, which monitors and controls the tension of the spring (spring travel) as measure of available energy for tripping and closing operation. A dosing operation is only enabled if there is enough energy stored to allow a tripping opera~ tion immediately after dosing onto a fault without the need to recharge the spring. 5.5.1.2.7 Autoreclosure ‘A single- or three-pole autoredosure is selected de- pending on the type of power system earthing, the degree of interconnection, the length of the ines and the amount of infeed large power plants, The trip commands of the network protection (overcurrent and line protection, are accordingly evaluated diffe- rently forthe tripping action of the breaker. Gireuit-breakers for three-pole autoredlosure_ only require one common mechanism with one actuation gylinder, allowing one Open-Close-Open operating cycle without recharging the operating mechanism, 5.5.1.2 5755.128 58. For single-pole autoredosure, these breakers have a hydraulic spring mechanism with three actuation cylinders, which are controlled separately. This allows any pole to be tripped independently, Power is fed to the three poles from one power unit. Single phase autoredlosure is intended to trp short-time faults and restrict them in time and without allowing larger systern units to fail for any length of time. Single-pole tripping improves network stability and prevents the network from going out of phase. At the same time, breakers with single-pole autoredosure can be ope- rated as three-pole autoreclosure by opening and closing the three poles together. Gircuit-breakers with separate poles and single-pole actuation are equally suited for single-pole and three- pole autoredosure. 5.5.1.2.8 Synchronized switching Gircuit breakers operation in high voltage networks can be sometimes the source of undesirable transient ovenvoltage and overcurrents. This is particularly true for reactive load switching, eg, shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, unloaded power transformers and un- loaded transmission lines. High switching transients «an ether exceed the maximum permissible values causing the protection devices to respond or endan- ger the fong term endurance of the HV switching equipment in the network, The traditional measures to limit the switching over- voltages and overcurrents has been the application of surge arresters to protect transformers against over- voltages as well as dosing and opening resistors, which were assodated with the circuit breakers to switch no-load lines, no-load transformers and capa- itor banks, Synchronized switching of crcut-breakers, in which every breaker pole is synchronously actuated by a suitable control unit at the instantaneous value of the current or the phase-to-earth voltage, are becoming increasingly important as a substitute for dosing and opening resistors. Examples of applications of syn- dhronized switching include dosing overhead lines under no load without closing resistors, shunt re: actors and switching capacitor banks in transmission networks. The graph in Figure 5-6 shows how synchronous switching is performed for switching shunt reactors. Votage characterise Voltage withstand characterise correspond £0 lg, Arcing time window fer Teansiet recovery synctronizes watage without Switching ‘sychronized }) etching ‘Tepping impulse sewer ‘Sen “terion vim tate tL| Tage forcontact ©B.Opening ewe Sparaion Figure 5-6 Synchronized switching with shunt reactors The interruption of shunt reactor curent, which is very small compared to rated interrupting current of the CB, normally leads to current chopping before current zero, This develops high overvoltages in the shunt reactor, These may exceed the voltage with- stand characteristic and cause re-ignitions of the cir uit breaker and produce steep transiertt recovery voltages. Such transients cause aging of the reactor winding insulation. if the tripping impulse is synchro- nized such that the CB contacts separate within the arcing time window and the current is interrupted exadlly at current zero (+/-some ms tolerance) such voltage transients are avoided5.5.1.3 Definitions 5.5.1.3.1 Auxiliary switches ‘Auxiliary switches are devices, or parts of devices, in or on switchgear apparatus, which are mechanically dependent of the latter. For safety reasons they indi: ate the position of the switchgear with complemen- taty pairs of contacts, one in the normally open (NO) and the other one in normally closed (NC) position 5.5.1.3.2 Opening time The interval of time between the instant the auxiliary contact release or the contactor pertaining to the switching device attains its operating value and the instant the main contact separates to open the cur- rent path in all poles (Figure 5-7), 5.5.1.3.3 Total break time The interval of time between the instant the auxiliary contact release or the contactor pertaining to the switching device attains its operating value and the termination of current flow in al cicuit breaker poles 5.5.1.3.4 Arcing time The interval of time between the arc initiation upon the separation of first pole to open and the arc extin- guishing after the termination of the current flowy in the last pole (Figure 5-4). 5.5.1.3.5 Closing time The interval of time between the pick-up of the auxi- liary release circuit or contactor pertaining to the switching device attains its operating value and the instant the main contacts voltage close the current path in all poles (Figure 5-7). 5.5.1.3.6 Operating cycle of circuit breakers Gircuit breaker operating mechanisms have provisions Tor energy storage in terms of mechanical springs, air pressure or nitrogen pressure in the case of hydraulic drives to conduct duty cydes of dose and open ope- rations. As a general safety rule it has to be assured that the stored energy must allow an open operation after a dosing operation without the need to re- charge the energy. For spring operating mechanism, which may have separate springs for dosing and ‘opening operations, this means that one OCO cyde must be assured without the need to rewind the opening spring after the closing operation. The follow- ing duty cydes are standard requirements. 55.13 Nominal operating cycle without autoredosure 0-t-CO-t-CO Nominal operating cycle with autoreclosure O-ty-CO-t-CO * 0 = Opening operation * C= Closing operation # CO = Closing operation followed by an opening ‘operation in the shortest make-break time characteristic of the circuit breaker # t= Time interval depends on the experience an ultlty has made with the self-extinguishing time of arcs against earth on specific overhead HV lines that are caused by lightning strokes. This time is approx. 3 minutes. During this time itis alowed to recharge the energy storage. ‘© to= Minimum dead time as itis stated by the circuit breaker manufacturer (03 s +/-10 %). 5.5.1.3.7 Monitoring of circuit breakers Reliability of high-voltage circuit breaker (CB) is cru- dial for the electric power system. Although circuit breaker manufacturers are continuously working on new features and improvements to extend the lfe- time of CBs, cost effective maintenance is sil one of the major issues when discussing CB performance, life cyde costs and reliability. Some estimations indi- cate that more than half of the total substation main- tenance costs are spent on CBs, and 60 % of that is spent on disassembly, overhaul, re-assernbly and re- commissioning 5955.14 60 Various diagnostic methods have been suggested over the years that the costly maintenance can be related to actual CB condition rather than to the ser: vice time or switching duty, The objective is to avoid unnecessary maintenance and waste of money, These diagnostics are based on offline measure- ments of main contact resistance, timing and tra- velWvelociy, and operating coil currents. More sophi sticated methods are measurements of contact acce- leration, dynamic resistance measurements and vibra- tion testing, Such tests are well known and widely used for periodic or preventive maintenance. Online monitoring of CBs is very rarely used because of the rather high expenses for sensors, evaluation equipment and communication, despite of the fact that approx. 10 % of circuit breaker problems and fai- lures are attributed to improper maintenance. Online condition monitoring could, however, eliminate too early or unnecessary offine testing and overhauls and make “Just in-time” maintenance possible. Such cost issues appear in a different light if IEDs, which are to be installed for numerical protection and/or control anyway, are also utiized to collect data from online measurements rather than to install a separate condition monitoring system on each CB. Some of the measurements, which are recorded by the digital faut recorders integrated in the protection relays, can be used for diagnostics to judge the wear 5.5.1.4 Critical CB parts to monitor of CB main contacts and arc quenching chambers Using the infrastructure of a Substation Automation System, CBs can be monitored continuously from remote at very litle extra costs. The associated CB monitoring software shall feature the ability to indicate the need for maintenance, which will extend maintenance qdes, avoid un- necessary maintenance, and enhance the reliability of CBs. It shall recognize and report incipient CB opera tion or maintenance problems before they become critical. This will ive the user the chance to conduct preventive maintenance only if needed rather than scheduled, or forced outage basis. This strategy resuits not only in cost saving for maintenance but abso in increase of the availabilty of transmission lines. 5.5.1.3.8 Rapid or auto-reclosure Is employed to interrupt faults of short duration, especially in overhead transmission networks: eg. for- eign bodies (birds, branches) between the lines, contact between sagging lines due to high winds, presence of earth fauits or atmospheric overvoltages. Ifthe fault persists after auto-reclosure cycle that has been initiated by means of appropriate relay logic the affected line or section is definitely isolated from the network, Fault statistics reveal the following citical CB components: Cause of Failure Disturbance | Malfunctioning Operating mechanism i eee 394 % ‘Mechanical fauts with power transferfnterupting chamber | 104% =| 39% ‘Dielectric fauits of the interpting chamber or insulation toearth | 139% | 09% Control and auxilary components [285% 102% SF, Leakage (with SF, CBs only) | 2D 396%From this fault statistic itis apparent that the monito- ring of the following components contributes to the prevention of faults © Operating mechanism functioning ‘Arc interruption chamber, wear of nozzles and contacts * Main contact movement, switching times and contact travel speed © Control circuitry The majority of data, which are needed for mechani- al performance monitoring, can be acquired from digital fault recorders, which are integral part of numerical protection relays (Figure 5-7). Sets (on cee See 3 ~~ ain contact closing travel q | ge tai contat paring wave TH mi Tee fa) fT sestesece | ee [etepemnantel i [cB closing time | 1 Tamar contact 8, ery clase Figure 5-7 Circuit breaker mechanical performance monitoring 5.5.2 Disconnectors and Earthing Switches Disconnectors are used for galvanic isolation of net- works or sections of switchgear installations. As an independent airinsulated device, they form a visible isolating distance in their open position. They are sui- table for switching small currents (<05 A) distance or also larger currents, if the voltage does not change significantly between the contacts of a disconnector pole during switching (commutation currents). During opening, disconnectors generate a lot of low energy discharges between the contacts that open slowly, called sparking. This creates high frequency radio noises, that may cause electromagnetic interfe: rence (EM. Disconnectors can cary currents under operating conditions continuously and under abnormal condi- tions, such as short circuit, for a specified time (1s, 39). More than 10 different designs are in use around the world. The most important are rotary disconnectors, two-column vertical break disconnectors and single- colurnn disconnectors. Earthing switches are used for earthing and short- Grauiting de-energized station components. Earthing switches can withstand currents during a specified time (1's, 3s); under abnormal conditions, such as a short circuit, but they are not required to carry conti ‘nuous operating currents 5.5.3 Switch disconnectors High-voltage switch disconnectors are switching devices that make, cary and break operating currents and also carry and in part also make short-circuit cur- rents. In their isolating open position, they also form an isolating distance. These devices are used as follows: + Tiansformer switches for smaller power supplies in the distribution network for switching magnetizing currents and commutation currents (eg, 100 A at up to 25 KV voltage difference) when changing ‘transformers or the power supply, « Line switches at one end of an overhead line ‘e Busbar section switches + Switches for short cable length (1c-<3A) 5.54 Instrument transformers Instrument transformers are used to transform high voltages and currents to values that can be unified or measured safely with low intemal losses. With induc- tive current transformer (CT) the primary winding car- ries the load current, while with voltage transformers (V1), the primary winding is connected to the service voltage. The voltage or the current of the secondary winding is identical to the value on the primary 554 6155.42 62 side in phase and ratio except for the transformer error. Current transformers operate almost under short-circuit conditions while votage transformers operate at no-load, Primary and secondary sides are nearly always electrcaly independent and galvanical- ly insulated from one another as required by the ser- vice voltage. Above a service voltage of 110 ky, instru- ment transformers are frequently manufactured as combined curent and voltage transformers In modem substation automation systems, current and voltage transformers can be replaced by sensors They offer the same accuracy as conventional instru- ment transformers but due to the lack of an iron core they are not subject to magnetic saturation effects. The output signal, A/D-converted, is strckly proper- tional to the primary current or voltage and process- ed by the digital bay control and protection unit 5.5.4.1 Definitions and electrical quantities A distinction is made between CT cores for measure- ‘Ment purposes that are used to connect instruments, meters and similar devices and transformers for pro- tection needs for connection of protection devices Instrument transformers are dassified according to their measurement predsion and identified accor- dingl. They are used as shown in the table below: 5.5.42 Current transformers The primary winding is incorporated in the fine and carties the current flowing in the network. ft has various secondary cores. The current transformers are designed to cany the primary current with respect to magnitude and phase angle within preset error limits The main source of transmission errors is the magnet- izing current. To ensure that this and the resulting transmission errors remain small, the current transfor- mers without exception are fitted with high-grade core magnets. The core material are made of high alloy rikelron. In special cases, cores with an air gap are used to influence the behavior of a transformer core in the event of transient processes. Depending on the design of the primary winding, current transformers are divided into single-tum transformers and wound-type transformers. Single- turn transformers are designed as outdoor inverted- type transformers, straight-through transformers, slip- over and bar transforrners. Wound-type transformers are bushing transformers, post-type transformers and miniature transformers and also outdoor post-type and tank transformers with oil paper insulation. 5.5.4.2.1 Definitions for current transformers Primary rated current: the value of the primary current that identifies the current transformer and for which itis rated * Secondary rated current: the value of the secondary current that identifies the current trans- former and for which itis rated Application IEC Class ANSI Class Precision measurements and calibration 04 03 Accurate power measurement and tariff metering 02 03 "aiff metering and accurate measuring instruments —=S«|=SOSSSt*«d*SC« industrial meters: voltage, current, power, meters 1 2 ‘Ammeters or voltmeters, overcurrent or voltage relays | 12 a Current transformer cores for protection Gt