1284 and Western neuroscientists, see the Mi website id and Life Insticute ‘www. mindandiifeorg for further resources, Manta Hers (2005) BUDDHIST MEDITATION This entry consics of the folowing articles TINIAN BUDDHIST MEDITATION EAST ASIAN BUDDHIST MEDITATION BUDDHIST MEDITATION: TIBETAN BUDDHIST MEDITATION Buddhise concemplative erdicions have thrived in Tiber since at lease she seventh cencuty CE, and have taken an as- ety of forms ranging over the entire spectrum of Indian and Central Asian Buddhist traditions. This diver- sity is usually organized under ehe rubric of “three vehicles” in Buddhism—the Lesser (Hinayina), Great (Mahayana), and Adamancine (Vajrayana) vehicles. The historical chal- lenge was to ineegrate this diversity into cogent systems of practice, and especially how to integrate exoteric Buddhist contemplation based on canonical sitras, and esoteric forms of Buddhist meditation decived from canonical Tantras Most Tibetan traditions came co see the Tanttic methods as intrinsically superior in their capacity to generate more rapid iation due co theis directness. By the thirteenth century, ihes had established itself as the international center of es0- teric Buddhism, and alone developed the full spectrum of Buddhist esoreric contemplative practices. We have thus seructured the present survey of Tibetan Buddhist contem- plative eraditions in terms of eraditional eategories that pro- ceed through the three vehicles from “lower” to “higher” in terms of the traditional explicit ranking of Tibetan sectarian tmaditions. The demarcation between “contemplation” and ual” ig artificial and often of limited use, buc we have still relied upon it based on similar distinctions in Tibetan litera- SornA. Our survey begins with the exoteric traditions of contemplation, the canonical basis of which is Saeras be- lieved to have been spoken by buddhas. In the present con- text, Satta is short hand for the entise array of literature, in- stitutions and practices thar marked exoteric Buddhism in India and ‘Tiber Analytical meditation and stabilizing meditation. Medication in Tibetan teaditions is usually presented ss being part of a therapeutic impulse to resolve the dissaisfac- tory nature of embodied existence for oneself and others This enterprise has three main phases listening (thea), which includes all forms of scudy and learning pertaining to norma- tive Buddhist docerines reflection or contemplation (sam), the phase in which the meditator processes those veachings in order to arrive at an understanding of their imports and finally meditation (sgom), the process by which these con. cepts become integrated into one’s experience. The third stage of meditation (bhavana) is thus focused con deepening the individuals experience of the insights BUDDHIST MEDITATION: TIBETAN BUDDHIST MEDITATION gained through the firse two stages. In ecaditional presenca- tions, medication in this context is often described as being cither “analytical meditation” (dpyad sgom) or “stabilizing meditation” (jog sgom). Initially, the practitioner performs analytical meditation on some doctrinal aspect of the teach ings, for example, impermanence, emptiness (stong pa nyids Ske., Knyatd), oF compassion (snying re: Skt. karund,care- fully scrutinizing che different explanations, and finally srtiv- ing ac an inferential understanding of the topic. These “ana- lytical” medications often involve formal processes of reasoning that are cartied out in reliance upon scriptural or oral guidance. Having arrived at such a clear understanding, one then employs the techniques of stabilizing mediation to reach a firm conviction and nondiscutsve intuition of the validity of the teaching or doctrine under investigation. Al- cemnatively, initially ic is necessary to sete the mind so chac it can remain calm and focused in its pursuit of knowledge and realization, This “calming” practice may in fact be the fast form of meditation in which the beginning practitioner engages. Calm abiding and insight meditation. A related pre- sentation of the general meditative process is chat of “calm- ing” (ebi gnas; Set., famatha; licerally, “calm abiding"), and “insight” (Uhag mehong; Ske., vipalyand: lierally, “higher see- ing”). This is not unique co Tibetan Buddhism, but is fre- ‘quently invoked within Tiber co explain basic Buddhist med- itation, The practice of calming is designed to build the tind’s capacity for concentration to such a degree tha it can remain single-pointed (rise grig and undistracted for long periods of time. Such techniques proliferated in Tibet, with the main variance being the object of focus, which could be acandle flame, one’s breathing, a statue of a buddha, a song, visualized syllable, or a wacerfall. Most accounts of calming practices chus ousline the object of focus, and then provide detailed accounts of the deepening levels of concentration, aswel as pitfalls to avoid, In this way, contemplative calming serves as the meditative basis for the attainment of incisive insighe into the nature of reality, specifically into the selfless- ness of persons and the selflessness of phenomena, realization of which are said to resule ultimately in liberation ot enlight- enment. The practice of calming thus clears a mental space for the acquisition of the abiliy to see the world in accor- dance with Buddhist doctrinal analysis of its final reality, while the practice of insight culivares and deepens chat per- ception with an incisiveness based upon the newly acquired capacity for concentration. The practice of calm abiding is thus roughly equivalent co “stabilizing, meditation,” while the practice of insight meditation is roughly equivalent 10 “analytical meditation.” Meditation on emptiness. While calier forms of Bud= ddhism stressed the ultimate object of contemplation ss “no- self namely the lack of any permanent identity in people or things, the Great Vehicle instead stressed che notion of universal “emptiness,” which came to be = dominant motif in Tibet. In a sense, all forms of analytical and insight medi- ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITIONBUDDHIST MEDITATION: TIBETAN BUDDHIST MEDITATION tation have “empziness" as their ulsimate object. Meditation ‘on emptiness is highly valued in Tibetan Buddhist traditions since a nonconceptual realization of emptiness is considered to be the antidote to the ignorance chat is the root cause of suffering, In general, emptiness is said to be absence of inher- ent existence, and is equivalent o the selflessness of persons and teflessness of phenomena discussed above, Iris a funda- mental Buddhist tenet thae suffering arises in dependence on the misapprehension of the true nacute and idencity of per- sons and phenomena, mistaking them for independent, pet- manent, autonomous entities rather than the concatenation of various factors, events, and conditions they truly are, In reility, hese entities ate empry of this mistaken imputed identity, and need to be recognized as such in order co artain liberation or enlightenment (yang chub; Skt, bodbi) “There are many forms of emptiness medization in the various Tibetan traditions. One such typical medication asso- ciated with the “santa” stream of Tibetan Buddhism is the s0-cilled “sevenfold reasoning” drawn from Candrakie's (c. 600-650) Guide to the Middle Way (db ma la jug pas Sk.» ‘Madbyamakivarara), The gist of the reasoning concerns it- self withthe analysis of a chariot and its part, and recalls the famous dialogue berween Nagasena and Milinda in the Quer- sions of King Milinda (milindapanha). The seven analyses a: (1) there is no chariot other than its parts; (2) chere is no charior cht iste same as its parts; (3) there is no chariot that inherently possesses its parts; (4) there is no chatior thae inherently depends on its parts; (5) there is no chariot upon ‘which its parts inherently depend; (6) there is no chariot that is che mere collection of its parts: and (7) there is no charioe that is the shape of its parts. These same reasonings may be applied to the existence of the “self” (bdag: Skt. déonan), whether itis ofa person or a phenomenon (eg. a chariot), and its relation to their aggregates (phung po: Skt, standha), ‘though emptiness medication often has this cational character such that it resembles deconstructive analysis re- hearsed according to scripts, ic is also possible co meditate on emptiness in a less formal, systematic way. For instance, practcioners might employ images, symbols, and language such as the eight similes of illusion to induce an incuitive un- derstanding of the nature of emptiness. In such a loosely structured meditation, one might reflect on phenomena being like a dream, an optical illosion, a mirage, a reflection ofthe moon in water, an echo, a castle in the sky, or a phan- tom, Having thus established a sense of emptiness on che basis of what is essentially an aesthetic mood, one rests in that stare fora time, Regardless of the technique employed, mersion in emptiness during the formal meditative session is usually contrasted to the practice of maintaining chat awareness after the session as one reengages with the social world of appearances and activities. The relationship be- tween these two phases of “meditative equanimity” (mnyem hag) and “post-contemplative awareness” (res shod), 2 du- ality tha ultimately must be dissolved, is an important copie within empeiness yoge ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION 1285 Meditation on compassion, Tibetan Buddhism alo possesses many meditation practices opecifilly conceeed with the cultivation of compassion for ving beings in acor- dance with the Great Vehicle's primary contemplate and ideological motif of the integration of emptiness and com passion. IF empriness deconstructs the world, compasion is ‘whar pulls us back into engagement within is illusory ap- pearances. One of the most famous fotms of compasion meditation found in Tibetan Buddhism isthe giving and taking” meditation (giong fer). This is done in conjunction swith the medicator’s breathing and in relation to all beings, including family members, friends, enemies, and stanges, all of whom are visualized seated around the mediator. AS the medicator breathes our, the medicator imagines that all of his or her personal happiness, comfort, wealth, and re- ‘sources transform into white light and go out wall the beings seated there. When the light strikes the beings that are visual ined surrounding the meditacor, he or she imagines thatthe light fulfils all theie wishes, heals all illnesses, and besows all happiness. Wich the inhalation ofthe breath, the media- toris dicected to visualize all the sufering and cause for sul fering present within the being’ mental continua being drawn back into the meditator in the form of black smoky lighe rays, These beams then merge with the meditaor, who imagines that he or she las tlen on all ehe sufferings and mnisery of all others. Most compassion contemplative tech niques involve such guided reveres inching scripted lurgy and visualizations. Such meditation helps the meditator adopt an attitude that invers dhe normal pattern of viewing oneself and one’s ‘own concerns as preeminent, and itinstils the habit of seeing fthers as being more important. The significance ofthis in Buddhist eerms is easy to discem. Ficst, it inculcates in the practitioner compassion toward others, and slowiy babitue Tres one to sacdifice one’s own interest in order to benef fthers, Second, on she ultimate level, one is undermining and dismancling the struceures ofego that are che undelying cause forall of one's sulfering through exchanging ones own interests and happiness for thost of others. In cis way om- passion both incuicates 2 realization of emptiness ehrough dissolving boundaries, but also offers an essent comple- tment to realization of eraptines by insilng a sense of che Talue of others, as illusory as thei identity may ultimately be. ‘Stages of the Path and ordinary preliminaries. Qne of the most disinctive conteibucions to Buddhist medication practice made by Tibecans isthe category or genre of “Sees Bf the Path” (Lam rim). There have been countless pretice orgened tents writen in ehis gene in al major traditions of ‘Tiheran Buddhism. The precursor so most ofthese txts wis iho work writen by the Indian scholar Ans (982-1054) led The Lamp for the Path (yang chub gi rn ma (St Sedhiparhpraa), Tis exis noted frit eference 9 the hee opiccal levels of Beings, a well as the nodion thet ¢ Selid foundation inthe sera practices is essential othe Pace1286 tice of Tantra, Inspiced by this brief texe, later Tibetan schol- ars and meditators composed their own elaborations on the themes introduced in it. Among the most famous of these texts is Tsonglchappa’s (tsong kha pa, 1357-1419) Great Bx- ‘postion ofthe Stages ofthe Path (lam rine chen mia), and Garn- pope's (spam po pa, 1079-1153) Jewel Ornament of Libera- sion (thar regan). The type of meditation practice described in cexes of this gente is what is usually referred to as “mind training” or “mental development” (blo shyong) Such meditation i, in a sense, intended to “reprogram” the practitioner, guiding him o: her to new attitudes or views through the force of constant habituation. The core practices associated with this genze are sometimes referred to as “the four thoughts that urn che mind.” These are thinking about the value of human rebirth, death and impermanence, che Jaw of karma and cause and effect, and the disadvantages oF living in cyclic existence. These four practices are designed to ericourage the practitioner to recognize the unique oppor- tunity for spiritual progress inherent in human existence, while realizing chat the body is fragile and transient, and thence thae the opportunity will not last forever. By tecogniz~ ing that if one does not take advantage of this chance by en- ‘ging in vireuous actions one will be compelled to experi- fence the resultane suffering, che practitioner is motivated to practice only dharma (virtue) henceforward. These practices comprise what are referred to asthe four “ordinary prelimi inary practices” (sigon ‘gr, which ace considered prerequi- sites to the higher practices associated with Tantes. They es- sentially use guided imagination and analysis to rehearse and habituate the basic worldview of exoteric Buddhism—life is impermanent, selves are not what they seem co be, ordinary life wll not fulfill us, and the moral consequences of ou ac- tions shape all. ‘Taxma. Buddhist Tantra is marked throughout by a thetor- ical focus on practice over intellectual studies, Ics origins ace defined by vieual practice, including complex cieual consecra- tions initiating one into ideal communities known as ‘mapdalas and the self-transfiguration of the individual prac- titioner into divine buddha. Subsequently, che rise of ygin? ‘Tantras involved antinomian behavioral practices decon- structing social codes, as wel as new contemplative practices focused on the body's interior wich the goal of reproducing sind transforming extreme experiences such as death and of gasm. A strong thecorical eradition developed sttessing the abgolate centrality of personal contemplative experience, and thete was a profusion of yogic techniques ranging ove sleep, diet, death, sacrifice, and physical movements. This led to the phenomenon of lage anthologies of integrated practices, such thae many innovations lay as much in the packaging as in new techniques. The radicalization of Tantric practice led to tensions with exoceric forms of practice, such that cheir integration in overarching systems came to be a dominant theme of Tibetan Buddhist contemplation, The means of classification of che main Tantric contemplations are nummer- ous and varied, but he most common includes two “phases”: generation phase (bskyed rim) and perfection phase (rdzogs BUDDHIST MEDITATION: TIBETAN BUDDHIST MEDITATION rina), Generation phase signifies deity yoga practices involy- ing the visualizstion of one’s self as a Buddhist deity, whereas petfection phase signifies both practices of radical non- conceptuality and somatic yogas involving the visualization, sensation, and manipulation of subtle currents of bodily ‘energy. Extraordinary preliminary practices, Most secs of Ti- betan Buddhism embraced a packaged integration of exotetic and basic esoteric practices under the header of “prelimina- ties” (rgon ‘gr) to serve as an incroduction to advanced Tan- tric contemplation. As discussed above, their “ordinary” forms rehearsed basic Buddhist doctrine, while their “ex- tmaotdinary” practices introduced basic Tancrie concempla- tion: going for refuge, generating the altruistic aspiration for enlightenment, Vajtasattva purification, mandala offerings and Gucu Yop. “Going for refuge” is done by reciting a short prayer while prostrating co « visualized “assembly tree” (hogs shing), a mandale-like vertical array of one’s lineage. The reF- uge prayers themselves often encode specifically Tantric: sions of the three jewels of Buddhism—the Buddha, h community, and his teachings. “Generating the aleruistic a piration for enlightenment” (sems bskyed) is the core Great Vehicle practice integrating compassion and emptiness, and here involves the recitation ofa shore prayer while visualizing, the assembly tree. “Vajrasattva purification” is the visualizn- tion of the Buddha Adamantine Hero (Skt.. Vajrasateva) above the crown of one's head, while reciting his hundsed- syllable mantra revolving around his heart. The practitioner confesses downfalls, and visualizes that luminous ambrosia flows from Vajrasattva’s heart co transform he practitioner's negativigy into sustenance for suffering beings. “Mandala of- ferings” is a practice of repeatedly creating small maydalas using heaps of rice and three concentric discs placed on top of the other, and then offering these with visualized enhance- ments to the buddhas. “Guru Yoga” contemplation requires the visualization of one’s guru asa divine buddha, Practition- cers perform each 100,000 times, and thus rehearse the basic ‘Tanttc elements of visualization, mantra repetition, somatic sensations, constructions of mandalas, the divinity and pri- macy of the guru, transformation, offerings, and the impor- cance of divinities. Generation phase practices: Deity yoga and mandala meditation, The most famous, and often defining, Tantric practice is deity yoga (Uha'i mal yor, the ritual evocation ‘of oneselfas a Buddhist deity. The practice is often described as involving three principal factors—vivid visualization, di- vine pride in identifying oneself withthe deity, and “recolle- tion of putity” (dag dran) signifying the need ro cognitively understand the symbolic impore of each visualized element. The deities evoked are varied in character, and include bud- diss, bodbisarevas, and others, male and female, different col- ots different numbers of heads, arms, and legs, and different types of apparel or ritual objects. These practices can involve single deities or che visualization of symmetrically arrayed ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGION, SECOND EDITION