ET) Sees a Pre om Ee] —Joading of building structures Se A el ee ke a | PEL Orolo) .¢ ECA ete)The designer’s guide to wind loading of building structuresPrice lists for all available BRE publications can be obtained from: Publications Sales Office Building Research Establishment Garston, Watford, WD27JR Tel: Garston (0923) 664444 (direct line) Watford (0923) 684040 (main switchboard) The first part in this series is: Cook N J The designer's guide to wind loading of building structures — Part 1: Background, damage survey, wind data and structural classification. London, Butterworths, 1985. Supplements to The designer’s guide to wind loading of building structures include: Supplement 1. Cook N J The assessment of design wind speed data: manual worksheets with ready-reckoner tables, Garston, BRE, 1985. Supplement 2. Cook N J, Smith B W and Huband M V BRE program STRONGBLOW: user's manual. BRE microcomputer package. Garston, BRE, 1985.Building Research Establishment Report The designer’s guide to wind loading of building structures Part 2: static structures NJ Cook, Pho, DSc(Eng), FRMetS, CEng, FiStructE Building Research Establishment BULOING Butterworths meseanc ESTABLISHMENT London Boston Singapore Department of the Environment Sydnay Toronto Wellington4S rake OF ReED INTERNATIONAL PI.C. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in ‘any material form (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright owner except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 33-34 Alfred Place, London, England WCIE 7DP. Applications for the copyright owner's written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the Publishers. Warning: The doing of an unauthorized actin relation to a copyright ‘work may result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution ‘This book is sold subject to the Standard Conditions of Sale of Net Books and may not be re-sold in the UK below the net price given by the Publishers in their current price list. First published 1990 © Crown copyright 1990 Published by permission of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Cook, N. J. (Nicholas John) ‘The designer's guide to wind loading of building structures Pt. 2. Static structures 1. Structures. Wind loads. Effects for design L Title IT. Series 624.176 ISBN 0-408-00871-7 Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data (Revised for volume 2) Cook, N. J. (Nicholas John) ‘The designer's guide to wind loading of building structures. (Building Research Establishment report) Includes bibliographies and indexes. Contents: pt. 1. Background, damage survey, wind data, and structural classification ~ pt. 2. Static structures. 1. Wind-pressure. 2. Buildings - Aerodynamics. 3, Structural design. I. Title. II. Series. TH891.C66 1985 6907.21 85-1621 ISBN 0-408-00871-7 ‘Composition by Genesis Typesetting, Borough Green, Kent Printed and bound in Great Britain by Courier International Ltd, Tiptree, EssexForeword The first phase of BRE research into wind loading of buildings, begun in the early 1960s and directed by Mr C. W. Newberry, was implemented in design practice by the 1970 and 1972 British Standard code of practice for wind loads, CP3 Chapter V Part 2 and by the 1974 BRE Wind loading handbook by C. W. Newberry and K. J. Eaton. This book, Part 2 of The designer’s guide to wind loading of building structures, provides the designer with the latest methods and data for static structures. It implements the second phase of BRE research, spanning the last two decades, directed in the first decade by myself, followed by Dr K. J. Eaton and J. R. Mayne, and in the last decade by Dr N. J. Cook. Its preparation has benefited substantially from the cooperation and help of many members of the international community of wind engineers, made possible by the links forged between national research institutes and universities around the world by the International Association of Wind Engineering and its periodic symposia. The result is therefore a compilation of the most up-to-date information available worldwide in a form suitable for use by structural engineers and others for the design of building structures. J. B. Menzies Assistant Director, Building Research Establishment, 1989Contents Foreword v Acknowledgements _ xi Chapter 11 About Part 2: static structures 1 1.1 Scope 1 11.2 Correspondence with international codes 2 113 Philosophy 4 11.4 Sources 4 11.5 Structure 11.6 Content 5 Chapter 12 Assessment methods for static structures 8 12.1 Introduction 8 12.2 Analysis and synthesis 10 12.3 Loading coefficients 11 Reference wind speed and dynamic pressure 11 Local and global coefficients. 11 Forms of coefficient 11 Pressure coefficients 12 Shear stress coefficients 14 Force coefficients 15 Moment coefficients 18 Simplified approach of the Guide 19 12.4 Assessment methods 19 12.4.1 Quasi-steady method 19 12.4.2 Peak-factormethod 24 12.4.3 Quantile-level method 28 12.4.4 Extreme-value method 32 12.5 Dynamic amplification factor 38 12.6 Concludingcomments 40 Chapter 13 Measurement of loading data for static structures 41 13.1 Introduction 41 13.2 Historical development 41 13.2.1 Full-scale tests 41 13.2.2 Model-scale tests 45 viiviii Contents 13.3 Measurement techniques 48 13.3.1 Wind speed and turbulence 48 13.3.2 Static, total and surface pressures 52 13.3.3 Forcesand moments 64 13.4 Full-scale tests 70 13.4.1 Réle of full-scale tests 70 13.4.2 Commissioning full-scale tests 70 13,5 Model-scale tests 71 13.5.1 Principles of model-scale testing 71 13.5.2 Boundary-layer wind tunnels 73 13.5.3 Simulation of the atmospheric boundary layer 76 13.5.4 Modelling the structure 87 13.5.5 Review of accuracy 99 13.5,6 Commissioning model-scale tests 106 Chapter 14 Review of codes of practice and other data sources 110 14.1 Codes of practice 110 14.1.1 Introduction 110 14.1.2 Head codes 112 14.1.3 Specialised UK codes 122 14.2 Other data sources 128 14.2.1 ESDU dataitems 128 14.2.2 Product design manuals, journals and text books 130 Chapter 15 A fully probabilistic approach todesign 131 15.1 Re-statement of the problem 131 15.2 A fully probabilistic design method 132 15.2.1 First-order method — 132 15.2.2 Full method 133 15.2.3 Refinement and verification of the fullmethod 136 15.2.4 Simplified method 137 15.2.5 Calibration of earlier approaches 140 15.3 The pseudo-steady format 145 15.3.1 Introduction 145 15.3.2. Definition of pseudo-steady loading coefficients 146 15.3.3 Comparison with the equivalent steady gust model 146 15.3.4 Advantages of the pseudo-steady format 151 15.3.5 Implementation for design in this Guide 1S1 Chapter 16 _Line-like, lattice and plate-like structures 153 16.1 Introduction 153 16.1.1 Form 153 16.1.2 Slenderness ratio 152 16.1.3 Fineness ratio 156 16.1.4 Shielding and shelter 157 16.2 Line-like structures 158 16.2.1 Definitions 158 16.2.2 Curved sections 160Contents ix 16.2.3 Sharp-edged sections 171 16.2.4 Effect of yaw angle 179 16.3 Lattice structures 183 16.3.1 Introduction 183 16.3.2 A steady theory for lattice plates 186 16.3.3 Single plane frames 189 16.3.4 Lattice towers and booms 193 16.3.5 Pairsof frames 199 16.3.6 Multiple lattice frames 207 16.4 Plate-like structures 215 16.4.1 Introduction 215 16.4.2 Boundary walls, hoardings and fences 216 16.4.3 Signboards 221 16.4.4 Canopy roofs 222 Chapter 17 Bluff building structures 235 17.1 Introduction 235 17.1.1 Scope 235 17.1.2 Pressure-based approach 236 17.1.3 Influence of wind direction 236 17.1.4 Influence of slenderness ratio 237 17.1.5 Influence of Jensen number 238 17.1.6 Reference dynamic pressure 239 17.2 Curved structures 240 17.2.1 Spherical structures 240 17.2.2 Cylindrical structures 244 17.2.3 Other curved structures 253 17.3 Flat-faced structures 256 17.3.1 Cuboidal buildings 256 17.3.2 Walls 262 17.3.3 Roofs 279 17.4 Combinations of form and complex bluff structures 302 17.4.1 Introduction 302 17.4.2 Laws of scale and resonance 303 17.4.3 Combinations of form 303 17.4.4 Appendages 307 Chapter 18 Internalpressure 309 18.1 Introduction 309 18.2 Quasi-steady conditions 311 18.2.1 Steady-state flow balance 311 18.2.2 Determination of envelope porosity 312 18.2.3 Definition and consequence of dominant openings 314 18.3 Time-dependent conditions 314 18.3.1 Compressible flow 314 18.3.2 Single-orifice case 315 18.3.3 Two-orifice case 317 18.3.4 Effect of building flexibility 319 18.3.5 Effective averaging time 320x Contents 18.4 Conventional buildings 321 18.5 Dominant openings 322 18.6 Open-sided buildings 323 18.6.1 Introduction 323 18.6.2 One or more adjacent open faces 323 18.6.3 Two opposite open faces 325 18.7 Loads on internal walls 326 18.7.1 Effect of internal wall porosity 326 18.7.2 Multi-room, multi-storey buildings 327 18.7.3 Dominant openings 329 18.7.4 Design cases 330 18.8 Multi-layer claddings 330 18.8.1 Introduction 330 18.8.2 Permeable outer skin 331 18.8.3 Flexible outer skin 336 18.9 Control of internal pressure 339 Chapter 19 Specialconsiderations 341 19.1 Scope 341 19.2 Groupsof buildings 341 19.2.1 Introduction 341 19.2.2 Shelter effects 343 19.2.3 Negative shelter effects 355 19.3 Load pathsin structures 362 19.3.1 Introduction 362 19.3.2 Stiffness of the structure 363 19.3.3 Dominant openings 363 19.3.4 Internal load paths 364 19.4 Serviceability failure 364 19,5 Load avoidance and reduction 365 19.5.1 Introduction 365 19.5.2 Avoiding high wind loads 365 19.5.3 Reducing wind loads 367 19.6 Optimal erection sequence 369 19.7 Variable-geometry structures 371 19.8 Air-supported structures 372 19.9 Fatigue 372 19.9.1 Introduction 372 19.9.2 Experience and practice in Australia 373 19.9.3 Experience and practice in Europe and North America 378 Chapter 20 Design loading coefficientdata 384 20.1 Introduction 384 20.2 Initial steps 384 20.2.1 Structural forms 384 20.2.2 Orientation of the structure 385 20.2.3 Influence functions and load duration 386 20.2.4 Design dynamic pressures 388 20.2.5 Format of the design data 389 20.2.6 Coefficients from external sources 391Contents xi 20.3 Loading data for line-like structures 392 20.3.1 Scope 392 20.3.2 Definitions 393 20.3.3 Curvedsections 393 20.3.4 Sharp-edged sections 396 20.4 Loading data for lattice structures 397 20.4.1 Scope 397 20.4.2 Definitions 397 20.4.3 Single plane frames 398 20.4.4 Lattice towers and trusses 400 20.4.5 Multiple plane frames and trusses 403 20.4.6 Unclad building frames and other three-dimensional rectangular arrays 405 20.5 Loading data for plate-like structures 405 20.5.1 Boundary walls, hoardings and fences 405 20.5.2 Signboards 408 20.5.3 Canopy roofs 409 20.6 Loading data for curved bluffstructures 415 20.6.1 Scope 415 20.6.2 Spherical structures 415 20.6.3 Cylindrical structures 417 20.7 Loading data for flat-faced bluff structures 423 20.7.1 Scope 423 20.7.2 Overall loads on cuboidal buildings 424 20.7.3 Pressures on walls 427 20.7.4 Pressures on roofs 440 20.8 Rules for combinations of form 472 20.8.1 Scope 472 20.8.2 Canopies attached to tall buildings 472 20.8.3 Balconies, ribs and mullions 473 20.9 Internal pressures 473 20.9.1 Scope 473 20.9.2 Open-sided buildings 474 20.9.3 Dominant openings 476 20.9.4 Conventional buildings 477 Appendix A Nomenclature 479 Appendix! Bibliography of modelling accuracy comparisons for static structures 487 Appendix J Guidelines for ad-hoc model-scale tests 490 Appendix K Amodel code of practice for windloads 496 Appendix L Mean overall loading coefficients for cuboidal buildings 551 Appendix M semi-empirical model for pressures on flat roofs 555 References 561 AmmendmentstoPart1 576 Index 577Acknowledgements While most of the content of this Guide comes from the Building Research Establishment’s own research programme, a significant proportion has been obtained from other expert sources, either directly under contract to BRE, from already published sources, or previously unpublished data donated by other research institutes. Current and previous staff of BRE who have contributed directly or indirectly to Part 2 were: Dr P A Blackmore, A J Butler, Dr K J Eaton, Dr J F Eden, HA Fitzjohn, F J Heppel, J R Mayne, Dr J B Menzies, J Patient, Dr MD AE S Perera, D Redfearn, R G Tull and D S White. Also contributing while attached workers were: Dr E Maruta, Nihon University, Japan and Dr B L Sill, Clemson University, South Carolina, USA. Principal extra-mural contractors were: British Maritime Technology for lattice truss and tower tests and data for flat roofs with curved eaves; the Flint and Neill Partnership, for the review of codes of practice, the ‘Reference face’ method for loading of lattice trusses and further calibration of the classification procedure of Chapter 10 in Part 1; Mr R I Harris, Wind Engineering Services, for development of the theory for the time-dependent response of internal pressures; Dr G R Walker, James Cook University of North Queensland, for the discussion on fatigue in cyclone-prone areas; Professor B E Lee, Portsmouth Polytechnic, for the discussion and data for shelter of low-rise buildings; Dr C J Wood, Oxford University, Department of Engineering Science, for data on wall and fence loads, including the effect of shelter, and for data on canopy roof loads, with and without under-canopy blockage. Access to unpublished data or to source data of published material was kindly provided by: Dr J Blessmann, Universidade Federale do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Dr W A Dalgliesh, National Research Council of Canada; E C English and Dr F H Durgin, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA; Dr P N Georgiou, Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory, University of Western Ontario, Canada; Dr J D Holmes, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia; Dr E Maruta, Nihon University, Japan; Dr J A Peterka, Colorado State University, USA; Dr D Surry, Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory, University of Western Ontario, Canada; and other individuals and organisations who have permitted me to reproduce original photographs and data figures, acknowledged in the text. Thope that all those mentioned above and everyone whose published work has been referenced will accept my thanks for their contribution. Finally, special thanks xixiv Acknowledgements are extended to those who examined portions of the text and data, suggesting many valuable simplifications, additions and improvements: Dr K J Eaton and Dr J B Menzies, BRE; B W Smith, Flint and Neill Partnership; Dr G R Walker, James Cook University of North Queensland; and most especially to T V Lawson of the University of Bristol, Department of Aerospace Engineering, who undertook to read and comment on the whole of the book. NJ Cook Building Research Establishment11 About Part 2: static structures 11.1 Scope The designer’s guide to wind loading of building structures attempts to bring to the disposal of the designer the optimum methods and data for the design of buildings and allied structures to resist wind loads. The Guide is organised into three main Parts and, by making the divisions at natural boundaries within the subject, each Part is individually useful. To assist busy designers, the design data have been collated into separate chapters which can be accessed directly, independently of the chapters giving background, theory and discussion. For most static structures the data chapters of the Guide, Chapter 9 of Part 1 and Chapter 20 in this Part, contain all the instructions and data required to complete an assessment The first Part of the Guide, Part 1: Background, damage survey, wind data and structural classification divides the problem into three fundamental aspects: (a) the wind climate; (b) the atmospheric boundary layer; and (c) the building structure. Part 1 covers the first two meteorological aspects completely, giving methods and data which enable the designer to assess those wind characteristics at a particular site necessary for the assessment of any building structure. The third aspect of the building structure is introduced by a procedure to classify the building structure according to its expected response, which acts as a signpost to the second and third Parts, Part 1 also gives background information which is helpful to understanding the problem of wind loading, but is not essential in implementing the assessment procedures. This Part of the Guide, Part 2: Static structures, covers the third aspect when the building structure can be assessed as if it were static. The designer is directed to this Part when the building structure is in one of the following classes: Class A — small static structures, Class B - moderate static structures, Class C — large static structures, or Class D1 - mildly dynamic structures (for ultimate limit states), defined by the classification procedure in Chapter 10 of Part 1. In this Part of the Guide the assessment methods for static structures are introduced, their accuracy is assessed and their application in design is described. A format of loading coefficient