Classification & Significance of Test Methods of Petroleum Products

DR. MURUKAN B.& MSPD RAJ

COCHIN LABORATORY
IRUMPANAM

Test method of Petroleum & its finished products are broadly classified as follows

1. APPEARANCE (Visual, Colour, Particulate Contamination)

2. COMPOSITION (Acidity, Aromatics, Olefins, Sulfur)
3. VOLATILITY ( Density, Distillation, Vapour Pressure, Flash Point /Fire Point)
4. COMBUSTION (Antiknock Quality (Ron / Mon), Ignition Quality (Cetane No), Burning Quality (Calorific
Value))
5. FLUIDITY ( Viscosity, Viscosity Index, Penetration)
6. STABILITY (Induction Period, Gum Content)
7. CHANGE OF STATE (Freezing Point ,Pour Point, Cloud Point, Drop Point For Grease, Softening Point)
8. CORROSIVITY (Total Sulphur, Doctor Test, Acidity / Alkalinity, Copper / Silver Corrosion)
9. OTHERS (Ash / Sediments/ Carbon Residue, Asphaltenes, water Tolerance Metal Content,
Benzene/Aromatics, Olefins/PAH)

Significance of test methods

ACIDITY
ACIDITY INORGANIC (P 2, D 664, IP 182, ISO 6619)
ACIDITY TOTAL (P 2, D 974, IP 139, ISO 6618)
Acids can be present in petroleum product due to either acid treatment during the refining process or to
naturally occurring organic acids. It's unlikely that significant acid contamination will be present because of many
check tests made during the refining process. In any case these trace acid quantities are undesirable because of the
possibility of metal corrosion and impairment of water separation characteristics of the fuel. Acidity is expressed in
mg KOH /g

ANILINE POINT (P 3, D 611, IP 2, and ISO 2977)

The aniline point is the lowest temperature at which the fuel is miscible with an equal volume of aniline and
is inversely proportional to the aromatic content. High Aniline point indicates that the fuel is highly paraffinic and
hence has a high diesel index and very good ignition quality. In the case of high aromatics, the aniline point of the
sample will be low and have poor ignition quality. The diesel index is derived from the API gravity and aniline point

ASH CONTENT (P 4, D 482, IP 4, ISO 6245)

SULFATED ASH (P 4, D 874, IP 163, ISO 3987)
Ash is the organic matter-free (or carbonaceous matter free) residue that remains after combustion of a fuel
oil at a specified high temperature. This gives an idea about the ash forming impurities, mostly metallic or inorganic

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contaminant in the fuel. The ash-forming constituents in distillate fuel are typically so low that they do not adversely
affect gas turbine performance, unless such corrosive species as sodium, potassium, lead, or vanadium are present.
Ash in a petroleum product can result from oil or water soluble metallic compounds or from extraneous solids such as
dirt and rust. Ash test method is not valid for petroleum products containing ash forming additives, including certain
phosphorus compounds, or lubricating oils containing lead, or used engine crankcase oils. In certain distillate oils
also all of the ash forming metals may not be quantitatively retained in the ash and in all such cases sulfated ash
should be used.

ASPHALTENE CONTENT (D 6560, IP 143)

Percentage by mass of wax free material present in a sample which is insoluble in n-heptane but soluble in
hot benzene is called Asphaltene content of the sample. The asphaltene fraction is the highest-molecular-weight,
most complex fraction in petroleum. The asphaltene content gives an indication of the amount of coke that can be
expected during exposure to thermal conditions. Asphaltenes in crude oils may give problems during storage and
handling if the suspension of asphaltene molecules is disturbed through excess stress or incompatibility. They are
also the last molecules in a product to combust completely, and thus may be one indicator of black smoke
propensity. Their composition normally includes a disproportionately high quantity of the sulfur, nitrogen, and metals
present in the crude petroleum or petroleum product.

AROMATIC & OLEFINS OR COMPOSITIONAL INFORMATION (P 23, D 1319, IP 156, ISO 3837)
Information on the total volume % of saturates, olefins, aromatics helps the refiner in controlling the blending
ratio of different streams and also important to assess the quality of fuel. Gasoline-range olefinic hydrocarbons
contribute to photochemical reactions in the atmosphere, which result in the formation of photochemical smog in
susceptible urban areas hence quantitative determination of olefins in spark ignition engine fuels is required by
government regulations at some places. Knowledge of the total olefin content also provides a means to monitor the
efficiency of catalytic cracking processes. Aromatic content is a key property of low-boiling distillates such as naphtha
and gasoline because the aromatic constituents influence a variety of properties including boiling range, viscosity,
stability, and compatibility with a variety of solutes.

BURNING TEST (P 5, D 187, IP 10)

Kerosene can vary widely in its burning quality as measured by carbon deposition, smoke formation, and
flame radiation. This is a function of hydrocarbon composition. The burning test covers the qualitative determination
of the burning properties of kerosene to be used for illuminating purposes such as kerosene oil used in lamps,
domestic cookers, railway signal lamps, etc.
BROMINE NUMBER (D 1159, IP 130, ISO 3839)
Bromine Number is the grams of bromine that will react with 100 g of the sample under the test conditions. It
is used as a measure of aliphatic unsaturation in petroleum samples, and as percentage of olefins in petroleum

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distillates boiling up to approximately 315°C. The magnitude of bromine number is an indication of the quantity of
bromine- reactive constituents, not an identification of constituents. Usually fuel oil containing unsaturated
hydrocarbons has a greater tendency to form sediment on aging than the straight-run fuel oils.

CALORIFIC VALUE (GCV &NCV)

By Bomb (P 6, D 240, IP 12)
By calculation (P 7, D 4868)
Provides information on heat producing capacity of the fuel. The heat of combustion is a direct measure of
fuel energy content and is determined as the quantity of heat liberated by the combustion of a unit quantity of fuel
with oxygen in a standard bomb calorimeter. A high calorific value is obviously desirable in oil used for heating
purposes. The calorific value of residual fuel oil is lower than that of lower-boiling fuel oil because of the lower atomic
hydrogen-to-carbon ratio and the incidence of greater amounts of less combustible material, such as water and
sediment, and generally higher levels of sulfur. The empirical calculation is based on the correlation between heat of
combustion and density, sulfur, water, and ash content of the fuel sample.
GCV: It is the quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass of fuel is burned in oxygen at constant volume, the
products of combustion being Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen, Sulphur- dioxide and water.
NCV: It is the quantity of heat liberated when unit mass of fuel is burned in oxygen, the products of combustion being
carbon-dioxide and Nitrogen. This value may be expressed either at constant pressure or constant volume.
CALCULATION

Qv = 12400 – 2100 d2, ( Qv = Gross Calorific Value, cal/gm & d = Density at 15 deg. C)

Q p = qv – H(WL –C)
H = Hydrogen content , H = 26 -15 d, d = Specific gravity of the sample
W = No of grams of water formed per gram of Hydrogen (Equal to 9), L = latent Heat of vaporization of water (=Equal
to 585), C = Correction factor for change in volume from initial to final products. (Equal to 220)

HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF FUEL CORRECTED FOR SULPHUR, WATER AND ASH CONTENT

Qv (Gross) = qv-0.01qv(W+A+S) + X(S)

Qp (Net) = qp-0.1qp(W+A+S) =X(S) - Y(W)
(X = 22.5 when Q is expressed in cal/gm, Y = 5.85 when Q is expressed in cal/gm)

CARBON RESIDUE (CCR, RCR & MICRO METHOD)

The carbon residue value of burner fuel serves as a rough approximation of the tendency of the fuel to form
deposits in vaporizing pot- and sleeve-type burners. Similarly, provided alkyl nitrates are absent, the carbon residue
of the diesel fuel correlates approximately with combustion chamber deposits. The carbon residue value of motor
oils, while once considered useful, is now considered to be of doubtful value because of the presence of additives in
many oils. The carbon residue of gas oil is useful as a guide in the manufacture of gas from gas oil and residue value
of crude oil residuums, cylinder and bright stocks, are useful in the manufacture of lubricants.

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CONRADSON CARBON RESIDUE- CCR ( D 189, IP 13, ISO 6615)
This test method covers the determination of the amount of carbon residue left after evaporation and
pyrolysis of an oil, and is intended to provide some indication of relative coke forming propensities. This test method
is generally applicable to relatively nonvolatile petroleum products, which partially decompose on distillation at
atmospheric pressure. Petroleum products containing ash-forming constituents will have an erroneously high carbon
residue, depending upon the amount of ash formed.

RAMSBOTTOM CARBON RESIDUE-RCR (P 8, D 524, IP 14, ISO 4262)

This test method is generally applicable to relatively non-volatile petroleum products which partially
decompose on distillation at atmospheric pressure. The values obtained by this method are not numerically the same
as those obtained by Test Methods D 189 or D 4530.

MICRO METHOD (D 4530, IP 398, ISO 10370)

The test results are equivalent to those by Conradson Carbon Method, however, this test method has the
advantage of better control of test conditions, smaller samples, and less operator attention. Up to twelve samples can
be run simultaneously. This test method is applicable to petroleum products that partially decompose on distillation at
atmospheric pressure and was tested in the carbon residue range of 0.10 to 30 m/m %

ASPHALTENE CONTENT ( D 6560, IP 143)

The carbon residues of petroleum and petroleum products serve as an indication of the propensity of the
sample to form carbonaceous deposits (thermal coke) under the influence of heat. Tests for Conradson carbon
residue, Ramsbottom carbon residue, the micro carbon residue, and Asphaltene content are sometimes included in
inspection data on petroleum. The data give an indication of the amount of coke that will be formed during thermal
processes as well as an indication of the amount of high-boiling constituents in petroleum.

CLOUD POINT ( P 10, D 2500, IP 219, ISO 3015)

The cloud point is the temperature at which a cloud of wax crystal first appears in a liquid when it is cooled
under conditions prescribed. Expressed as multiple of 1°C. The cloud point is an indicator of the lowest temperature
of the utility of oil for certain applications, and it is usually higher than the pour point. This information is significant for
oils to be used at low temperatures, where precipitation of wax might affect the performance of the oil

COLD FILTER PLUGGING POINT -CFPP (P 110, D 6371, IP 309)

Cold filter plugging point is suitable for estimating the lowest temperature at which diesel fuel will give
trouble-free flow in certain fuel systems. CFPP is applicable to distillate fuels including those containing a flow-
improving or other additive intended for use in diesel engines and domestic heating installations.

COLD TEST/ FREEZING POINT (P 11, D 2386, IP 16, ISO 3013)

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 The freezing of an aviation fuel is an index of the lowest temperature of its utility for certain applications.
Solid hydrocarbon crystals can restrict the flow of fuel in the fuel system of the aircraft. The temperature of the fuel in
the aircraft tank normally decreases during flight depending on aircraft speed, altitude, and flight duration. The
freezing point of the fuel must always be lower than the minimum operational fuel temperature also the petroleum
blending operations require precise freezing point measurements.
COLOUR
Determination of the color of petroleum products is used mainly for manufacturing control purposes and is
an important quality characteristic since color is readily observed by the user of the product. In some cases the color
may serve as an indication of the degree of refinement of the material. When the color range of a particular product is
known, a variation outside the established range may indicate possible contamination with another product. However,
color is not always a reliable guide to product quality and should not be used indiscriminately in product
specifications. Several color scales are used for determination:

ASTM COLOR (D 1500, IP 196, ISO 2049)

This test method covers the visual determination of the color of a wide variety of petroleum products such as
lubricating oils, heating oils, diesel fuel oils, and petroleum waxes

GARDNER COLOR (D 1544)

This test method covers the measurement of the color of transparent liquids by means of comparison with arbitrarily
numbered glass standards. It applies to drying oils, varnishes, fatty acids, polymerized fatty acids, and resin solutions

PLATINUM-COBALT COLOR (D 1209)

This test method describes a procedure for the visual measurement of the color of essentially light colored liquids. It
is applicable only to materials in which the color-producing bodies present have light absorption characteristics nearly
identical with those of the platinum-cobalt color standards used.

SAYBOLT COLOR (P 14, D 156)

This test method covers the determination of the color of refined oils such as undyed motor and aviation gasoline, jet
propulsion fuels, naphtha and kerosene, and, in addition, petroleum waxes and pharmaceutical white oils. For
determining the color of petroleum products darker than Say bolt Color −16

CH Ratio
Combustion energy for carbon is 393.5 kJ per mole and of hydrogen is 285 kJ per mole. eqn. of combustion of
hydrocarbons is: CxHy + (x+y/4)O2 = xCO2 + y/2H2O and C has 12 times mass than H so the proportion which
gives more energy per mole and has less molecular weight makes a better fuel.
The Carbon hydrogen ratio of petroleum product can be calculated from the following formula
C H Ratio = 74 + 15 d
26 – 15 d where d is Specific gravity at 15 deg. C

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CETANE INDEX (D 4737)
Provides a means for estimating ASTM Cetane number from density and recovery temperature
measurements. The value computed from equation is termed as Calculated Cetane Index .It is a supplementary tool
for estimating Cetane Number when standard method for determination (test engine) is not available or the quantity
of sample available is too small and when the fuel is without Cetane Improvers.

C I =45.2 + 0.0892T10N + (0.131+0.901B)T50N + (0.0523+0.420B)T90N + 0.00049(T210N – T290N) + 107B + 60B2

D = Density at 15 deg.C in g/ml determined by test method D 1298
B = (e(-3.5) (D – 0.85)) – 1 , T10 = Temp(oC)@ 10% vol. rec. by D86 and corrected to standard barometric
pressure
T10N = T10 - 215 , T50 = Temp (oC) @ 50% vol. rec. by D86 and corrected to standard barometric
pressure
T50N = T50 – 260 , T90 = Temp (oC) @ 90% vol. rec. by D86 and corrected to standard barometric
pressure
T90N = T90 – 310

CETANE NUMBER (P 9, D 613, IP 41)

The cetane number of a diesel fuel is the numerical result of an engine test designed to evaluate fuel
ignition delay. it is defined as the whole number nearest to the value determined by calculation from the percentage
by volume of normal cetane (cetane No. 100) in a blend with apha-Methylnaphthalene (cetane No. = 0) which
matches the ignition quality of the test fuel. To determine the cetane number of any fuel, its ignition delay is
compared in a standard test engine with a blend of reference fuels. High-cetane-number fuels generally cause lower
rates of pressure rise and lower peak pressures, both of which tend to lessen combustion noise and to permit
improved control of combustion, resulting in increased engine efficiency and power output. In addition to this, higher-
cetane-number fuels tend to result in easier starting, particularly in cold weather, and faster warm-up. The higher-
cetane-number fuels also usually form softer and hence more readily purged combustion chamber deposits and
result in reduced exhaust smoke and odor.

COPPER STRIP CORROSION (P: 15, D 130, IP 154, ISO 2160)

Most sulfur compounds in petroleum are removed during refining. However, some residual sulfur
compounds can have a corroding action on various metals. This effect is dependent on the types of sulfur
compounds present. The copper strip test is used to determine the corrosiveness to copper brass or bronze of diesel
fuel. Corrosive action is of particular significance in the case of pressure burner vaporizing tubes that operate at high
temperatures. This test also determines the corrosiveness to copper of various gasolines, fuels, lubricating oils or
other hydrocarbons.

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DENSITY (P: 16, D 1298, IP 160, ISO 3675)
Density is the mass of liquid per unit volume at 15°C. Density is an important property of petroleum products
being part of product specifications. Materials are usually bought and sold on that basis or if on volume basis then
converted to mass basis via density measurements. This property is almost synonymously termed as density, relative
density, gravity, and specific gravity, all terms related to each other. There are at least a dozen test method
standards that describe this determination. Usually a hydrometer, pycnometer or a more modern digital density meter
is used in all these standards. Relative density is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of liquid at 15°C to the mass
of an equal volume of pure water at the same temperature; specific gravity is the same as the relative density
API GRAVITY, Degrees
= 141.5 - 131.5
Relative density at 15.6/15.6 deg. C

DIESEL INDEX
The diesel is an indication of ignition quality of diesel fuel, higher the diesel index better is the ignition quality. The
diesel index is derived from the API gravity and aniline point the lowest temperature at which the fuel is completely
miscible with an equal volume of aniline:
Diesel index = aniline point (°F) x API gravity/100
The above equation is seldom used because the results can be misleading, especially when applied to blended fuels.

DISTILLATION (P 18, D 86, IP 123, ISO 3405)

Distillation characteristics of hydrocarbons have an important effect on safety and performance, especially in
the case of fuels and solvents. The boiling range gives information on the composition, the properties, and the
behavior of fuels during storage and use. Volatility is the major determinant of the tendency of a hydrocarbon mixture
to produce potentially explosive vapors. The distillation characteristics are critically important for both aviation and
automotive gasolines, affecting starting, warm-up, and tendency to vapor lock at high operating temperatures or at
high altitude, or both. The presence of high boiling components in these and other fuels can significantly affect the
degree of formation of solid combustion deposits. Distillation limits are often included in petroleum product
specifications, in commercial contract agreements, process refinery/control applications, and for regulatory
compliance.

DOCTOR TEST (P 19, ASTM D-4952, IP 30, ISO 5275)

Mercaptan sulfur (R-SH) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are undesirable contaminants because, apart from
their corrosive nature, they possess an extremely unpleasant odor. Such compounds should have been removed
completely during refining but their presence and that of free sulfur are detected by application of the Doctor test. The
Doctor test measures the amount of sulfur available to react with metallic surfaces at the temperature of the test. The
rates of reaction are metal type-, temperature-, and time dependent. Sulfur present as mercaptans or as hydrogen

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sulfide in distillate fuels and solvents can attack many metallic and nonmetallic materials in fuel and other distribution
systems. A negative result in the Doctor test ensures that the concentration of these compounds is insufficient to
cause such problems in normal use.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY (D 2624, IP 274, ISO 6297)

The ability of a fuel to dissipate charge that has been generated during pumping and filtering operations is
controlled by its electrical conductivity, which depends upon its ionic species content. If the conductivity is high
enough, charges dissipate fast to prevent their accumulation and avoid dangerously high potentials in a receiving
tank. These test methods cover the determination of the electrical conductivity of aviation and distillate fuels with and
without a static dissipator additive.

FLASH POINT
Flash point measures the tendency of a sample to form a flammable mixture with air under controlled
laboratory conditions. Flash point data are used in shipping and safety regulations to define “flammable” and
“combustible” materials. Flash point data can also indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable
material in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable material. Erroneously high flash points can be obtained when
precautions are not taken to avoid the loss of volatile material. Samples should not be stored in plastic bottles, since
the volatile material may diffuse through the walls of the container. The containers should not be opened
unnecessarily. The samples should not be transferred between containers unless the sample temperature is at least
20°F (11°C) below the expected flash point. Below mentioned are some of the methods for determining the flash
point of petroleum products
Cleveland Open Cup (P 69, D 92, IP 36, ISO 2592)
Pensky Martens Closed Cup Tester (P 21, D 93, IP 34, ISO 2719)
Tag Closed Tester (P 20, D 56, IP 170, ISO 13736)
Small Scale Closed Tester (D 3828, IP 303, ISO 3679)
Continuously Closed Cup Flash Point (D 6450)

GUM CONTENT
Oxygen-containing impurities in the form of gum are limited by the existent gum method and potential gum method

EXISTENT GUM (P 29, D 381, IP 131, ISO 6246)

Existent gum is the name given to the nonvolatile residue present in the gasoline as received for test The
existent gum value is the gum actually present in the fuel at the time of test and is measured as the weight of residue
obtained after controlled evaporation of a standard volume of fuel. High gum can cause induction-system deposits
and sticking of intake valves, and in most instances it can be assumed that low gum will ensure absence of induction-
system difficulties. This test is applied to motor gasolines to measure the oxidation products formed in the sample
prior to or during the comparatively mild conditions of the test procedure. Since many motor gasolines are purposely

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blended with nonvolatile oils or additives, the heptane extraction step is necessary to remove these from the
evaporation residue so that the deleterious material, gum, may be determined. With respect to aviation turbine fuels,
large quantities of gum are indicative of contamination of fuel by higher boiling oils or particulate matter and generally
reflect poor handling practices in distribution downstream of the refinery.

POTENTIAL GUM ( P 28, D 873, IP 138)

The accelerated gum test is a safeguard of storage stability and predicts the possibility of gum forming
during protracted storage and decomposition of the antiknock additive. This test method covers the determination of
the tendency of the aviation reciprocating, turbine, and jet engine fuels to form gum and deposits under accelerated
aging conditions. The tendency of the fuels to form gum and deposits in these tests has not been correlated with field
performance (and can vary markedly) with the formation of gum and deposits under different storage conditions. This
test method is not intended for determining the stability of fuel components, particularly those with a high percentage
of low boiling unsaturated compounds, as they may cause explosive conditions within the apparatus.

INDUCTION PERIOD (OXIDATION STABILITY)

MS-(D 525, IP 40, ISO 7536)
The induction period may be used as an indication of the tendency of motor gasoline to form gum in
storage. However, its correlation with the formation of gum in storage may vary markedly under different storage
conditions and with different gasolines. This test method is not intended for determining the stability of gasoline
components, particularly those with a high percentage of low boiling unsaturated compounds, as they may cause
explosive conditions within the apparatus.

HSD-(D 2274, IP 388, ISO 12205)

This test method provides a basis for the estimation of the storage stability of middle distillate fuels with an
IBP above 175°C and a 90 % recovery point below 370°C. It is not applicable to fuels containing residual oil, or any
significant component derived from a nonpetroleum source. This test method may not provide a prediction of the
quantity of insolubles that will form in field over any given period of time.

JFTOT (P 97, D 3241, IP 323, ISO 6249)

Thermal oxidative stability is the ability of the liquid to withstand relatively high temperatures for short
periods of time in the presence of oxidation and without the formation of sediment or deterioration of properties. The
thermal stress experienced by aviation fuel in modern jet engines may lead to the formation of undesirable and
possibly harmful insoluble materials, such as lacquers, on heat exchangers and control surfaces that reduce
efficiency and require extra maintenance. This test method covers the procedure for rating the tendencies of gas
turbine fuels to deposit decomposition products within the fuel system. The test results can be used to assess the
level of deposits that form when the liquid fuel contacts a heated surface at a specified temperature.

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KINEMATIC VISCOSITY ( P25, D 445, IP 71, ISO 3104)
Viscosity can significantly affect the lubricating property of the fuel and can have an influence on fuel pump
service life and injector system. The viscosity of fuels at low temperature is limited to ensure that adequate fuel flow
and pressure are attained under all operating conditions and that fuel injection nozzle and system controls will
operate down to design temperature conditions. KV is a measure of the resistive flow on a fluid under gravity, the
pressure head being proportional to the density, of the fluid: for gravity flow under a given hydrostatic head, the
pressure head of a liquid is proportional to its density,
Dynamic Viscosity = Kinematic Viscosity x Density of the Liquid

LUBRICITY OF DIESEL & ATF

Ball on Cylinder Lubricity Evaluator -BOCLE (D 5001)
High Frequency Reciprocating Rig -HFRR (D 6078)

Lubricity evaluates the lubricating property of HSD & ATF. Wear due to excessive friction resulting in shortened life of
engine components such as fuel pumps and fuel controls have sometimes been ascribed to lack of lubricity in an
aviation fuel. Diesel fuel injection equipment has some reliance on lubricating properties of diesel fuel. Shortened life
of engine components, such as diesel fuel injection pumps and injectors, has sometimes been ascribed to lack of
lubricity in a diesel fuel. The relationship of test results to aviation fuel system component distress due to wear has
been demonstrated for some fuel/hardware combinations where boundary lubrication is a factor in the operation of
the component. The wear scar generated in the ball-on-cylinder lubricity evaluator (BOCLE) test is sensitive to
contamination of the fluids and test materials, the presence of oxygen and water in the atmosphere, and the
temperature of the test. Lubricity measurements are also sensitive to trace materials acquired during sampling and
storage. The BOCLE test may not directly reflect operating conditions of engine hardware. Some fuels that contain a
high content of certain sulfur compounds may give anomalous test results.

NAPHTHALENE CONTENT (P 118, D 1840)

Assess the combustion characteristics of ATF of the kerosene boiling range. Napthalenes when burned tend
to have a relatively larger contribution to a sooty flame, smoke, and thermal radiation than single ring aromatics.

OCTANE NUMBER.
The knock rating of a gasoline is expressed as octane number and is the percentage by volume of iso-
octane (octane number 100) in a mixture with normal heptane (octane number 0) that has the same knock
characteristics as the gasoline being assessed.

RESEARCH OCTANE NUMBER -RON (P 27, D 2699, IP 237)

The research method gives a rating applicable to mild operating conditions, that is, low inlet mixture temperature and
relatively low engine loading such as would be experienced generally in passenger cars and light-duty commercial
vehicles

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MOTOR OCTANE NUMBER -MON (P 26, D-2700, IP 236)
The motor method which represents more severe operating conditions, that is, relatively high inlet mixture
temperature and high engine loading such as would be experienced during full-throttle operation at high speed
Research octane numbers are generally higher than those obtained by the motor method, and the difference
between the two ratings is known as the sensitivity of the gasoline. The actual performance of a gasoline on the road
(the road octane number) usually falls between the research and motor values and depends on the engine used and
also on the gasoline composition and choice of antiknock compounds

PARTICULATE MATTER/ Pentane insoluble constituents (D 2276, IP 216)

Control of dirt and other particles involves use of a membrane filtration method in which the dirt retained by
filtration of a sample through a cellulose membrane is expressed as weight per unit volume of the fuel. This test
provides field quality control of dirt content and can be supplemented by a visual assessment of membrane
appearance after test against color standards. Particulate determination in appearance tests is sensitive to sampling
procedures. The presence of a small number of particles may indicate, for example, that the sample line was not
flushed to provide a representative sample. The persistent presence of even a small number of particles, however,
may be cause for further investigation depending on the situation. This test method provides a gravimetric
measurement of the particulate matter present in a sample of aviation turbine fuel. The objective is to minimize these
contaminants to avoid filter plugging and other operational problems.

POUR POINT ( P 10, D 97, IP 15, ISO 3016)

The pour point is the lowest temperature at which oil will flow under prescribed conditions. It is an index of
the lowest temperature of its utility for certain applications. One of the main attributes of liquid fuels is the relative
ease with which they can be transferred from one place to another, but it is still necessary to have some indication of
the lowest temperature at which this may be achieved. The pour point of residual fuel oil may be influenced by the
previous thermal history of the residual fuel oil and the fact that any loosely knit wax structure built up on cooling the
fuel can, generally, be readily broken up by the application of a little pressure, thus allowing fuels to be pumped at
temperatures below their pour point temperatures.

SEDIMENTS ( P 30, D 473, IP 53, ISO 3735)

Knowledge of the sediment content of crude and fuel oils is important both to the refining operations and the
buying or selling of the oil. An excessive amount of sediment and water in crude oil is significant because it can
cause corrosion of equipment and problems in processing and transporting. An accumulation of sediment in storage
tanks and on filter screens can obstruct the flow of oil from the tank to the combustor.

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SMOKE POINT (P 31, D 1322, IP 57, ISO 3014)
The smoke point is quantitatively related to the potential radiant heat transfer from the combustion products
of the fuel. Because radiant heat transfer exerts a strong influence on the metal temperature of combustor liners and
other hot sections of gas turbines, the smoke point provides a basis for correlation of fuel characteristics with the life
of these components. It is also an indication of the relative smoke producing properties of kerosene and aviation
turbine fuels in a diffusion flame. The smoke point is also related to the hydrocarbon type composition of such fuels.
Generally the more aromatic the fuel, the smokier the flame. A high smoke point number indicates a fuel of low
smoke producing tendency.

SULFUR
Sulfur compounds contribute to corrosion of refinery equipment and poisoning of catalysts, cause
corrosiveness in refined products, and contribute to environmental pollution as a result of the combustion of fuel
products. High levels of sulfur compounds adversely affect the fuel performance in the combustion chamber, and the
presence of large amounts of oxides of sulfur in the combustion gases is undesirable because of possible corrosion.
Some sulfur compounds can also have a corroding action on the various metals of the engine system, varying
according to the chemical type of sulfur compound present. Sulfur can cause wear, resulting from the corrosive
nature of its combustion by -products and from an increase in the amount of deposits in the combustion chamber and
on the pistons. The sulfur content of a diesel fuel depends on the origin of the crude oil from which it is made and on
the refining methods. Sulfur can be present test methods in a number of forms, for example, as mercaptans, sulfides,
disulfides, or heterocyclic compounds such as thiophenes, all of which will affect wear and deposits. Mercaptan sulfur
content has objectionable odor, adverse effects on certain fuel system elastomers, and corrosiveness toward fuel
system metals. Following are some of the test method commonly used.

Lamp Method (P 34, D 1266, IP 107)

Wick bold method (D 2485)
XRF method (D 4294, D 2622, IP 336, ISO 20847)
Bomb method (P 33, D 129, IP 61)
Oxidative micro coulometer (D 3120)
UV-Fluorescence method (D 5453)

SILVER STRIP CORROSION (IP 227)

Corrosiveness toward silver is becoming increasingly important, and a test method has been developed that is
closely similar to the copper corrosion test. Even though DEFSTAN is not recommending the silver strip corrosion
test , for CEMILAC type approval it is included in our specification.

TRACE METALS

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(Trace metals such as iron, nickel, vanadium, calcium, titanium, magnesium, sodium, cobalt, copper, tin, and zinc
occur in crude oils. Vanadium and nickel are bound in organic complexes)
When fuels are combusted, metals present in the fuels can form low forming compounds corrosive to metal parts.
Trace metals present in petroleum can deactivate catalysts during processing. Trace metals in turbine fuels can
cause corrosion and deposition on turbine components at elevated temperatures. Some diesel fuels have
specification limit requirements for trace metals to guard against engine deposits. In addition to the naturally
occurring metals in the crude oil and the petroleum products derived from it, certain metals are added as additives to
lubricating oils and similar products. These metal additives act as detergents, antioxidants, antiwear agents, etc. In
used lubricating oils, several other metals may be present coming from the engine wear in addition to those from the
additives. On the other hand, in certain petroleum products even trace amounts of metals may prove deleterious to
engine performance. Hence, it is important to have test methods that can determine metals, both at trace levels and
at major concentrations. These metals are quantitatively estimated (ppm, ppb or ppt level) by different instruments
via different techniques.XRF, Flame AAS, ICP-AAS, ICP-MS, ICP-AES are some of the tools used.

VAPOUR PRESSURE
Vapor pressure is an important physical property of liquid spark-ignition engine fuels. It provides an
indication of how a fuel will perform under different operating conditions, such as whether it will cause vapor lock at
high ambient temperature or at high altitude, or will provide easy starting at low ambient temperature. Petroleum
product specifications generally include vapor pressure limits to ensure products of suitable volatility performance.
Vapor pressure of fuels is regulated by various government agencies. Vapor pressure of crude oil at various vapor-
liquid ratios is also an important physical property for shipping and storage.

REID VAPOUR PRESSURE-RVP ( P 39, D 323, IP 69, ISO 3007)

The Reid Vapour Pressure is an important parameter for fuel safety and performance, being a measure of
the tendency to form explosive vapours. It is the absolute vapour pressure exerted by the gasoline at 37.80C
(1000F). RVP is largely governed by the fuel's butane content.

VISCOSITY INDEX (P 56, D 2270, IP 226, ISO 2909)

The Viscosity Index is a widely used and accepted measure of the variation in kinematic viscosity due to
changes in the temperature of a petroleum product between 40 and 100°C. Viscosity index is an arbitrary number
used to characterize the variation of the kinematic viscosity of a petroleum product with temperature. For oils of
similar kinematic viscosity, the higher the viscosity index the smaller is the Effect of temperature on its kinematic
viscosity

WATER CONTENT (P 40, D 95, IP 74, ISO 3733)

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 Contamination in residual fuel oil may be indicated by the presence of excessive amounts of water,
emulsions, and inorganic material such as sand and rust. In any form, water is highly undesirable in fuel oil, and the
relevant tests involving distillation and the Karl Fischer titration are regarded as important in determination of quality.
Free water in jet fuels can be detected by the use of the Karl Fischer titration method (D 1744) or by observing color
changes when chemicals go into aqueous solution (D 3240).

WATER REACTION (P 42, D 1094, IP 289, ISO 6250)

Water reaction test that is used to estimate, and prevent, the addition of high-octane, water-soluble
components such as ethyl alcohol to aviation gasoline. Water reaction volume change reveals the presence of water-
soluble components such as alcohols. When applied to aviation turbine fuels, water reaction interface rating reveals
the presence of relatively large quantities of partially soluble contaminants such as surfactants.

WATER SEPAROMETER INDEX-MODIFIED -WISM ( P 137, D 2550)

The standard water reaction test for jet fuel is the same as for aviation gasoline, but the interface and
separation ratings are more critically defined. Test assessment is by subjective visual observation and, although quite
precise when made by an experienced operator, the test can cause rating difficulties under borderline conditions. As
a consequence, a more objective test, known as the water separometer test,

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