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CIVIL ENGINEERING BRIDGE Engineering - Bridge Design Manual PDF
CIVIL ENGINEERING BRIDGE Engineering - Bridge Design Manual PDF
Bridge
Design
Manual
M 23-50
Chapters 1-7
Engineering Publications
Washington State Department of Transportation
PO Box 47408
Olympia, WA 98504-7408
E-mail: willisr@wsdot.wa.gov
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/fasc/EngineeringPublications/
Foreword
This manual has been prepared to provide Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) bridge
design engineers with a guide to the design criteria, analysis methods, and detailing procedures for the preparation
of highway bridge and structure construction plans, specifications, and estimates.
It is not intended to be a textbook on structural engineering. It is a guide to acceptable WSDOT practice. This
manual does not cover all conceivable problems that may arise, but is intended to be sufficiently comprehensive to,
along with sound engineering judgment, provide a safe guide for bridge engineering.
A thorough knowledge of the contents of this manual is essential for a high degree of efficiency in the engineering
of WSDOT highway structures.
This loose leaf form of this manual facilitates modifications and additions. New provisions and revisions will be
issued from time to time to keep this guide current. Suggestions for improvement and updating the manual are
always welcome.
__________________________________________
M. MYINT LWIN
Bridge and Structures Engineer
Washington State Department of Transportation
V:BDM1
September 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
Page
1.1 Manual Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.3 Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C. Numbering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. Manual Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Bridge Design Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
C. Record of Manual Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Bridge and Structures Office Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2-1
1.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.2 Organizational Elements of the Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Bridge and Structures Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Bridge Design Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Bridge Preservation Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Bridge Management Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
E. Computer Applications Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
F. Consultant Coordinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
G. Architect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
H. Staff Support Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
I. Office Administrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Design Procedures and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3-1
1.3.1 Design/Check Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. WSDOT PS&E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Consultant PS&E — Projects on WSDOT Right of Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
C. Consultant PS&E — On County and City Right of Way Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Design/Check Calculation File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A. File of Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
B. Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
C. To Be Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
D. Not to Be Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
E. Upon Completion of the Design Work, Fill Out a Design Completion Checklist . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3 Office Copy Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.4 Addenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.5 Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A. Bridge Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
B. Sign Structure, Signal, and Illumination Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.6 Contract Plan Changes (Change Orders and As-Builts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
A. Request for Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
B. Processing Contract Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Coordination With Other Divisions and Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4-1
1.4.1 Preliminary Planning Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
B. Chapters
1. General Information
2. Preliminary Design
3. Analysis
4. Loads
5. Reinforced Concrete Superstructures
6. Prestressed Concrete Superstructures
7. Structural Steel
8. Miscellaneous Design
9. Substructure Design
10. Detailing Practice
11. Quantities
12. Construction Costs
13. Construction Specifications
14. Inspection and Rating
C. Numbering System
1. The numbering system for the criteria consists of a set of numbers followed by letters as required
to designate individual subjects. This format is similar to that used by AASHTO.
Example:
5.0 Reinforced Concrete Superstructures (Chapter)
5.4 Box Girder Bridges (Section)
5.4.2 Girder (Subsection)
C. Shear Resistance
1. The Shear Diagram
a. Shear Reinforcement
(1) Placement
2. Numbering of Sheets
Each section starts a new page numbering sequence. The page numbers are located in the lower
outside corners and begin with the chapter number, followed by the section number, then a
sequential page number.
Example: 5.4-1, 5.4-2, etc.
3. Appendices are included to provide the designer with design aids (Appendix A) and examples
(Appendix B). Design aids are generally standard in nature, whereas examples are modified to
meet specific job requirements.
An appendix is numbered using the chapter followed by section number and then a hyphen and
the letter of the appendix followed by consecutive numbers.
Example: 5.4-A1 (Box Girder Bridges) designates a design aid required or useful to accomplish
the work described in Chapter 5, Section 4.
4. Numbering of Tables and Figures
Tables and figures shall be numbered using the chapter, section, subsection in which they are
located, and then a hyphen followed by consecutive numbers.
Example: Figure 5.4.2-1 is the first figure found in Chapter 5, section 4, subsection 2.
1.1.4 Revisions
A. Manual Updates
The Bridge Design Manual will change as new material is added and as criteria and specifications
change.
Revisions and new material will be issued with a Publications Transmittal Form. The form will have
a revision number and remarks or special instructions regarding the sheets. The revision number shall
be entered on the Record of Revision sheet in this manual. This allows the user to verify that the
manual is up to date.
B. Bridge Design Instruction
Special instructions regarding interpretation of criteria or other policy statements may be issued using
a Bridge Design Instruction (BDI). The BDI will be transmitted in the same manner as outlined above
for manual revisions. The BDI should be inserted in the appropriate place in the manual and remains
in effect until the expiration date shown or until superseded by a revision to the manual. A sample
BDI is shown on Figure 1.1.4-1.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
February 1997
ACTION: Place this instruction in your manual and note the instruction number in your
Record of Manual Revisions, 1.1.4.
TEXT There is confusion regarding the availability of Concrete Class 5000. This
class of concrete is available within a 30-mile radius of Seattle, Spokane and
Vancouver, Washington. “Available” means that there are concrete suppliers
in these urban areas capable of supplying Concrete Class 5000 in accordance
with WSDOT specifications. Outside this 30-mile radius (or near the fringe),
the concrete suppliers generally do not have the quality control procedures
and expertise to supply this higher strength concrete. The Construction Office
or Materials Lab should be contacted for availability for project sites outside
these areas.
In general, Class 4000D Concrete would be specified for bridge roadway decks
outside this 30 mile radius. Class 4000D Concrete specifications require a
14-day wet cure and flyash as an additive. Typically, Class 4000 Concrete would
be specified for other bridge concrete members above ground. This mix was
developed by the Materials Lab to be at least as durable as Class 5000 Concrete.
By utilizing the above guidelines, WSDOT will receive the most durable bridge
deck at the least cost.
Approved: _________________________
C. C. Ruth
Bridge Design Engineer
CCR/db
RTS
Figure 1.1.4-1
P65:DP/BDM1
1.3 Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) Process for WSDOT Bridge Designs
1.3.0 General
A. The QA/QC process for bridge designs is a critical element of quality structure plan preparation.
The overall goals of the structural design process are:
• The structural design maximizes the safety of the traveling public and is in accordance with
State Law.
• The structural design is in accordance with the WSDOT Bridge Design Manual, AASHTO
Bridge Design Specifications, good structural engineering practice, and geometric criteria
provided by the Region.
• Designed structures are durable, low-maintenance, and inspectable.
• The structural design facilitates constructibility and minimizes overall construction costs, while
exhibiting a pleasing architectural style.
• The structural design contract documents are produced in accordance with customer’s needs
(schedule, construction staging, and available program funding).
• Structural design costs are minimized.
• A well-organized and readable structure calculation record is produced.
• Plan quality is maximized.
• Design process allows for change, innovation, and continuous improvement.
The overall goals are listed in order of importance. If there is a conflict between goals, the more
important goal takes precedence.
The design unit manager determines project assignments and the QC/QA process to be used in
preparation of the structural design. The intent of the QC/QA process is to facilitate production
efficiency and cost-effectiveness while assuring the structural integrity of the design and maximizing
the quality of the structure contract documents.
1.3.1 Design/Check Procedures
A. PS&E Prepared by WSDOT Bridge and Structures Office
1. Design Team
The design team, consisting of the Designer(s), Checker(s), Structural Detailer(s), and Specifica-
tion and Estimate engineer are responsible for preparing a set of contractible, clear, and concise
structural contract documents by the scheduled date and within the workforce hours allotted for
the project. On large projects, the design unit manager may assign a designer additional duties
as a Design Team Leader to assist the manager in planning, coordinating, and monitoring the
activities of the design team. In this case, the team leader would also coordinate with the Region
and the Geotechnical Branch.
The QC/QA process will likely vary depending on the type and complexity of the structure being
designed, and the experience level of the design team members. More supervision, review, and
checking are required when the design team members are less experienced. In general, it is good
QC/QA practice to have some experienced members on each design team. All design team
members should have the opportunity to provide input for maximizing the quality of the design
being produced.
2. Designer Responsibility
The designer is responsible for the structural analysis, completeness, correctness, and quality
of the plans. The designer shall provide quality control in the process of plan preparation. That
is, errors and omissions need to be caught and corrected before subsequent checking and review
of plans. A good set of example plans to follow, representative of bridge type, is indispensable
in this regard.
During the design phase of a project, the designer will need to communicate with other
stakeholders. This includes acquiring, finalizing or revising roadway geometrics, soil reports,
hydraulics recommendations, and utility requirements. Constructibility issues may also require
that the designer communicate with the Region or Construction Office. The bridge plans must
be coordinated with the PS&E packages produced concurrently by the Region.
The designer or team leader is responsible for project planning which involves the following:
a. Prepare a Design Time Estimate Bar Chart (see Section 1.5.2).
b. Identify tasks and plan order of work.
c. Prepare design criteria, which should be included in the design calculations. Use Standard
Design Criteria Form, 1.3-A1-1 for routine projects. A project specific design criteria should
be made when appropriate. Compare tasks with BDM office practice and AASHTO bridge
design specifications.
(1) Sufficient guidelines?
(2) Deviation from BDM/AASHTO?
(3) Any question on design approach?
(4) Deviation from office practices regarding design and details?
(5) Other differences.
d. Meet with the Region design staff and other project stakeholders early in the design process
to resolve as many issues as possible before proceeding with final design and detailing.
e. Identify coordination needs with other designers, units, and offices.
f. Early in the project, determine the number and titles of sheets. For projects with multiple
bridges, each set of bridge sheets should have a unique set of bridge sheet numbers.
The bridge sheet numbering system should be coordinated with the Region design staff.
g. At least monthly or as directed by the design unit manager:
(1) Update Project Schedule and List of Sheets.
(2) Estimate percent complete.
(3) Estimate time to complete.
(4) Work with design unit manager to adjust resources, if necessary.
h. Develop preliminary quantities for 90 percent complete cost estimate.
(2) For designs checked by an inexperienced checker, a more thorough check should be
performed by the checker to enhance his/her understanding of structural design. In this
case, the design unit manager should provide the checker with a design example.
(3) Revision of design calculations, if required, is the responsibility of the designer.
b. Structural Plans
(1) The checker’s plan review comments are recorded on the structural plans, including
details and bar lists, and returned to the designer for consideration. If the checker’s
comments are not incorporated, the designer should provide justification for not doing
so. If there is a difference of opinion that cannot be resolved between the designer and
checker, the unit manager shall resolve the issue.
(2) If assigned by the design unit manager, the checker shall perform a complete check of
the geometry using CADD, hand calculations, or a geometric program.
(3) Revision of plans, if required, is the responsibility of the designer.
4. Structural Detailer Responsibility
The structural detailer is responsible for the structural plan sheets. The plans shall be neat,
correct, and easy to follow and drawn to scale. The structural detailer may also assist the designer
and design checker in such areas as determining control dimensions and elevations, geometry,
and calculating quantities.
Some detailing basics and principles:
a. Refer to BDM, Chapter 10, for detailing practices.
b. Provide necessary and adequate information. Try to avoid repetition of information.
c. Avoid placing too much information into any one sheet.
d. Plan sheets should detailed in a consistent manner and follow accepted detailing practices.
e. Provide clear and separate detail of structural geometrics. Use clear detailing such as “stand
alone” cross sections or a framing plan to define the structure.
f. Avoid reinforcing steel congestion.
g. Check reinforcement detail for consistency. Beware of common mistakes about placement
of stirrups and ties (such as: stirrups too short, effect of skew neglected, epoxy coating not
considered, etc.). Check splice location and detail, and welding locations.
h. Use cross references properly.
i. Use correct and consistent terminology. For example, the designation of Sections, Views,
and Details.
j. Check for proper grammar and spelling.
k. On multiple bridge contracts, the structural detailing of all bridges within the contract shall
be coordinated to maximize consistency of detailing from bridge to bridge. Extra effort
will be required to assure uniformity of details, particularly if multiple design units and/or
consultants are involved in preparing bridge plans. This is a critical element of good quality
bridge plans.
l. Refer to the Bridge Book of Knowledge for current special features and details used on
other projects.
5. Specialist Responsibility
There are currently four specialist positions in the Bridge and Structures Office. There is a
specialist assigned to each of the three design sections and one to the Bridge Preservation
Section. The primary responsibility of the specialist is to act as a knowledge resource for this
office. The Specialists maintain an active knowledge of their specialty area along with a current
file of products and design procedures. Proactive industry contacts are maintained by the Special-
ists. Specialists also provide training in their area of specialty. As contract plans are prepared by
other designers, the Specialists are expected to review and initial drawings covered by their
specialty area. Plans produced directly by Specialists in their specialty area should be prepared
with their own stamp and signature. Specialists also assist the Bridge Engineer in reviewing and
voting on amendments to AASHTO specifications. They also are responsible for keeping their
respective chapters of the Bridge Design Manual up to date. The secondary responsibility of the
Specialist is to serve as design section supervisor when the supervisor is absent.
There are three specialty areas in the Design Section: Concrete, Expansion Joints and Bearings,
and Steel.
6. Design Unit Technical Responsibilities
Each Design Unit is responsible for maintaining a resource of technical knowledge and leader-
ship. As described in the previous Section (5.), each unit has a Design Specialist (Concrete, Steel,
Expansion Joints and Bearings). In addition, each Design Unit maintains a resource of technical
knowledge in several technical areas. Following, is a list of all technical subjects for which a
resource is maintained:
• Coast Guard Permits
• Cost Estimates
• Bridge Special Provisions
• Sign Supports, Light Standards, Traffic Signal Supports
• Repairs to Damaged Prestressed Girders
• Expansion Joint Modifications
• Retaining Walls (Including MSE, Tie-Back, and Soil Nail)
• Seismic Retrofit
• Noise Walls
• Traffic Barrier Retrofits/Standards
• Bridge Standard Plans (BDM)
The resource/leadership responsibility for these technical areas does not necessarily include
responsibility for performing all of the work relating to the technical area. For many of the
technical areas, the Design Unit acts as a resource for the technical area, only, and as a contact
for industry and stakeholders.
Addendum’s are created to augment the original advertised document to make sure all
Contractors are advised prior to Bid Openings. These Addendum’s are coordinated with the
Region and OSC Plans.
The S&E Engineer attends the award meetings to justify bids and advise whether or not to award
the contract.
Other responsibilities included are:
• Special Provisions and Estimates for Change Order Work
• Cost estimates in the scoping stage of a project
• Working Day information during Stage Construction planning
• Initiates/Coordinates Amendment and GSP Updates
• Maintains BSP Library
8. Design Unit Manager Responsibility
a. The design unit manager is responsible to the Bridge Design Engineer for the timely
completion and quality of the bridge plans.
b. The design unit manager works closely with the design team (designer, checker, and
structural detailer) during the design and plan preparation phases to help avoid major
changes late in the design process. Activities during the course of design include:
(1) Evaluate the complexity of the project and the designer’s skill and classification level
to deliver the project in a timely manner. Determine both the degree of supervision
necessary for the designer and the amount of checking that will be required by the
checker.
(2) Assist the design team in defining the scope of the project, identifying the tasks to be
accomplished, developing a project work plan and schedule, and assigning resources to
achieve delivery of the project.
(3) Review and approve design criteria before start of design.
(4) Help lead designer conduct face-to-face project meetings, such as: project “kick-off”
and “wrap-up” meetings with Region, geotechnical staff, bridge construction, and
consultants to resolve outstanding issues.
(5) Assist the design team with planning, anticipating possible problems, collectively
identifying solutions, and facilitating timely delivery of needed information, such as
geometrics, hydraulics, foundation information, etc.
(6) Interact with design team regularly to discuss progress, problems, schedule, analysis
techniques, constructibility and design issues. Always encourage forward thinking,
innovative ideas and suggestions for quality improvement.
(7) Arrange for and provide the necessary resources and tools for the design team to do the
job right the first time. Offer assistance to help resolve questions or problems.
(8) Help document and disseminate information on special features and lessons learned for
the benefit of others and future projects.
(9) Mentor and train designers and detailers on state-of-the-art practices and through the
assignment of a variety of structure types.
c. The design unit manager works closely with the design team during the plan review phase.
Review efforts should concentrate on reviewing the completed plan details and design
calculations for completeness and for agreement with office criteria and practices. Review
the following periodically and at the end of the project:
(1) Design Criteria
• Seismic “a” value
• Foundation report recommendations, selection of alternates
• Deviations from AASHTO, BDM, Documentation
(2) Design Time
d. Review designer’s estimated time to complete the project. Plan resource allocation to
complete the project to meet the scheduled Ad Date. Monitor monthly time spent on the
project. Prepare and submit to the Bridge Projects Engineer monthly time reports for each
project. Estimate time remaining to complete project, percent completed, and whether
project is on or behind schedule. Arrange and plan resources to ensure a timely delivery
of the project within the estimated time to complete the project.
e. Advise Region of project scope and cost-creep. Use quarterly status reports to update Region
and Bridge Projects Engineer.
f. Use appropriate computer scheduling software or other means to monitor time usage and to
allocate resources and to plan projects.
g. Fill out Office Time Report (see Appendix 1.3-A5).
h. Review of constructibility. Any problems unique to the project?
i. Check the final plans for the following:
(1) Scan the job file for unusual items relating to geometrics, hydraulics, geotechnical,
environmental, etc.
(2) Overall check/review of sheet #1, the bridge layout for:
• Consistency — especially for multiple bridge project
• Missing information
(3) Check footing layout for conformance to Bridge Plan and for adequacy of information
given. Generally, the field personnel should be given enough information to “layout”
the footings on the ground without referring to any other sheets. Details should be clear,
precise, and dimensions tied to base reference such as survey line or defined center line
of bridge.
(4) Check the sequence of the plan sheets. They should adhere to the following order:
layout, footing layout, substructures, superstructures, miscellaneous details, barriers,
and bar list. Also check for appropriateness of the titles.
(5) Check overall dimensions and elevations, spot check for compatibility. For example,
check compatibility between superstructures and substructure. Also spot check bar
marks.
(6) Use one’s training, common sense, and experience to “size-up” structural dimensions
and reinforcement, etc., for structural adequacy. When in doubt, prepare for a line of
questioning to the designer/checker.
j. Stamp and seal the plans.
9. Bridge Design Engineer’s Responsibilities
The Bridge Design Engineer is the coach, mentor, and facilitator for the WSDOT QC/QA Bridge
Design Process. The leadership and support provided by this position is a major influence in
assuring bridge design quality for structural designs performed by both WSDOT and consultants.
The following summarizes the responsibilities of the Bridge Design Engineer relative to QC/QA:
a. When the structural contract plans are sealed by the Bridge Design Engineer, a structural/
constructibility review of the plans is performed. This is a quality assurance (QA) function
as well as meeting the “responsible charge” requirements of the laws relating to Professional
Engineers.
b. Review and approve the Preliminary Bridge Plans. The primary focus for this responsibility
is to assure that the most cost-effective and appropriate structure type is selected for a
particular bridge site.
c. Participate in coordination, scheduling, and project-related discussions with stakeholders,
customers, and outside agencies relating to major structural design issues.
d. Facilitate resolution of major project design issues.
e. Review unique project special provisions and major Standard Specification modifications
relating to structures.
f. Facilitate partnerships between WSDOT, consultant, and construction industry stakeholders
to facilitate design quality.
g. Encourage designer creativity and innovation.
h. Exercise leadership and direction for maintaining a progressive and up to date Bridge Design
Manual.
i. Create an open and supportive office environment in which Design Section staff are empow-
ered to do high quality structural design work.
10. General Bridge Plan Signature Policy
The sealing and signature of bridge plans is an important element of the Bridge QC/QA process.
It signifies review and responsible charge of the design and details represented in the plans. The
Bridge and Structures Office intends to have at least one Licensed Structural Engineer seal and
sign each contract plan sheet (except the bar list). For major projects, the Design Unit Manager
and the Bridge Design Engineer will typically review, seal, and sign the bridge plans. For routine
bridge designs and transportation structure designs, the Design Unit Manager (SE License) and
designer with a Civil Engineer License will typically review, seal, and sign the contract plans
(except the bar list).
Review is made of the Preliminary Plan first and the PS&E second. Comments are treated as advisory,
although major structural problems must be corrected. An engineer from the county, city, or consultant
may contact the reviewer to discuss the comments.
1.3.2 Design/Check Calculation File
A. File of Calculations
The Bridge and Structures Office maintains a file of all pertinent design/check calculations for
documentation and future reference.
B. Procedures
After an assigned project is completed and the bridge is built, the designer should turn in to the
manager a bound file containing the design/check calculations.
C. File Inclusions
The following items should be included in the file:
1. Index Sheets
Number all calculation sheets and prepare an index by subject with the corresponding sheet
numbers.
List the name of the project, SR Number, designer/checker initials, date (month, day, and year),
and supervisor’s initials.
2. Design Calculations
These should include design criteria, loadings, structural analysis, one set of moment and shear
diagrams and pertinent computer input and output data (reduced to 8 1 2 inch by 11 inch sheet
size).
3. Special Design Features
Brief narrative of major design decisions or revisions and the reasons for them.
4. Construction Problems or Revisions (As They Develop)
Not all construction problems can be anticipated during the design of the structure; therefore,
construction problems arise that require revisions. Calculations for revisions made during
construction should be included in the design/check calculation file when construction is
completed.
D. File Exclusions
The following items should not be included in the file:
1. Geometric calculations.
2. Irrelevant computer information.
3. Prints of Office Standard Sheets.
4. Irrelevant sketches.
5. Voided sheets.
6. Preliminary design calculations and drawings unless used in the final design.
7. Test hole logs.
8. Quantity calculations.
E. Upon completion of the design work, fill out a Design Completed Checklist (Form 230-035).
(See Appendix 1.3-A3.)
1.3.3 Office Copy Review
Office Copy is the compiled contract documents (plans/specials) of all involved disciplines (Region,
service center, and Bridge Office). It is normally distributed for final review for compatibility,
completeness, and accuracy before final printing and going to Ad with the contract.
a. Note the due date to determine priority.
b. Review the comments from any previous reviews of the Region PS&E and check to see if the items
have been corrected.
c. Review all indexes for items related to traffic signals, illumination, signs, retaining walls, traffic
barrier, and other structural items.
d. Review the index and verify that no bridge plans have been omitted.
e. Review pertinent sections of the special provisions for consistency with the plans, design criteria,
and specifications.
f. Verify that Standard Plans and preapproved plans are called out where applicable.
g. Review pertinent plan sheets.
h. Verify consistency between Region plans and bridge plans; particularly geometry, drainage,
guardrail, and other pertinent items.
i. Determine if any nonstandard designs are shown or specified. If so, a structural review of them may
be necessary. Note any missing specifications, Standard Plans, etc.
j. Return plans and comments to the unit manager.
1.3.4 Addenda
Plan or specification revisions during the advertising period require an addendum. The Bridge Projects
Engineer will evaluate the need for the addendum after consultation with the OSC Bridge Construction
Engineer, Region, and the Plans Branch. The Bridge Design Engineer or the design unit manager must
initial all addenda.
For addenda to contract plans, obtain the original drawing from the Bridge Project Unit. Use shading to
mark all changes (except deletions) and place a revision note at the bottom of the sheet (Region and Plans
Branch jointly determine addendum date) and a description of the change. Return the original and an
11 × 17 reduced copy to the Bridge Project Unit who will submit the reduced copy to the Plans Branch
for processing. See Chapter 10, Section 10.1.1I, for additional information.
For changes to specifications, submit a copy of the page with the change to the Bridge S&E Unit for
processing.
If problems are encountered which may cause a delay in the checking of the shop plans or
completion of the contract, notify the unit manager and the Construction Support Unit.
Return all shop drawings and Contract Plans to the Construction Support unit when checking is
completed. Include a list of any deviations from the Contract Plans which are allowed and a list
of any disagreements with the Project Engineer’s comments (regardless of how minor they may
be). If deviations from the Contract Plans are to be allowed, a Change Order may be required.
Alert the Construction Support Unit so that their transmittal letter may inform the Region and
the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer.
B. Sign Structure, Signal, and Illumination Shop Plans
In addition to those instructions described under “Bridge Shop Plans,” the following instructions
apply:
1. Review the shop plans to ensure that the pole sizes conform to the Contract Plans. Determine if
fabricator has supplied plans for each pole or type of pole called for in the contract.
2. The Project Engineer’s copy may show shaft lengths where not shown on Contract Plans or
whether a change from Contract Plans is required. Manufacturer’s details may vary slightly
from contract plan requirements, but must be structurally adequate to be acceptable.
1.3.6 Contract Plan Changes (Change Orders and As-Builts)
A. Request for Changes
The following is intended as a guide for processing changes to the design plans after a project has
been awarded.
For projects which have been assigned a Bridge Technical Advisor, structural design change orders
can be approved at the Regional level provided the instructions outlined in the Construction Manual
are followed.
For all other projects, all changes are to be channeled through the Construction Support Unit which
will coordinate with the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer. Responses to inquiries should be
handled as follows:
1. Request by Contractor or Supplier
A designer, BTA, or design unit manager contacted directly by a contractor/supplier may discuss
a proposed change with the contractor/supplier, but shall clearly tell the contractor/supplier to
formally submit the proposed change though the Project Engineer and that the discussion in no
way implies approval of the proposed change. Designers are to inform their manager if they are
contacted.
2. Request From the Project Engineer
Requests for changes directly from the Project Engineer to the design unit manager should be
discouraged but may be acceptable when the Bridge Construction Engineer is not available. The
Bridge Construction Engineer and Construction Support Unit should be informed of any changes.
3. Request From the Region Construction Engineer
Requests from the Region Construction Engineer are to be handled like requests from the Region
Project Engineer.
Figure 1
P65:DP/BDM1
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
The designer may use a computer spreadsheet, to track the progress of the project and as an aid in
evaluating the percent complete. Other tools include using an Excel spreadsheet listing bridge sheet
plans by title, bridge sheet number, percent design complete, percent design check, percent plan
details completed, and percent plan details checked. A spreadsheet with this data allows the designer
or design team leader to rapidly determine percent of project completion and where resources need to
be allocated to complete the project on schedule.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
Washington State
Department of Transportation Design Time Bar Chart
SR No. Job No. Project
Designed By Design Checked By Drawn By Design Start Date Scheduled Completion Date Anticipated Completion Date
of Time to Complete
Original Estimate
Layout By
Current Estimate
to Complete
(Man Hours)
(Man Hours)
Activity
1 Design
Design
2 Check
3 Drawings
4 Revisions
5 Quantities
6 S&E
7 Reviews
Subtotals 12345678
100%
12345678
12345678
12345678
8 Other Jobs 12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
9 Leave 12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
Totals
12345678 Remarks
Figure 1.5.2-1
observed problems with an existing bridge or obvious site problem. The site visit data would then be
incorporated into the job file. This information will be a valuable asset in preparing constructable and
cost-effective structural designs. When negotiating with consultants for structural design work, it is
important to make appropriate site visits part of the consultants’s scope of work.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
1.99 Bibliography
1. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, Latest Edition and Interims, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
2. LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Latest Edition and Interims. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
3. Organization Handbook, Washington State Department of Transportation.
4. WSDOT Design Manual.
5. WSDOT Construction Manual.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
6 OTHER_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
WORKING STRESS________________________________________________________________________________
OTHER__________________________________________________________________________________________________
10 PRESTRESSED GIRDERS:
SERIES, __________________________________ SPECIAL,_________________________________
12 STEEL STRUCTURES:
A.A.S.H.T.O. M-
A.A.S.H.T.O. M-
A.A.S.H.T.O. M-
A.A.S.H.T.O. M- ROLLERS
A.A.S.H.T.O. M- CASTINGS
OTHER
13 SPECIAL CRITERIA:
230-030
DOT Revised 1/89
Project SR No.
TIME CHARGED
Design ____________ Hours Standard _______________
Check ____________ Hours
Drafting ___________ Hours
Review ___________ Hours
Total _____________ Hours
TIME CHARGED
Design ____________ Hours Standard _______________
Check ____________ Hours
Drafting ___________ Hours
Review ___________ Hours
Total _____________ Hours
Not Included In
Bridge Quantities List
Environmental And Engineering Service Center
Bridge and Structures Office
Type of Structure
The following is a list of items for which the Bridge and Structures Office is relying on the Region to furnish
plans, specifications and estimates.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
August 1998
Appendix A
By
% Completed
Hours Required
Date Completed
By
% Completed
Hours Required
Date Completed
By
% Completed
Hours Required
Date Completed
By
% Completed
Hours Required
Date Completed
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
DOT 232-002 (formerly C1M5)
Rev 3/91
Breakdown of Project Manhours Required Form
1.5-A1
1.5-A2
Monthly Project Progress Report Form
Rev 3/91
DOT 232-004 (formerly C1M4)
987654321
98765432 99887766554433221 987654321 987654321
987654321 987654321
98765432
987654321
9 8765432
987654321
9876543211 9876543211 9876543211 9876543211
Totals
987654321 987654321 987654321 987654321
6543210987654321 66543210987654321 6543210987654321 76543210987654321
654321098765432
6543210987654321 54321098765432
6543210987654321
6 543210987654321 7 654321098765432
76543210987654321
6543210987654321 6543210987654321 654321098765432
6543210987654321 76543210987654321
9
6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 76543210987654321
65432109876543211 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 76543210987654321
6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 76543210987654321
6543210987654321 65432109876543211 6543210987654321 76543210987654321
6543210987654321 65 6543210987654321 76543210987654321
6543210987654321
4321098765432
6543210987654321 76543210987654321
8
654321098765432
65432109876543211 65432109876543211 65432109876543211 765432109876543211
6543210987654321 6543210987654321 6543210987654321 76543210987654321
7
6
5
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
4
3
2
1
Activity No.
Project Complete
% of Total
Complete
% of Activity
Time Used
% of Total
Used to Date
Man Hours
Project Complete
% of Total
Complete
% of Activity
Time Used
% of Total
Used to Date
Man Hours
Project Complete
% of Total
Complete
% of Activity
Time Used
% of Total
Used to Date
Man Hours
Project Complete
% of Total
Complete
% of Activity
Time Used
% of Total
Used to Date
Man Hours
As of As of As of As of
Reference No. Reference No. Reference No. Reference No.
General Information
August 1998
Monthly Project Progress Report Department of Transportation
Washington State
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
Page
2.0 Preliminary Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1-1
2.1 Preliminary Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.1.1 Interdisciplinary Design Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.1.2 Value Engineering Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.1.3 Preliminary Project Recommendations (Existing Bridges) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.1.4 Preliminary Project Recommendations (New Bridges) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.5 Type, Size, and Location Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. TS&L General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. TS&L Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
C. Reviews and Submittal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Preliminary Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2-1
2.2.1 Development of the Preliminary Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Site Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Consideration of Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. Designer Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
F. Concept Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
G. Inspection and Maintenance Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2.2 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Bridge Site Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C. Request for Preliminary Foundation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Request for Preliminary Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
E. Design Report or Design Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
F. Other Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
G. Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.3 General Factors for Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. Site Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
C. Economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
D. Structural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
E. Environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
F. Aesthetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
G. Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
H. Hydraulic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.4 Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Coast Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.5 Approvals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
A. Bridge Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. Bridge Architect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
C. Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
D. Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Page
2.3 Preliminary Plan Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3-1
2.3.1 Highway Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Horizontal Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Vertical Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. End Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
F. Determination of Bridge Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
G. Pedestrian Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
H. Bridge Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.2 Railroad Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
D. Horizontal Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
E. Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
F. Vertical Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
G. Determination of Bridge Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
H. Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.3 Water Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
A. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
B. Horizontal Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
C. Vertical Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
D. End Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
E. Determination of Bridge Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
F. Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
G. Pier Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
H. Construction Access and Time Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3.4 Bridge Widenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
A. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
B. Traffic Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
C. Construction Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.5 Detour Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
A. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
B. Live Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.6 Retaining Walls and Noise Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.7 Bridge Deck Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.8 Bridge Deck Protective Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.9 Construction Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.10 Inspection and Maintenance Acces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
B. Safety Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
C. Travelers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Selection of Structure Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4-1
2.4.1 Bridge Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Reinforced Concrete Tee Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Page
C. Reinforced Concrete Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Post Tensioned Concrete Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. Prestressed Concrete Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
F. Composite Steel Plate Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
G. Composite Steel Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
H. Steel Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I. Segmental Concrete Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
J. Railroad Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
K. Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
L. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4.2 Wall Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.5 Aesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5-1
2.5.1 General Visual Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.5.2 End Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Wing Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Slope Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.5.3 Intermediate Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.5.4 Barrier and Wall Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Plain Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Fractured Fin Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C. Pigmented Sealer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.5.5 Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.6 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6-1
2.6.1 Structure Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.6.2 Handling and Shipping of Precast Members and Steel Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.6.3 Salvage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.7 WSDOT Standard Highway Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7-1
2.7.1 Design Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.99 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.99-1
P:DP/BDM2
After piers have been located, a memorandum request for a Hydraulics Report should be made to
the Olympia Service Center Hydraulics Unit. FHWA expects specific information on scour and
backwater on both falsework and permanent piers. The Olympia Service Center Hydraulics Unit
will submit a report for inclusion as an appendix to the TS&L study.
The Bridge Architect at the Bridge and Structures Office should be consulted early on and
throughout the study process “Notes to the file” should be made documenting the aesthetic
requirements and recommendations of the Architect.
Cost backup data is needed for any costs used in the TS&L study. FHWA expects TS&L costs
based on estimated quantities. This data is to be included in an appendix to the TS&L study. It is
a good idea to coordinate the quantities submitted are in a form compatible with the estimator’s
cost breakdown method.
B. TS&L Outline
The TS&L study should describe the project, the proposed structure, and give reasons why the bridge
type, size, and location were selected.
1. Cover, Title Sheet, and Contents
These should identify the project and the contents of the TS&L.
2. Photographs
There should be enough color photographs to provide the look and feel of the area. The prints
should be numbered and labeled and the location indicated on a diagram.
3. Introduction
The introduction describes the report and references other reports used to prepare the TS&L
study. The following reports should be listed if used.
• Design Reports and Supplements
• Environmental Reports
• Architectural or Visual Assessment Reports
• Hydraulic Report
• Geotechnical Reports
4. Project Description
The project description is intended to summarize the preferred alternative of the project design so
that the TS&L study clearly defines the project. Care should be taken to describe the project
adequately but briefly. A vicinity map should be shown.
5. Design Criteria
Design criteria states to what code, loading, etc., the bridge will be constructed. Besides
the AASHTO specifications and assorted AASHTO guide specifications, other criteria are
sometimes used. These criteria should be listed. Examples of this would be the temperature
loading used for segmental bridges or areas defined as wetlands.
6. Structural Studies
The structural studies section documents how the proposed structure type, size, and location were
determined. The following considerations should be addressed.
• Aesthetics
• Cost Estimates
• Geometric constraints
• Project staging
• Foundations
• Hydraulics
• Feasibility of construction
• Structural constraints
• Maintenance
This section should have a narrative style describing how these factors point to the preferred
alternative. Show how each constraint eliminated or supported the alternatives. For instance,
“Because the geometry required a 200-foot span, prestressed concrete girders could not be used”
or “Restrictions on falsework placement forced the use of self supporting precast concrete or
steel girders.”
7. Executive Summary
The executive summary should be able to stand alone as a separate document. The project and
structure description should be given. Present the recommended alternative with its cost and
include a summary of considerations used to choose or eliminate alternatives.
8. Drawings
Preliminary Plan drawings of the recommended alternative are included in the appendix. The
drawings show the plan, elevation, and typical section. For projects where alternative designs are
specified as recommended alternatives, Preliminary Plans for each of these structure types shall
be included. Supplemental drawings showing special features, such as complex piers, are often
provided to clearly define the project.
C. Reviews and Submittal
While writing the TS&L study, all major decisions should be discussed with the unit supervisor, who
can decide if the Bridge Design Engineer needs to be consulted. A peer review meeting with the
Bridge Design Engineer should be scheduled at 50 percent completion. The FHWA Bridge Engineer
should be invited to provide input.
The final report must be reviewed, approved, and the Preliminary Plan drawings signed by the Bridge
Architect, the Bridge Projects Engineer, the Bridge Design Engineer, and the Bridge and Structures
Engineer. The TS&L study is submitted with a cover letter to FHWA signed by the Bridge and
Structures Engineer.
2:DP:BDM2
few for most projects. For some smaller projects and most major projects, design alternatives merit
development and close evaluation. The process of considering and rejecting design alternatives
provides documentation for the preferred alternative.
E. Designer Recommendation
Once the designer has done a thorough job of evaluating the needs and limitations of the site,
analyzed all information and developed and evaluated design alternatives for the project, he should
be able to make a recommendation for the optimum solution. Based on this recommendation, the
designer should discuss the recommendation with the Bridge Projects Engineer.
F. Concept Approval
For some projects, the presentation, in “E” above, to the Bridge Projects Engineer will satisfy the
need for concept approval. Large complex projects, projects of unique design, or projects where two
or more alternatives appear viable, should be presented to the Bridge Design Engineer for his
concurrence before plan development is completed. For unique or complex projects a presentation is
made to the Bridge and Structures Office Peer Review Committee.
G. Inspection and Maintenance Access
In the process developing the Preliminary Plan, the design engineer should consult with the Bridge
Preservation Section for input.
2.2.2 Documentation
A. Job File
When a memorandum IDC, transmitting site data from the region is received by the Bridge and
Structures Office, a job file is created. This official job file serves as a depository for all
communications and resource information for the job. Scheduling and time estimates are logged in
this file, as well as cost estimates, preliminary quantities, and documentation of all approvals.
When the Preliminary Plan is completed, the job file continues to serve a useful purpose as a
communications and documentation depository for all pertinent project-related information during
the design process.
B. Bridge Site Data
All Preliminary Plans are developed from site data as submitted by the region. This submittal will
consist of a memorandum IDC, and appropriate attachments as specified by Chapter 1110 of the
Design Manual. When this information is received, it should be reviewed for completeness so that
missing or incomplete information can be noted and requested.
C. Request for Preliminary Foundation Data
A Request for Preliminary Foundation Data is sent to Geotech Branch to solicit any foundation
data that is available at this preliminary stage. The Geotech Branch is provided with approximate
dimensions for overall structure length and width, an approximate number of intermediate piers
(if applicable), and approximate stations for beginning and end of structure on the alignment.
Based on test holes from previous construction in the area, geological maps, and soil surveys.
The Materials Lab responds by IDC giving an analysis of what foundation conditions arc likely to
be encountered and what types of substructure are best suited for these conditions.
D. Structural
Limitation on structure depth
Requirements for future widening
Foundation and groundwater conditions
Anticipated settlement
E. Environmental
Site conditions (wetlands, environmentally sensitive areas)
EIS requirements
Mitigating measures
F. Aesthetic
General appearance
Compatibility with surroundings and adjacent structures
Visual exposure and importance
G. Construction
Ease of construction
Falsework clearances and requirements
Erection problems
Hauling difficulties and access to site
Construction season
Time limit for construction
H. Hydraulic
Bridge deck drainage
Stream flow conditions and drift
Passage of flood debris
Scour, effect of pier as an obstruction (shape, width, skew, number of columns)
Bank and pier protection
Consideration of a culvert as an alternate solution
Permit requirements for navigation and stream work limitations
I. Other
Prior commitments made to other agency officials and individuals of the community
Recommendations resulting from preliminary studies
2.2.4 Permits
A. Coast Guard
As outlined in Chapter 240 of the Design Manual, the Bridge and Structures Office is responsible for
coordinating and applying for Coast Guard permits for bridges over waterways. This is handled by
the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer in the Bridge Projects Unit of the Bridge and Structures Office.
A determination of whether a bridge requires a permit is known before the bridge site data is
received. Generally, tidal-influenced waterways and waterways used for commercial navigation will
require Coast Guard permits. However, some waterways may qualify for an exemption from a permit
if certain conditions apply including the exclusion of use by vessels larger than 21 feet long. The
process of getting this exemption, from FHWA, not the Coast Guard, is the responsibility of the
region. The Coast Guard Liaison Engineer should be asked to check with the region and the Coast
Guard to confirm the situation on a case by case basis.
For all waterway crossings, the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer is required to initial the Preliminary
Plan as to whether a Coast Guard permit or exemption is required. This box regarding Coast Guard
permit status is located in the center left margin of the plan. If a permit is required, the permit target
date will also be noted. The reduced print, signed by the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer, shall be
placed in the job file.
The work on developing the permit application should be started such that it is ready to be sent to the
Coast Guard eight months before the project ad date. The Coast Guard Liaison Engineer should be
given a copy of the Preliminary Plan from which to develop the plan sheets that are part of the permit.
B. Other
All other permits will be the responsibility of the region. The Bridge and Structures Office may be
asked to provide information to the region to assist them in making applications for these permits.
2.2.5 Approvals
A. Bridge Design
When the Preliminary Plan has been checked by the checker and signal by the Bridge Projects
Engineer, it is ready to go to the Bridge Design Engineer and the Bridge and Structures Engineer
for approval.
B. Bridge Architect
For all preliminary plans, the Architect should be aware and involved when the designer is first
developing the plan. The Architect should be presented with a reduced print of the plan by the
designer. This is done prior to the job going to the checker. The Architect will review the print and
signify his approval by signing it. This print is placed in the job file. If future plan revisions change
elements of aesthetic importance, the Architect should be asked to review and approve, by signature,
a print of the revised plan.
For large, multiple bridge projects, the Bridge Architect should be contacted for development of a
coordinated architectural concept for the project corridor. The architectural concept for a project
corridor is generally developed in draft form and reviewed with the project stakeholders prior to
finalizing.
C. Region
Prior to the completion of the preliminary plan the designer should meet with the region to discuss the
concept and get their input. When the Preliminary Plan and the “Not Included in Bridge Quantities
List” along with the preliminary plan transmittal IDC.
The region will review the plan for compliance and agreement with their original site data. They will
work to answer any notes to the region that have been listed on the plan. When this review is com-
plete, the Regional Administrator, or his representative, will sign the plan. The region will send back
a print of the plan with any comments noted in red (additions) and green (deletions) along with
responses to the notes to the region.
D. Railroad
When a railroad is involved with a structure on a Preliminary Plan, the Right of Way Accommodation
Engineer of the Design Office must be involved during the plan preparation process. A copy of the
Preliminary Plan is sent to the Right of Way Accommodation Engineer, who then sends a copy to the
railroad involved for their comments and approval.
The railroad will respond with approval by letter to the Right of Way Accommodation Engineer.
A copy of this letter is then routed to the Bridge and Structures Office and is placed in the job file.
P:DP/BDM2
guardrail would need to taper into the pier at a flare rate satisfying the criteria in Chapter 710 of the
Design Manual. See Figure 2.3.1-2. The reduced clearance to the pier would need to be approved by
the region.
D. Vertical Clearances
The required minimum vertical clearances are established by the functional classification of the
highway and the construction classification of the project. For state highways, this is as outlined in
Chapters 430 and 440 of the Design Manual. For city and county arterials, this is as outlined in
Chapter IV of the Local Agency Guidelines.
Actual minimum vertical clearances are shown on the Preliminary Plan (to the nearest 0.1 foot). The
approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the plan.
For structures crossing divided highways, minimum vertical clearances for both directions are noted.
E. End Slopes
The type and rate of end slope used at bridge sites is dependent on several factors. Soil conditions and
stability, right of way availability, fill height or depth of cut, roadway alignment and functional
classification, and existing site conditions are all important.
The region should have made a preliminary determination based on these factors during the
preparation of the bridge site data. The side slopes noted on the Roadway Section for the roadway
should indicate the type and rate of end slope.
The Materials Lab will recommend the minimum rate of end slope. This should be compared to the
rate recommended in the Roadway Section and to existing site conditions (if applicable). The types of
end slopes and the conditions for which each are applicable are spelled out in Chapter 640 of the
Design Manual.
End slope protection may be required at certain highway crossings, as spelled out in Chapter 1120 of
the Design Manual. Examples of slope protection are shown on Standard Plan D-9.
F. Determination of Bridge Length
Establishing the location of the end piers for a highway crossing is a function of the profile grade of
the overcrossing roadway, the minimum vertical and horizontal clearances required for the structure,
and the type and rate of end slope used.
For the general case of bridges in cut or fill slopes, the control point is where the cut or fill slope
plane meets the bottom of ditch or edge of shoulder as applicable. From this point, the fill or cut slope
plane is established at the recommended rate up to where the slope plane intersects the grade of the
roadway at the shoulder. Following the requirements of Standard Plan H-9, the back of pavement
seat, end of wing wall or end of retaining wall can be established at 3 feet behind the slope
intersection.
For the general case of bridges on wall type or “closed” abutments, the controlling factors are the
required horizontal clearance and the size of the abutment. This situation would most likely occur in
an urban setting or where right of way is limited.
G. Pedestrian Crossings
Pedestrian crossings follow the same format as highway crossings. Geometric criteria for pedestrian
facilities are established in Chapter 1020 of the Design Manual. Width and clearances would be as
established there and as confirmed by region. Unique items to be addressed with pedestrian facilities
include ADA requirements, the railing to be used, handrail requirements, overhead enclosure
requirements, and profile grade requirements for ramps and stairs.
H. Bridge Redundancy
Design bridges to minimize the risk of catastrophic collapse by using redundant supporting elements
(columns and girders).
For substructure design use:
One column minimum for roadways 28 feet wide and under.
Two columns minimum for roadways over 28 feet to 40 feet.
Three columns minimum for roadways over 40 feet to 60 feet.
Collision protection or design for collision loads for piers with one or two columns.
For superstructure design use:
Three girders (webs) minimum for roadways 32 feet and under.
Four girders (webs) minimum for roadways over 32 feet.
See Appendix 2.3-A2 for details.
Note: Any deviation from the above guidelines shall have a written approval by the Bridge
Design Engineer.
2.3.2 Railroad Crossings
A. General
A railroad crossing is defined as a grade separation between an intersecting highway and a railroad.
A bridge which provides highway traffic over the railroad is called an overcrossing. A bridge which
provides highway traffic under the railroad is called an undercrossing.
Requirements for railroad separations for both undercrossings and overcrossings may involve
negotiations with the railroad company concerning clearances, geometrics, utilities, and maintenance
roads. The railroad’s review and approval, will be based on the completed Preliminary Plan.
B. Criteria
The initial Preliminary Plan shall be prepared in accordance with the criteria of this section to
apply uniformly to all railroads. Variance from this criteria will be negotiated with the railroad,
when necessary, after a Preliminary Plan has been provided for their review.
C. Bridge Width
For railroad overcrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width of highway
crossings shall apply. Details for railroad undercrossings will depend on the specific project and the
railroad involved.
D. Horizontal Clearances
For railroad undercrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to horizontal clearances for
highway crossings shall apply. However, because of the heavy live loading of railroad spans, it is
advantageous to reduce the span lengths as much as possible. For railroad undercrossings skewed to
the roadway, piers may be placed up to the outside edge of 8-foot (minimum) shoulders if certain
conditions are met (structural requirements, satisfactory aesthetics, satisfactory sight distance, etc.).
The actual minimum horizontal clearances are shown in the Plan view of the Preliminary Plan (to the
nearest 0.1 foot). For railroad overcrossings, minimum horizontal clearances are as noted below:
Railroad
Alone
For railroads, the minimum horizontal construction opening is 8 feet 6 inches to either side of the center-
line of track. The minimum vertical construction opening is 22 feet 6 inches above the top of rail at 6 feet
offset from the centerline of track. Falsework openings shall be checked to verify that enough space is
available for falsework beams to span the required horizontal distances and still provide the minimum
vertical falsework clearance. Minimum vertical openings of less than 22 feet 6 inches may be negotiated
with the railroad through the Utilities-Railroad Engineer.
2.3.3 Water Crossings
A. Bridge Width
The provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width for highway crossings apply here.
B. Horizontal Clearances
Water crossings over navigable waters requiring clearance for navigation channels shall satisfy the
horizontal clearances required by the Coast Guard. Communication with the Coast Guard will be
handled through the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer. For bridges over navigable waters, the centerline
of the navigation channel and the horizontal clearances (to the nearest 0.1 foot) to the piers or the pier
protection are shown on the Plan view of the Preliminary Plan.
C. Vertical Clearances
Vertical clearances for water crossings must satisfy floodway clearance and, where applicable,
navigation clearance.
Bridges over navigable waters must satisfy the vertical clearances required by the Coast Guard.
Communication with the Coast Guard will be handled through the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer.
The actual minimum vertical clearance (to the nearest 0.1 foot) for the channel span is shown on the
Preliminary Plan. The approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper
left margin of the plan. The clearance shall be shown to the water surface as required by the Coast
Guard criteria.
Floodway vertical clearance will need to be discussed with the Hydraulics Office. In accordance with
the flood history, nature of the site, character of drift, and other factors, they will determine a mini-
mum vertical clearance for the 100-year flood. The roadway profile and the bridge superstructure
depth must accommodate this. The actual minimum vertical clearance to the 100-year flood is shown
(to the nearest 0.1 foot) on the Preliminary Plan, and the approximate location of the minimum
vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the plan.
D. End Slopes
The type and rate of end slopes for water crossings is similar to that for highway crossings. Soil
conditions and stability, fill height, location of toe of fill, existing channel conditions, flood and scour
potential, and environmental concerns are all important.
As with highway crossings, the region, and Materials Lab will make preliminary recommendations as
to the type and rate of end slope. The Hydraulics Office will also review the Regions’s
recommendation for slope protection.
E. Determination of Bridge Length
Determining the overall length of a water crossing is not as simple and straight forward as for a
highway crossing. Floodway requirements and environmental factors have a significant impact on
where piers and fill can be placed.
If a water crossing is required to satisfy floodway and environmental concerns, it will be known by
the time the Preliminary Plan has been started. Environmental studies and the Design Report prepared
by the region will document any restrictions on fill placement, pier arrangement, and overall flood-
way clearance. The Hydraulics Office will need to review the size, shape, and alignment of all bridge
piers in the floodway and the subsequent effect they will have on the base flood elevation. The overall
bridge length may need to be increased depending on the span arrangement selected and the change in
the flood backwater, or justification will need to be documented.
F. Scour
The Hydraulics Office will indicate the anticipated depth of scour at the bridge piers. They will
recommend pier shapes to best streamline flow and reduce the scour forces. They will also recom-
mend measures to protect the piers from scour activity or accumulation of drift (minimum cover to
top of footing, riprap, pier alignment to stream flow, closure walls between pier columns, etc.).
G. Pier Protection
For bridges over navigable channels, piers adjacent to the channel may require pier protection. The
Coast Guard will determine whether pier protection is required. This determination is based on the
horizontal clearance provided for the navigation channel and the type of navigation traffic using the
channel.
H. Construction Access and Time Restrictions
Water crossings will typically have some sort of construction restrictions associated with them. These
must be considered during preliminary plan preparation.
The time period that the contractor will be allowed to do work within the waterway may be restricted
by regulations administered by various agencies. Depending on the time limitations, a bridge with
fewer piers or faster pier construction may be more advantageous even if more expensive.
Contractor access to the water may also be restricted. Shore areas supporting certain plant species are
sometimes classified as wetlands. In order to work in or gain access through such areas, a work trestle
may be necessary. Work trestles may also be necessary for bridge removal as well as new bridge
construction.
2.3.4 Bridge Widenings
A. Bridge Width
The provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width for highway crossings shall apply. In most
cases, the width to be provided by the widening will be what is called for by the design standards,
unless a deviation is approved.
B. Traffic Restrictions
Bridge widenings inherently involve traffic restrictions on the lanes above and where applicable on
the lanes below. The bridge site data submitted by the district should contain information regarding
temporary lane widths and staging configurations. This information should be checked to be certain
that the existing bridge width, and the bridge roadway width during the intermediate construction
stages of the bridge are sufficient for the lane widths, shy distances, temporary barriers, and construc-
tion room for the contractor. These temporary lane widths and shy distances are noted on the
Preliminary Plan. The temporary lane widths and shy distances on the roadway beneath the bridge
being widened should also be checked that adequate clearance is available for any substructure
construction.
C. Construction Sequence
Using the traffic restriction data in the bridge site data, a construction sequence shall be developed.
Such a sequence shall take into account necessary steps for construction of the bridge widening
(substructure and superstructure), any construction work off of and adjacent to the structure, and the
requirements of traffic flow on and below the structure. Checks shall be made to be certain that girder
spacings, closure pours, and removal work are all compatible with the traffic arrangements.
Projects with several bridges being widened at the same time should have sequencing that is
compatible with the region’s traffic plans during construction and that allow the contractor room
to work. It is important to meet with the region project staff to assure that the construction staging and
characterization of traffic during construction is constructible and minimizes the impact to the
traveling public.
2.3.5 Detour Structures
A. Bridge Width
The lane widths, shy distances, and overall roadway widths for detour structures are determined by
the Region. Review and approval of detour roadway widths is done by the Traffic Office.
B. Live Load
Unless otherwise justified, all detour structures shall be designed for an AASHTO HS 15 live load.
Construction requirements and staging can be sufficient reason to justify designing for a higher
live load.
The horizontal dimension of the falsework or construction opening shall be the sum of the temporary
traffic lane widths and shy distances, plus two 2-foot temporary concrete barriers, plus 2 feet shy behind
these barriers. For multispan openings, a minimum of 2 feet shall be assumed for the interior support. This
interior support shall also have 2 feet shy on both sides to the two 2-foot temporary concrete barriers that
will flank it.
The vertical clearance shall normally be 14 feet 6 inches minimum. The space available for the falsework
must be enough for whatever depth is necessary to span the required horizontal opening. If the necessary
depth is greater than the space available, either the minimum vertical clearance for the falsework shall be
reduced or the horizontal clearance and span for the falsework shall be reduced.
Preferably, the falsework span shall not exceed 38 feet. This limits the stresses in the new structure from
the construction and concrete pouring sequences. While the falsework or construction openings are
measured normal to the crossroad alignment, the falsework span is measured parallel to the bridge
alignment.
Once the construction clearances have been determined the designer should meet with the region to
review the construction clearances to assure compatibility with the construction staging. This review
should take place prior to finalization of the preliminary bridge plan.
For railroads see Section 2.3.2H.
2.3.10 Inspection and Maintenance Access
A. General
Bridge inspection is required by the FHWA a minimum of every two years. The inspectors are
required to access the bridge components to within 3 feet (1 meter). Maintenance forces need to
access damaged members and locations that may collect debris. This is accomplished by using many
methods. Safety cables, ladders, bucket trucks, Under Bridge Inspection Truck (UBIT), (see Figure
2.3.10-1), and under bridge travelers are just a few of the most common methods. Preliminary
designers need to be aware of these requirements to assist the inspectors efforts over the life of the
bridge. Access should be considered throughout the Preliminary Plan TS&L stages.
Figure 2.3.10-1
B. Safety Cables
Safety cables strung on steel plate girders or trusses allow for walking access. Care must be given to
the application and location. Built-up plate girder bridges are detailed with a safety cable for inspec-
tors walking the bottom flange. However, when the girders become more than 8 feet deep, the
inspection of the top flange and top lateral connections becomes difficult. When the girders are less
than 5 feet deep, it is not feasible for the inspectors to stand on the bottom flanges. On large trusses,
large gusset plates (3 feet or more wide) are difficult to negotiate around. Cable are best run on the
exterior of the bridge except at large gusset plates. At these locations, cables or lanyard anchors
should be placed on the inside face of the truss. This way inspectors can utilize bottom lateral gusset
plates to stand on while traversing around the main truss gusset.
C. Travelers
Under bridge travelers, placed on rails that remain permanently on the bridge, can be considered on
large steel structures. This is an expensive option but it should be evaluated for large bridges with
high ADT as access to the bridge would be limited by traffic windows that specify when a lane can be
closed. Some bridges are restricted to weekend UBIT inspection for this reason.
4:P:BDM2
2. Characteristics
Construction details and forming are more difficult than for a steel plate girder. Shipping and
erecting of large sections must be reviewed. Current cost information should be considered
because of changing steel market conditions.
3. Depth/Span Ratios
a. Constant depth
Simple spans 1/22
Continuous spans 1/25
b. Variable depth
@ Center of span 1/40
@ Intermediate pier 1/20
Sloping webs are not used on box girders of variable depth.
H. Steel Truss
1. Use
For simple spans up to 300 feet and for continuous spans up to 1,200 feet. Used where vertical
clearance requirements dictate a shallow superstructure and long spans or where terrain dictates
long spans and construction by cantilever method.
2. Characteristics
Construction details are numerous and can be complex. Cantilever construction method can
facilitate construction over inaccessible areas. Through trusses are discouraged because of the
resulting restricted horizontal and vertical clearances for the roadway.
3. Depth/Span Ratios
a. Simple spans 1/6
b. Continuous spans
@ Center of span 1/18
@ Intermediate pier 1/9
I. Segmental Concrete Box Girder
1. Use
For continuous spans from 200 to 700 feet. Used where site dictates long spans and construction
by cantilever method.
2. Characteristics
Use of travelers for the form apparatus facilitates the cantilever construction method enabling
long-span construction without falsework. Precast concrete segments may be used. Tight
geometric control is required during construction to ensure proper alignment.
3. Depth/Span Ratios
Variable depth
@ Center of span 1/50
@ Intermediate pier 1/20
J. Railroad Bridges
1. Use
For railroad undercrossings, most railroad companies prefer simple span steel construction. This
is to simplify repair and reconstruction in the event of derailment or some other damage to the
structure.
2. Characteristics
The heavier loads of the railroad live load require deeper and stiffer members than for highway
bridges. Through girders can be used to reduce overall structure depth if the railroad concurs.
Piers should be normal to the railroad to eliminate skew loading effects.
3. Depth/Span Ratios
Constant depth
Simple spans 1/12
Continuous two span 1/14
Continuous multi-span 1/15
K. Timber
1. Use
Generally used for spans under 40 feet. Usually used for detour bridges and other temporary
structures.
2. Characteristics
Excellent for short-term duration as for a detour. Simple design and details.
3. Depth/Span Ratios
Constant depth
Simple span – Timber beam 1/10
Simple span – Glulam beam 1/12
Continuous spans 1/14
L. Other
Bridge types such as cable-stayed, suspension, arch, tied arch, and floating bridges have special and
limited applications. Their use is generally dictated by site conditions. Preliminary design studies will
generally be done when these types of structures are considered.
2.4.2 Wall Types
The process of selecting a type of retaining wall should economically satisfy structural, functional, and
aesthetic requirements and other considerations relevant to a specific site. A detailed listing of the
common wall types and their characteristics can be found in Section 9.4.2 of the Bridge Design Manual.
2:-4DTP:BDM2
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2.6 Miscellaneous
2.6.1 Structure Costs
Historical bridge and structure cost data is outlined in Chapter 12. When using this data for cost estimates,
the cost range assumed shall be based on the amount of information available. Unless foundation condi-
tions are known, the worst case conditions would be assumed (e.g., pile foundations) for cost analysis. An
estimate contingency of 10 percent (minimum) staff be added to all preliminary bridge plan estimates. For
small projects or remote areas, high-range costs would be used. The cost data would be adjusted for
inflation to the current date. Estimates include mobilization but not sales tax, engineering, future inflation,
or contingencies, and the accuracy of the estimate is ±15 percent.
2.6.2 Handling and Shipping Precast Members and Steel Beams
Bridges utilizing precast concrete beams or steel beams need to have their access routes checked and sites
reviewed to be certain that the beams can be transported to the site. It must also be determined that they
can be erected once they reach the site.
Both the size and the weight of the beams must be checked. Likely routes to the site must be adequate to
handle the truck and trailer hauling the beams. Avoid narrow roads with sharp turns, steep grades, and/or
load-rated bridges which may prevent the beams from reaching the site. The Condition Survey Section of
the Bridge and Structures Office should be consulted for limitations on hauling lengths and weights.
The site should be reviewed for adequate space for the contractor to set up the cranes and equipment
necessary to pick up and place the girders. The reach and boom angle should be checked and should
accommodate standard cranes.
2.6.3 Salvage of Materials
When a bridge is being replaced or widened, the material being removed should be reviewed for anything
that WSDOT may want to salvage. Items such as aluminum rail, luminaire poles, sign structures, and steel
beams should be identified for possible salvage. The region should be asked if such items are to be
salvaged since they will be responsible for storage and inventory of these items.
DP:BDM2
Hinge Diaphram: Full width of crossbeam between girders and outside of the exterior girders.
Exterior face is flush with the end of the crossbeam and matches the 1:12 slope of the crossbeam face.
(Standard Cadd File TO BE DEVELOPED).
BP Rail: 3′-6″ overall height for pedestrian traffic. 4′-6″ overall height for bicycle traffic. (Standard
Cadd File BPRAIL.FGB).
Sidewalk: 6″ height at curb line. Transverse slope of -.01′ per foot towards the curb line. (Standard
Cadd File PED_BAR.FGB).
Sidewalk barrier: Inside face is vertical. Outside face slopes 1:12 outward. (Standard Cadd File
PED_BAR.FGB).
D. Examples
Appendices 2.7-A1 and A2 detail the standard design elements of a standard highway bridge.
The following bridges are good examples of a standard highway bridge. However, they do have some
modifications to the standard.
SR 17 Undercrossing 395/110 Contract 3785
Mullenix Road Overcrossing 16/203E&W Contract 4143
DTP:BDM2
2.99 Bibliography
1. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) publication Federal Aid Highway Program Manual.
FHWA Order 5520.1 (dated December 24, 1990) contains the criteria pertaining to Type, Size, and
Location studies.
Volume 6, Chapter 6, Section 2, Subsection 1, Attachment 1 (Transmittal 425) contains the criteria
pertaining to railroad undercrossings and overcrossings.
2. Washington Utilities and Transportation Commission Clearance Rules and Regulations Governing
Common Carrier Railroads.
3. American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) Manual for Railroad Engineering. Note: This is
the criteria which we follow except as superseded by FHWA or WSDOT criteria. This manual is used
as the basic design and geometric criteria by all railroads.
4. Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) Design Manual (M 22-01).
5. Local Agency Guidelines (M 36-63).
6. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges.
DTP:BDM2
Bridge Information
SR Bridge Name Control Section Project No.
Tabulated field surveyed and measured stations, offsets, and elevations of existing roadways
Photographs and video tape of structure site, adjacent existing structures and surrounding terrain
Bridge Information
SR Bridge Name Control Section Project No.
Will the structure be overlayed with or after rail replacement? With Rail Replacement After Rail Replacement
Attachments
Video tape of project
Bridge Information
SR Bridge Name Control Section Project No.
Streambed Material
Attachments
Site Contour Map (See Sect. 7.02.00 Highway Hydraulic Manual)
Streambed: Profile and Cross Sections (500 ft. upstream and downstream)
Photographs
Character of Stream Banks (i.e., rock, silt, etc.) / Location of Solid Rock
Other Data Relative to Selection of Type and Design of Bridge, Including your Recommendations (i.e., requirements of
riprap, permission of piers in channel, etc.)
PLAN ELEVATION
___Survey Lines and Station Ticks ___Full Length Reference Elevation Line
___Survey Line Intersection Angles ___Existing Ground Line x ft. Rt of Survey Line
___Survey Line Intersection Stations ___End Slope Rate
___Survey Line Bearings ___Slope Protection
___Roadway and Median Widths ___Pier Stations and Grade Elevations
___Lane and Shoulder Widths ___Profile Grade Vertical Curves
___Sidewalk Width ___BP/Pedestrian Rail
___Connection/Widening for Guardrail/Barrier ___Barrier/Wall Face Treatment
___Profile Grade and Pivot Point ___Construction/Falsework Openings
___Roadway Superelevation Rate (if constant) ___Minimum Vertical Clearances
___Lane Taper and Channelization Data ___Water Surface Elevations and Flow Data
___Traffic Arrows ___Riprap
___Mileage to Junctions along Mainline ___Seal Vent Elevation
___Back to Back of Pavement Seats ___Datum
___Span Lengths ___Grade elevations shown are equal to …
___Lengths of Walls next to/ part of Bridge ___For Embankment details at bridge ends …
___Pier Skew Angle ___Indicate F, H, or E at abutments and piers
___Bridge Drains, or Inlets off Bridge
___Existing drainage structures TYPICAL SECTION
___Existing utilities Type/Size, and Location ___Bridge Roadway Width
___New utilities - Type, Size, and Location ___Lane and Shoulder Widths
___Luminaires, Junction Boxes, Conduits ___Profile Grade and Pivot Point
___Bridge mounted Signs and Supports ___Superelevation Rate
___Contours ___Survey Line
___Top of Cut: Toe of Fill ___Overlay Type and Depth
___Bottom of Ditches ___Barrier Face Treatment
___Test Holes (if available) ___Limits of Pigmented Sealer
___Riprap Limits ___BP/Pedestrian Rail dimensions
___Stream Flow Arrow ___Stage Construction Lane Orientations
___R/W Lines and/or Easement Lines ___Locations of Temporary Concrete Barrier
___Points of Minimum Vertical Clearance ___Closure Pour
___Horizontal Clearance ___Structure Depth/Prestressed Girder Type
___Exist. Bridge No. (to be removed, widened) ___Conduits/Utilities in bridge
___Section, Township, Range ___Substructure Dimensions
___City or Town
___North Arrow LEFT MARGIN
___SR Number ___Job Number
___Bearing of Piers, or note if radial ___Bridge (before/with/after) Approach Fills
___Structure Depth/Prestressed Girder Type
MISCELLANEOUS ___Deck Protective System
___Structure Type ___Coast Guard Permit Status
___Live Loading ___Railroad Agreement Status
___Undercrossing Alignment Profiles/Elevs. ___Points of Minimum Vertical Clearance
___Superelevation Diagrams ___Cast in Place Concrete Strength
___Curve Data
___Riprap Detail RIGHT MARGIN
___Layout Approval Block ___Control Section
___Notes to Region ___Project Number
___Names and Signatures ___Region
___Not Included in Bridge Quantities List ___Highway Section
___Inspection and Maintenance Access ___SR Number
___Structure Name
Analysis Contents
Page
3.0 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1-1
3.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3.1.1 Philosophy of Analysis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3.1.2 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3.2 Frame Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.2.2 Member and Frame Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.2.3 Partial Fixity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2-1
3.2.4 Development of F.E.M.s and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.2.5 Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.3 Sidesway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.4 Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.5 Computer Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.5.1 General Discussion of Computer Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.5.2 List of Programs Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.6 Other Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.6.1 Energy Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.6.2 Castiglano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.6.3 Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.6.4 The Buckling Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.6.5 Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.7 Dynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.8 Special Analysis Problems by Bridge Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.8.1 Suspension bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.8.2 Cable Stayed Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.9 Special Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.9.1 Skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
3.9.2 Footing Deflections and Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
Appendix A
3.0-A1 Concentrated Load Coefficients — General
3.0-A2 Concentrated Load Coefficients — Case I
3.0-A3 Fixed End Moment Coefficient Chart
3.0-A4 Influence Lines — Two Equal Spans
3.0-A5 Coefficients and Factors for Double Tapered Members
3.0-A6 Stiffness Factors for Tapered Members
3.0-A7 Carry Over Factors for Tapered Members
3.0-A8 Fixed End Moments for Tapered Members
3-CON:V:BDM3
3.0 Analysis
3.1 General Considerations
3.1.1 Philosophy of Analysis Procedures
For the design of concrete bridges, in distribution of moments, generally use the gross moment of inertia
of the concrete superstructure. In lieu of including the transformed area of steel for columns or other
compression members, 120 percent of the gross moment of inertial of columns and other compression
members may generally be used.
3.1.2 Analysis Methods
The maximum live load deflection computed shall be in accordance with AASHTO except that the maxi-
mum live load deflection in a span shall not exceed 1/1000 and for a cantilever 1/375, regardless of
whether the bridge is used by pedestrians.
3-1:V:BDM3
3-2:V:BDM3
Page
4.0 Loads and Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1-1
4.1 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.1.1 Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.1.2 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Distribution to Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Distribution to Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1.3 Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1.4 Wind on Live Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1.5 Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1.6 Other Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Thermal, Shrinkage, and Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C. Centrifugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
D. Force from Stream Current, Floating Ice, and Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.2 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2-1
4.2.1 Combination of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.2.2 Load Factor Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.2.3 Service Load Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.3 Application of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3-1
4.3.1 Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.3.2 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.3.3 Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3.4 Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.4 Foundation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4-1
4.4.1 Procedure Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.4.2 Spread Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
4.4.3 Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Lateral Spring Input from P-Y Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Lateral Spring Input to Dynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C. Vertical Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
D. Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
E. GPILE Computer Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.99 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.99-1
Appendix A
4.4-A1-1 Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
4.4-A2 Peak Ground Acceleration Map
Appendix B
4.3-B1 Basic Truck Loading
4.3-B2 Common Response Modification Factors
4.3-B3 Seismic Analysis Example
4.4-B1 Spring Constants Evaluation Example
P:DP/BDM4
Beam Types
Figure 4.1.2-1
3. Other Types
See AASHTO Specifications.
C. Distribution to Substructure
The value for the number of traffic lanes to be used in the substructure design shall be determined
by dividing the entire roadway slab width by 12. No fractional lanes shall be used. Roadway
slab widths of less than 24 feet shall have a maximum of two design lanes. A reduction factor will be
applied in the substructure design for multiple loadings in accordance with AASHTO. The following
percentages of the resulting live loading shall be used:
Number of Lanes Loaded Percent
Two Lanes 100
Three Lanes 90
Four Lanes or More 75
4.1.3 Wind Loads
AASHTO load combinations for wind are based on probability of simultaneous load occurrence. The
basic wind loads result from 100 mph wind, which produces 75 psf on trusses and arches, 50 psf on
girders and beams, and 40 psf on substructures. This wind is assumed to act on the structure when live
load is not present. A 30 mph wind (0.3 × 100, or a 70 percent reduction from basic) is included in
Groups III and IV, and is assumed to act when live load is present.
The forces tending to overturn a structure are represented by an upward high wind pressure of 20 psf
acting on the plan view area, for Groups II, V, and IX. A moderate wind pressure of 6 psf is used for
Groups III and VI. The force is applied at the windward quarter point of the transverse superstructure.
4.1.4 Wind on Live Load
A moderate wind force is assumed to act on the live load itself, represented by a live load acting 6 feet
above the roadway surface, both transversely and longitudinally. This force is computed by multiplying
the bridge length tributary to a particular member by 0.1 for transverse and 0.04 for longitudinal direction.
4.1.5 Earthquake Loads
a. Design for earthquake shall be in accordance with Division 1-A, Seismic Design of the 1996
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.
b. The Multimode Spectral Method of dynamic analysis described in the AASHTO Specifications shall
be used for most continuous bridges. The SEISAB computer program can be used to analyze most
common bridges. The GTSTRUDL dynamic analysis system is capable of handling a larger range of
structures.
c. The Single Mode Spectral Method may be used in certain cases, as described in the AASHTO
Specifications.
d. Use the USGS Peak Ground Acceleration map (Appendix 4.4-A2, 10 percent Probability of
Exceedance in 50 Years) to obtain an acceleration coefficient for preliminary design. The project
Foundation Report will contain the acceleration coefficient to use in the final design of a bridge.
When using Appendix 4.4-A2, interpolate between contours to find the value to use for particular site,
and round to the nearest 1 percent of gravity (g). In general, Appendix 4.4-A2 can also be used for
bridge seismic retrofit designs. However, seismic evaluation and retrofitting of older bridges can
sometimes result in excessive costs (the retrofit costs are not consistent with the benefit gained). In
these situations, the Bridge Design Engineer should be consulted for direction.
e. It is recommended that temporary (detour) structures shall be designed for a seismic acceleration
coefficient equal to 0.5 x the acceleration coefficient for a permanent structure. All other require-
ments of the AASHTO Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges shall apply. Seismic
Performance Category shall be based on the magnitude of the reduced acceleration coefficient.
f. The Geotechnical Engineer should be consulted when determining the soil type to be used in the
seismic analysis.
4.1.6 Other Loads
A. Thermal, Shrinkage, and Prestressing
Member loadings are induced by movements of the structure and can result from several sources.
Movements due to temperature changes are calculated using coefficients of thermal expansion of
0.000006 ft/ft per degree for concrete and 0.0000065 ft/ft per degree for steel. Reinforced concrete
shrinks at the rate of 0.0002 ft/ft.
Refer to AASHTO and Bridge Design Manual Chapters 6, 8, and 9 for guidance on computation and
application of these force types.
B. Buoyancy
The effects of submergence of a portion of the substructure is to be calculated, both for designing
piling for uplift and for realizing economy in footing design.
C. Centrifugal
Centrifugal forces are included in all groups which contain vehicular live load. They act 6 feet above
the roadway surface and are significant where curve radii are small or columns are long. They are
radial forces induced by moving trucks. See AASHTO for force equation.
DP:BDM4
Column Design
βD = 0.75 or bD = 1.0, whichever governs.
Flexural and Tension Members
βD = 1.0
βE = 1.0
Footing Bearing Pressure and Internal Footing Stresses
βD = 0.75 or βD = 1.0
βE = 1.0
Footing Stability and Sliding
βD = 0.75 or βD = 1.0, whichever governs.
βE = 0.4 or βE = 1.3, whichever governs.
Notes:
1. For footing design, check Basic Loading Combination in accordance with BDM Section 9.5.1A3.a.
2. For rigid frame design, see BDM Section 9.3.4.E.
3. Check stability for all group loadings in accordance with BDM Section 9.5.1A3.b.
4. Group 1A load combination shall be applied only with live loadings less than HS 20 or H 20. See
AASHTO.
*Applies if design loads are already factored, such as in cases where MDes = 1.0 ML + 0.3 MT or MDes = 0.3
ML + 1.0 MT are used.
Table of Coefficients γ and β
For Load Factor Design
Table 4.2.2-1
4-2:P:BDM4
50
I=
L + 125
Where L is the loaded portions of the spans.
Application of Loads
Figure 4.3.2-2
Application of Loading
Figure 4.3.2-3
In order to design structures to survive the forces and strains resulting from earthquake motion, the
following factors need to be considered:
• The proximity of the site to known active faults and the historical record of activity.
• The seismic response of the soil at the site.
• The dynamic response characteristics of the total structure.
See Appendix 4.3-B3-1 through 3 for a general discussion of a seismic analysis.
4-3:P:BDM4
Efficiency Factor
Table 4.4.3-1
For driven piles, the following factors apply:
Contact the Olympia Service Center Materials Lab to verify any assumptions.
The LPILE1 computer program will generate P-Y curves, or the user can input them. To
obtain generated curves, input a modulus of subgrade reaction (K), and a soil shear strength
(C) which are the values taken from the soils report multiplied by the efficiency factor. To
figure P-Y curves for input, multiply the P-Y values from the soils report by the efficiency
factor.
For a typical soil, the relationship between its normalized resistance value and friction angle
is defined by the curve in Figure 4.4.3-1. The friction angle could be adjusted for efficiency
and input to LPILE1 by following these steps:
1. Begin at the coordinate of the natural friction angle (36°).
2. Read across to the normalized resistance (61).
3. Multiply the resistance by the efficiency reduction factor, i.e., 61 (0.5) = 31.
4. Read across from the reduced value to obtain the adjusted friction angle (31°).
5. Input the φ value to LPILE1.
PS
bγx
= Ka (tan8B-1) + Ko tan φ tan 4B
Figure 4.4.3-2A
Figure 4.4.3-2B
Loading Number 1
Boundary condition code = 2
Lateral load at the pile head = 0.250D+05 lbs = 25 K applied
Slope at the pile head = 0.000D+00 in/in
Axial load at the pile head = 0.758D+05 lbs
X Deflection Moment Shear Soil Total Flexural
Reaction Stress Rigidity
In In Lbs-In Lbs Lbs/In Lbs/In**2 Lbs-In**2
***** ********** ********** ********** ********** ********** **********
0.00 0.267D+01 -0.383D+07 0.250D+05 0.000D+00 0.270D+05 0.392D+11
=2.67″ =25K
25K K
KF1F1 = KF3F3 = = 112
(2.67in / 12 in / ft ) ft
(A)
Loading Number 1
Boundary condition code = 4
Deflection at the pile head = 0.000D+00 in
Moment at the pile head = 0.391D+07 in-lbs = 391 K-in applied
Axial load at the pile head = 0.103D+06 lbs
X Deflection Moment Shear Soil Total Flexural
Reaction Stress Rigidity
In In Lbs-In Lbs Lbs/In Lbs/In**2 Lbs-In**2
***** ********** ********** ********** ********** ********** **********
0.00 0.000D+00 0.391D+07 0.189D+05 0.000D+00 0.281D+05 0.392D+11
28.04 -0.237D+00 0.340D+07 -0.186D+05 0.208D+02 0.247D+05 0.392D+11
0.237″ = ∆1
28.04″ = H
∆1 0.237
f = Tan–1 H = Tan–1 = 0.48426°
1 28.04
or = 0.00845 rad
(B)
C. Vertical Springs
Vertical spring constants, Kv (or KF2F2) can be calculated from the following equations:
AE
Point bearing pile: Kv =
L
where,
A = Cross sectional area
E = Young’s modulus
L = Length
Pile having constant skin friction:
2AE
Kv =
L
Pile linearly varying skin friction:
3AE
Kv =
L
Pile partially embedded in the soil:
AE
1. Kv = 1 − F L
2
AE
2. Kv = 1 − 2 F L
3
Torsional (M/φ) spring constants for individual piles are based on the strength of the pile only. The
torsional resistance is given by the following equation:
M/φ = T/φ = JG/L
where,
G = 0.4 E
J = Torsional Moment of Inertia
L = length of pile
D. Stiffness Matrix
Eight individual pile stiffness terms should be put into Seisab, which forms a {6 × 6} matrix as shown
below:
F1 F2 F3 M1 M2 M3
F1 KF1F1 0 0 0 0 KF1M3
F2 KF2F2 0 0 0 0
F3 KF3F3 -KF3M1 0 0
M1 KM1M1 0 0
M2 KM2M2 0
M3 "Symmetrical" KM3M3
KF1M3 is cross-coupling term P/φ. -KF3M1 is cross-coupling term M/d. Note that the two have
opposite signs.
E. GPILE Computer Program
If a large number of piles is required per footing, to reduce Seisab input/output, individual springs can
be used in the GPILE computer program. The output will contain a {6 × 6} stiffness matrix for the
pile group which can be used to model the foundation in SEISAB. GPILE input includes pile configu-
ration and spring constants. The program also computes individual pile loads and deflections from a
set of input loads. GPILE can be used in conjunction with the plastic hinging moments, transmitted
from the column, to converge on an acceptable pile configuration.
4-4:P:BDM4
4.99 Bibliography
1. AASHTO, Standard Specifications for Design of Highway Bridges, 1996, Division 1-A Seismic
Design.
2. Imbsen, R. A., Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, FHWA Workshop Manual, January 1981,
DOT-FH-11-9426.
3. FHWA/RD-83/007 Seismic Retrofitting Guidelines for Highway Bridges, December 1983.
4. FHWA-IP-87-6, Seismic Design and Retrofit Manual for Highway Bridges, May 1987.
5. California Department of Transportation, Bridge Design Practice, 1983.
6. Chen, R. L., Pile Foundation Modeling for Bridge Dynamic Response Analysis, unpublished paper
available in WSDOT Bridge and Structures Design, April 1987.
7. Engineering Computer Corporation, SEISAB-I, Workshop Manual, October 1984 and August 1985.
8. Reese, Lymon C., Documentation of Computer Program LPILE1, report for Ensoft, Inc., The
University of Texas at Austin, 1985.
9. AASHTO, Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 1996.
10. Washington State Department of Transportation, Bridge Computer Programs Manual, GPILE and
DISTBM.
11. Washington State Department of Transportation, 1996, USGS National Seismic Hazards, Mapping
Project.
12. Hart Crowser, Subsurface Explorations and Design Phase Geotechnical Engineering Study, SR 90,
Seattle Access, Volume 111, September 1986, J-712-50.
13. Federal Highway Administration, Manual on Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations,
FHWA-DD-66-1, Revision 1.
14. Imbsen & Associates, FHWA, Seismic Design of Highway Bridges Training Course Participant
Workbook, February 1989.
15. FHWA-86/103, Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, Vol. II: Example problems and Sensitivity
Studies, June 1986.
4-99:P:BDM4
A recent analysis of a bridge on I-90 in the Mercer Slough area near Bellevue provides the following
example:
The deep soft soil at the site is classified as “Type III” from the AASHTO Specifications. An
acceleration coefficient of 0.25, see Figure 4.1.5-1, was selected as appropriate.
The acceleration spectrum shown in Appendix 4.3-B3-2 was used to load the bridge. The results which
SEISAB calculated for the first 6 modes of oscillation appear in Appendix 4.3-B3-3. The CS values in
the table relate directly to the response periods of the various modes as solutions to the equation:
CS = 1.22AS
/3
T
where:
A = The acceleration coefficient
S = The soil profile coefficient (1.5 in this case)
T = The period of vibration of the bridge, the time it takes for one cycle of oscillation
In an undamped, single degree of freedom system, the natural period is defined as:
M
T= π
K
where:
M = The mass involved
K = The spring constant
See Bibliography 1 and 7 for further comments and procedures.
CS, the elastic seismic response coefficient, is the percentage of a gravity force which is applied to the
bridge for a particular mode. The participation factors indicate that modes 1 and 3 contribute most heavily
to the design forces. In this case, the ground sends 0.25 g and the bridge receives about 0.50 g.
The 0.50 g applied, divided by R = 5, translates to 0.1 g when figuring design moments for a multiple
column bent. Design shears would be the lesser of the values produced by 0.50 g and the shears associated
with plastic hinging moments. Since the column reinforcement may yield when the 0.1 g level is reached,
the energy remaining will be redistributed to the remainder of the bridge. The main column reinforcement
must be adequately confined by ties or spirals to allow redistribution to occur while maintaining structural
integrity.
P:DP/BDM4
Given Data
• Cohesionless soil – Poisson’s ratio = 0.33 = µ
• Soil density – 120 pcf = σ
• VS = shear wave velocity = 1,500 ft/sec
Solution:
Shear Modulus
β Z G LW 2.13 × 8385 18 × 15 K
KZ = = = 438,000
1− µ 1 − 0.33 ft
Embedment Factor
KW
ro = =- 9.27′
π
H 6
ro = 9.27 = 0.65
L
= 1.20 < 5 ßx = 2.0 (See page 6-37 of Bilbliography 2 for explanation.)
W
KX = ßX (1 – µ) G LW
Rocking Stiffness
Long Direction c = 7.5′ d = 9′
d
R= = 1.20 ßψ = 0.52
c
R; 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
ßψ; 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.95 1.1
(8G cd ) 2
Kψ = ßψ
1− µ
K − ft
KH = 1.36 (3.2 × 107) = 4.3 × 107 = KMZ
rad
Short Direction
c
R= = 0.83 ßψ = 0.48
d
(8G)dc 2 K − ft
Kψ = ßψ = 2.4 × 107
1− µ rad
K − ft
Kψ H = 1.36 (2.4 × 107) = 3.3 × 107
rad
Torsional Stiffness
16 16 K − ft
Kθ = Gre3 = × 8385 × 9.423 = 3.7 × 107
3 3 rad
K − ft
Kθ H = 1.36 (3.7 × 107) = 5.0 × 107 = KMY
rad
Appendix 4.4-B1-4 depicts the footing from the example in spring matrix form. The nomenclature is
general, and is used for GTSTRUDL input (GTSTRUDL 4.2.2d contains a similar matrix using
SEISAB nomenclature).
Spring Matrix
Page
5.0 Reinforced Concrete Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1-1
5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
5.1.1 Concrete and Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Classes of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Strength of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
5.1.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
C. Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
D. Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
E. Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
F. Fabrication Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
G. Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
H. Percentage Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2 Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2-1
5.2.1 Strength Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Design Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Strut-and-Tie Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. Shear and Torsion, ACI Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
F. Shear and Torsion, Strut-and-Tie Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
G. Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
H. Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2.2 Working Stress Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.3 Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3-1
5.3.1 Girder Spacing and Basic Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Girder Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Basic Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
D. Load Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
5.3.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Top Slab Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Bottom Slab Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
C. Web Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
D. Intermediate Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3.3 Crossbeam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A. Basic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
B. Reinforcing Steel Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.3.4 End Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A. Basic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. Reinforcing Steel Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3.5 Dead Load Deflection and Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Page
5.3.6 Thermal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
A. Effective Bridge Temperature and Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
B. Differential Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3.7 Hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.3.8 Utility Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
A. Confined Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B. Drain Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
C. Access Hole and Air Vent Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.4 Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4-1
A. Local Failure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Shear Friction Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C. Flexural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
D. Hanger Tension Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
E. Punching Shear Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
F. Bearing Strength Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.5 Widenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5-1
5.5.1 Review of Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Original Contract Plans and Special Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Original Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Final Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
5.5.2 Analysis and Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Seismic Design Criteria for Bridge Widenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C. Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
D. Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
E. Stability of Widening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.5.3 Removing Portions of the Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.5.4 Attachment of Widening to Existing Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
B. Connection Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.5.5 Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.5.6 Possible Future Widening for Current Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.5.7 Bridge Widening Falsework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.5.8 Existing Bridge Widenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.99 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.99-1
P65:DP/BDM5
Class f c′
COMMERCIAL 2300
3000 3000
4000, 4000D 4000
4000W 2400*
5000 5000**
6000 6000
4000P 3400***
*40 percent reduction from CLASS 4000.
**Concrete Class 5000 is available within a 30-mile radius of Seattle, Spokane, and Vancouver.
Outside this 30-mile radius, concrete suppliers do not have the quality control rocedures and
expertise to Supply Control Class 5000.
***15 percent reduction from CLASS 4000 for all drilled shafts.
2. Relative Compressive Concrete Strength
a. During design or construction of a bridge, it is necessary to determine the strength of
concrete at various stages of construction. For instance, Section 6-02.3(17)J of the Standard
Specifications discusses the time at which falsework and forms can be removed to various
percentages of the concrete design strength. Occasionally, construction problems will arise
which require a knowledge of the relative strengths of concrete at various ages. Table 5.1-1
is intended to supply this information.
b. Curing conditions of the concrete (especially in the first 24 hours) have a very important
influence on the strength development of concrete at all ages. Temperature affects the rate
at which the chemical reaction between cement and water takes place. Loss of moisture can
seriously impair the concrete strength.
c. Table 5.1-1 shows the approximate values of the minimum compressive strengths of differ-
ent classes of concrete at various ages. If the concrete has been cured under continuous moist
curing at an average temperature, it can be assumed that these values have been developed.
d. If test strength is above or below that shown in Table 5.1-1, the age at which the design
strength will be reached can be determined by direct proportion.
For example, if the relative strength at 10 days is 64 percent instead of the minimum
70 percent shown in Table 5.1-1, the time it takes to reach the design strength can be
determined as follows:
Let x = relative strength to determine the age at which the concrete will reach
the design strength
x 100
= Therefore, x = 110
70 64
From Table 5.1-1, the design strength should be reached in 40 days.
C. Grout
Grout is usually a prepackaged cement based grout or nonshrink grout that is mixed, placed, and
cured as recommended by the manufacturer. It is used under steel base plates for both bridge bearings
and luminaire or sign bridge bases. Nonshrink grout is used in keyways between precast prestressed
deck slabs, tri-beams, and bulb-tees. For design purposes, the strength of the grout, if properly cured,
can be assumed to be equal to or greater than that of the adjacent concrete.
Should the grout pad thickness exceed 4 inches, steel reinforcement shall be used.
The following chart shows approximate relative strength of concrete and compressive strength of different
classes of concrete at various ages based on continuous moist curing at an average temperature.
Relative and Compressive Strength of Concrete
Table 5.1.1-1
5.1.2 Reinforcement
A. Grades
Steel reinforcing bars are manufactured as plain or deformed bars (which have ribbed projections that
grip the concrete in order to provide better bond between steel and concrete). In Washington State,
main bars are always deformed. Plain bars are used for spirals and ties.
Reinforcing bars conform to either the requirements of AASHTO M31, Grade 60 (ASTM A-615
Grade 60) with a 60,000 psi yield strength or in the case of bars in portions of concrete members
where plastic hanging can occur during an earthquake or which are to be spliced by welding,
ASTM A 706 Specifications for Low-Alloy Steel deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.
B. Sizes
Reinforcing bars are referred to in the contract plans and specifications by number and vary in
size from #3 to #18. For bars up to and including #8, the number of the bar coincides with the bar
diameter in eighths of an inch. The #9, #10, and #11 bars have diameters that provide areas equal
to 1″ x 1″ square bars, 11/8″ x 11/8″ square bars and 11/4″ x 11/4″ square bars respectively. Similarly,
the #14 and #18 bars correspond to 11/2″ x 11/2″ and 2″ x 2″ square bars, respectively. Tables 5.1-A1
through 5.1-A3 in Appendix A, show the sizes, number, and various properties of the types of bars
used in Washington State.
C. Development
1. Development Length, ld, in Tension
Development length or anchorage of reinforcement is required on both sides of a point of
maximum stress at any section of a reinforced concrete member.
Development of bars in tension involves calculating the basic development length, ldb, which
is modified by factors to reflect bar spacing, cover, enclosing transverse reinforcement, top
bar effect, type of aggregate, epoxy coating, and ratio of required area to provided area of
reinforcement to be developed.
The development length, ld (including all applicable modification factors) must not be less
than 12 inches.
Tables 5.1-A4 and 5.1-A5 in Appendix A, show the tension development length for both un-
coated and epoxy coated Grade 60 bars for normal weight concrete with specified strengths of
3,000 to 6,000 psi.
2. Development Length, ld, in Compression
The basic development lengths for deformed bars in compression are shown in Table 5.1-A7,
Appendix A. These values may be modified for ratio of required area vs. provided area of
reinforcement, or for bars enclosed in a 1/4 inch diameter spiral at 4 inch maximum pitch.
However, the minimum development length is 1 foot 0 inches (office practice).
3. Standard End Hook Development Length, ldh, in Tension
Standard end hooks, utilizing 90 and 180 degree end hooks, are used to develop bars in tension
where space limitations restrict the use of straight bars. End hooks on compression bars are not
effective for development length purposes. Figures 5.1.2-1 and 5.1.2-2 and Table 5.1.2-1 show
the minimum embedment lengths necessary to provide 2 inches of cover on the tails of 90 and
180 degree end hooks. Epoxy coating does not affect the tension development lengths, ldh, of
standard 90 and 180 degree end hooks. The values shown in Table 5.1-1A5, Appendix A, show
the tension development lengths for normal weight concrete with specified strengths of 3,000 to
6,000 psi.
D. Splices
Three methods are used to splice reinforcing bars; lap splices, mechanical splices, and welded splices.
Lap splicing of reinforcing bars is the most common method. The Contract Plans should clearly show
the locations and lengths of lap splice. Lap splices are not permitted for bars larger than #11.
No lap splices, for either tension or compression bars, shall be less than 2 feet 0 inches (office
practice). See Section 8.32 of the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Section
6-02.3(24)D Standard Specifications for additional splice requirements.
1. Lap Splices — Tension
Many of the same factors which affect development length affect splices. Consequently, tension
lap splices are a function of the bar’s development length, ld. There are three classes of tension
lap splices: Class A, B, and C. Designers are encouraged to splice bars at points of minimum
stress and to stagger lap splices along the length of the bars.
Minimum Embedment Lengths to Provide 2-inch Cover to Tail of Standard 180° End Hooks
Table 5.1.2-1
Figure 5.1.2-3
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.1.2-4
Table 5.1A6 in Appendix A, shows tension lap splices for both uncoated and epoxy coated
Grade 60 bars for normal weight concrete with specified strengths of 3,000 to 6,000 psi. For
additional requirements, see Section 8.32.3 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges.
For Seismic Performance Categories C and D, Section 8.4.1(F) of the AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, the lap splices for longitudinal column
bars are permitted only within the center half of the column height and shall not be less than the
lap splices given in Table 5.1-A6 in Appendix A, or 60 bar diameters whichever is greater.
Note that the maximum spacing of the transverse reinforcement (i.e., column ties) over the
length of the splice shall not exceed the smaller of 4 inches or 1/4 of the minimum column plan
dimension.
2. Lap Splices — Compression
The compression lap splices shown in Table 5.1-A7 (right-hand column) in Appendix A, are
for concrete strengths greater than 3,000 psi. If the concrete strength is less than 3,000 psi, the
compression lap splices should be increased by one third. Note that when two bars of different
diameters are lap spliced, the length of the lap splice shall be the larger of the lap splice for the
smaller bar or the development length of the larger bar.
3. Mechanical Splices
A second method of splicing is by mechanical splices, which are proprietary splicing
mechanisms. The requirements for mechanical splices are found in Section 6-02.3(24)F of the
Standard Specifications, Sections 8.32.2 and 8.32.3 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges, and Section 8.4.1(F) of the Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of
Highway Bridges.
4. Welded Splices
Welding of reinforcing bars is the third acceptable method of splicing reinforcing bars. Section
6-02.3(24)E of the Standard Specifications describes the requirements for welding reinforcing
steel. On modifications to existing structures, welding of reinforcing bars may not be possible
because of the non-weldability of some steels. See Sections 8.32.2 and 8.32.3 of the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Section 8.4.1(F) of the Standard Specifications
for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges for additional welded splice requirements.
E. Bends
For standard hooks and bend radii, see Table 5.1-15. Note that the tail lengths are greater for the 135°
seismic tie hook than for the regular or nonseismic 135° tie hook. For field bending requirements, see
Section 6-02.3(24)A of the Standard Specifications.
F. Fabrication Lengths
Reinforcing bars are normally stocked in lengths of 60 feet. They can also be fabricated in longer
lengths.
As required =
0.85 fc′ (b)
fy ( √
d – d2 –
31.3725 Mu
fc′ (b) ) where Mu = kips – in
fc′ = ksi
(5)
As min =
0.85 fc′ (b)
fy ( √
d – d2 –
0.124 h2
√ f c′ ) where h = slab thickness (6)
fc ′
fcu = ≤ 0.8 fc′
0.8 + 170ε1
for which:
ε1 = εs + (εs + 0.002) cot2 αs
where:
as = the smallest angle between the compressive strut and adjoining tension
ties (DEG)
εs = the tensile strain in the concrete in the direction of the tension tie (in/in)
fc′ = specified compressive strength (ksi)
d. Reinforced Strut
If the compressive strut contains reinforcement that is parallel to the strut and detailed to
develop its yield stress in compression as shown in Figure 5.2.1-2(d), the nominal resistance
of the strut shall be taken as:
Pn = fcu Acs + fy Ass
where:
Ass = area of reinforcement in the strut (in2)
P65:DP/BDM5
Changes in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the
difference in web thickness.
Maximum T3 = T3+4.0″ maximum
Transition length = 12 x (T3) in inches
Basic Dimensions
Figure 5.3.1-1
3. Live Load
a. Superstructure
No. of lanes = slab width (curb to curb) / 14
Fractional lane width will be used
For example, 58 roadway / 14 = 4.14, then no. of lanes = 4.14
b. Substructure
No. of lanes = slab width (curb to curb) / 12
Fractional lane width will be ignored
For example, 58 roadway / 12 = 4.83, then no. of lanes = 4.0
c. Overload if applicable.
5.3.2 Reinforcement
This section discusses moment reinforcement for top slab, bottom slab, and intermediate diaphragms in
box girders.
A. Top Slab Reinforcement
1. Near Center of Span
Figure 5.3.2-1 shows the reinforcement required near the center of the span and Figure 5.3.2-2
shows the overhang reinforcement.
a. Transverse reinforcing in the top and bottom layers to transfer the load to the main girder
stems shall be equal in size and spacing.
b. Bottom longitudinal “distribution reinforcement” in the middle half of the deck span (Seff) to
aid in distributing the wheel loads.
c. Top longitudinal “temperature and shrinkage reinforcement.”
2. Near Intermediate Piers
Figure 5.3.2-3 illustrates the reinforcement requirement near intermediate piers. See Appendix
5.2-B2 for design of longitudinal deck reinforcement.
a. Transverse reinforcing same as center of span.
b. Longitudinal reinforcement to resist negative moment (see Figure 5.3.2-3).
c. “Distribution of flexure reinforcement” to limit cracking (see Figure 5.3.2-3).
≤ 0.6fy, where z = 130 kips per inch.
1/ 3
Allowable fs = z/(dc x A)
3. Bar Patterns
a. Transverse Reinforcement
It is preferable to place the transverse reinforcement parallel to the X-Beam and end
diaphragm on skews up to 25 degrees or less. Where skew angles exceed 25 degrees, the
transverse bars are normal to bridge center line and the areas near the expansion joint and
bridge ends are reinforcement by partial length bars. The bottom transverse slab reinforce-
ment is discontinued at the X-Beam (see Figure 5.3.2-4).
b. Longitudinal Reinforcement
For longitudinal reinforcing bar patterns, see Chapter 6.
Overhang Detail
Figure 5.3.2-2
Figure 5.3.2-7
Figure 5.3.2-8
Figure 5.3.2-9
Intermediate diaphragms are not required for bridges on tangent alignment or curved bridges with an
inside radius of 800 feet or greater.
Notes:
1. If the bar is not spliced, the horizontal dimension should be 4″ shorter than the slab width.
2. Stirrup hanger must be placed above longitudinal steel when diaphragm is skewed and slab
reinforcement is placed normal to center of roadway. (Caution: Watch for the clearance with
longitudinal steel).
3. The reinforcement should have at least one splice to facilitate proper bar placement.
Notes:
1. The diagonal brace supports web forms during web pour. After cure, the web is stiffer than the brace,
and the web attracts load from subsequent concrete placements.
2. The tributary load includes half the overhang because the outer web form remains tied to and
transfers load to the web which is considerably stiffer than the formwork.
Increase Web Reinf. for Locked-In Construction Load
Due to Typical Top Slab Forming for Sloped Web Box Girder
Figure 5.3.2-10
5.3.3 Crossbeam
A. Basic Geometry
For aesthetic purposes, it is preferable to keep the crossbeam within the superstructure so that the
bottom slab of the entire bridge is a continuous plane surface interrupted only by the columns.
Although the depth of the crossbeam may be limited, the width can be made as wide as necessary to
satisfy design requirements. Normally, it varies from 3 feet to the depth of box but is not less than
column sizes to utilize the column reinforcement (see Figure 5.3.3-1 and 5.3.3-2).
Crossbeams on box girder type of construction shall be designed as a T beam utilizing the flange in
compression, assuming the deck slab acts as a flange for positive moment and bottom slab a flange
for negative moment. The effective overhang of the flange on a cantilever beam shall be limited to six
times the flange thickness.
The bottom slab thickness is frequently increased near the crossbeam in order to keep the main box
girder compressive stresses to a desirable level for negative girder moments (see Figure 5.3.2-8). This
bottom slab flare also helps resist negative crossbeam moments. Consideration should be given to
flaring the bottom slab at the crossbeam for designing the cap even if it is not required for resisting
main girder moments.
B. Reinforcing Steel Details
Special attention should be given to the details to ensure that the column and crossbeam reinforce-
ment will not interfere with each other. This can be a problem especially when round columns with a
great number of vertical bars must be meshed with a considerable amount of positive crossbeam
reinforcement passing over the columns.
1. Top Reinforcement
Provide negative moment reinforcement at the 1/4 point of the square or equivalent square
columns (see Appendix 5.3-A1 and 5.3-A4).
a. When Skew Angle < 10 Degrees
If the bridge is tangent or slightly skewed and the deck reinforcement is parallel to the cross
beam, the negative cap reinforcement can be placed either in contact with top deck negative
reinforcement or directly under the main deck reinforcement (see Figure 5.3.3-1). Reinforce-
ment must be epoxy coated if the location of reinforcement is less than 4″ below top of deck.
b. When Skewed Angle > 10 Degrees
When the structure is on a greater skew and the deck steel is normal or radial to the longitu-
dinal centerline of the bridge, the negative cap reinforcement should be lowered to below the
main deck reinforcement (see Figure 5.3.3-2).
c. To avoid cracking of concrete, interim reinforcements are required below the construction
joint in diaphgragms and crossbeams.
The interim reinforcements shall develop a moment capacity of 1.2 Mcr where Mcr may be
given as:
fr Ig
Mcr =
yt
fr = 7.5 √ fc′
Mcr = 1.25 bh2 √ f c′
Mn = 1.2Mcr = 1.5 bh2 √ fc′
As =
0.85 fc′ b
fy ( √
d – d2 –
31.3725M
fc ′ )
5.3.4 End Diaphragm
A. Basic Geometry
Bearings at the end diaphragms are usually located under the girder stems and transfer loads directly
to the pier (see Figure 5.3.3-3). In this case, the diaphragm width should be equal to or greater than
bearing sole plate grout pads (see Figure 5.3.3-4).
Designer should provide access space for maintenance and inspection of bearings.
Allowance should be provided to remove and replace the bearings. Lift point locations, jack capacity,
number of jacks, and maximum permitted lift should be shown in the plan details.
Bearing Locations, Lift Points, Jack Capacity, and Maximum Lift Permitted at End Diaphragm
Figure 5.3.3-3
Multiplier
Coefficient
In addition to dead load deflection, forms and falsework tend to settle and compress under the weight
of freshly placed concrete. The amount of this takeup is dependent upon the type and design of the
falsework, workmanship, type and quality of materials and support conditions. The camber should be
modified to account for anticipated takeup in the falsework.
5.3.6 Thermal Effects
Concrete box girder bridges are subjected to stresses and/or movements resulting from temperature
variation. Temperature effects result from time-dependent variations in the effective bridge temperature
and from temperature differentials within the bridge superstructure.
A. Effective Bridge Temperature and Movement
Fluctuation in effective bridge temperature causes expansion and contraction of the structure. Proper
temperature expansion provisions are essential in order to ensure that the structure will not be
damaged by thermal movements. These movements, in turn, induce stresses in supporting elements
such as columns or piers, and result in horizontal movement of the expansion joints and bearings.
For more details, see Chapter 8.
B. Differential Temperature
Although time-dependent variations in the effective temperature have caused problems in both
reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges, detrimental effects caused by temperature differential
within the superstructure have occurred only in prestressed bridges. Therefore, computation of
stresses and movements resulting from the vertical temperature gradients is not included in this
chapter. For more details, see AASHTO Guide Specifications, Thermal Effects on Concrete
Bridge Superstructures (1989).
5.3.7 Hinges
Hinges are one of the weakest links of box girder bridges subject to earthquake forces and it is desirable to
eliminate hinges or reduce the number of hinges. For more details on the design of hinges, see Section 5.4.
Designer should provide access space or pockets for maintenance and inspection of bearings.
Allowance should be provided to remove and replace the bearings. Lift point locations, maximum lift
permitted, jack capacity, and number of jacks should be shown in the hinge plan details.
5.3.8 Utility Openings
A. Confined Spaces
A confined space is any place having a limited means of exit which is subject to the accumulation of
toxic or flammable contaminants or an oxygen deficient environment. Confined spaces include but
are not limited to pontoons, box girder bridges, storage tanks, ventilation or exhaust ducts, utility
vaults, tunnels, pipelines, and open-topped spaces more than 4 feet in depth such as pits, tubes, vaults,
and vessels. The designer should provide for the following:
• A sign with “Confined Space Authorized Personnel Only.”
• In the “Special Provisions Check List,” alert and/or indicate that a special provision might be
needed to cover confined spaces.
B. Drain Holes
Drain holes should be placed in the bottom slab at the low point of each cell to drain curing water
during construction and any rain water that leaks through the deck slab. Additional drains shall be
provided as a safeguard against water accumulation in the cell (especially when waterlines are carried
by the bridge). In some instances, drainage through the bottom slab is difficult and other means shall
be provided (i.e., cells over large piers and where a sloping exterior web intersects a vertical web).
In this case, a horizontal drain should be provided through the vertical web. Figure 5.3.8-1 shows
drainage details for the bottom slab of concrete box girder bridges.
C. Access Hole and Air Vent Holes
Access holes with doors should be placed in the bottom slab if necessary to inspect utilities inside
cells (i.e., waterline, conduits, E.Q. restrainers, etc.). Figure 5.3.8-2 and 5.3.8-3 shows access hole
and air vent hole details. Air vents are required when access holes are used.
Figure 5.3.8-1
P65:DP/BDM5
Figure 5.3.8-2
Figure 5.3.8-3
Continuous Hinge
Figure 5.4-1
The forces acting on the hinge shown in Figure 5.4-3 are: shear, Vu; horizontal tensile force, Nuc;
and moment, Mu.
Vu = Factored Shear (Dead Load + Live Load + Impact) (1)
Nuc ≥ 0.2Vu, but less than 1.0Vu (2)
Mu = Vu(af) + Nuc(h-d) (3)
where: af = Flexural moment arm is the distance from the reaction to the
centerline of the hanger reinforcement, and shall include the thermal
movement of the reaction, Vu.
h-d = Moment arm for the horizontal load, Nuc.
The horizontal tensile load, Nuc, is due to indeterminate causes such as restrained shrinkage or
temperature stresses and is considered a live load [13].
In addition, service load conditions should also be checked for deflections and crack control.
Flexural Design
Figure 5.4-5
D. Hanger Tension Design (Figure 5.4-6)
The hanger tension reinforcement, Ahr, shall satisfy both of the following strength and service-
ability equations:
Vu ≤ φAhr/s)(fy)(S) Strength (14)
V ≤ (Ahr/s)(0.5fy)(W+3av) Serviceability (15)
where:
Ahr = Hanger reinforcement in square inches
s = Spacing of the hanger reinforcement
V = Service load reaction
W+3av = Effective width for hanger reinforcement-Serviceability
In addition to equations (14) and (15), the following equation shall also be satisfied for inverted
T-beam pier caps (see Figure 5.4-7):
2Vu ≤ 2[2φ √ fc′ bfdf] + φ(ahr/s)(fy)(W+2df) (16)
where bf = Width of bottom flange of inverted T-beam
df = Distance from top of ledge to center of longitudinal cap reinforcement
near the bottom flange of the inverted T-beam
W+2df = Effective width for hanger reinforcement for inverted T-beam.
If S>(W+2df), it is not necessary to add the stirrup reinforcement for conventional shear and
torsion to the hanger reinforcement. Ensure that the stirrup reinforcement satisfies either the
conventional longitudinal shear and torsion reinforcement requirements or the hanger reinforce-
ment requirement, whichever is greater. If S<(W+2df), it will be necessary to add the required
hanger reinforcement to that required for shear and torsion [11].
P65:DP/BDM5
5.5 Widenings
This section provides general guidance for the design of bridge widenings. Included are additions to the
substructure and the superstructure of reinforced concrete box girder, flat slab, T-beam, and precast-
prestressed girder bridges. For additional information, see ACI Committee Report, Guide for Widening
Highway Bridges [15].
5.5.1 Review of Existing Structures
A. General
Obtain the following documents from existing records for preliminary review, design, and plan
preparation:
1. Reduced copy of “As-Built”contract plans from our microfilm records in Bridge Records, Office
of Bridges and Structures.
2. Reduced copy of original contract plans and special provisions, which can be obtained from
Engineering Records (Plans Vault), Records Control. These will not include the “As-Built” plans,
since they are made prior to receiving the “As-Built” plans from the Project Engineer. Backup
microfilm records are also maintained by Engineering Records (Plans Vault), Records Control,
but the “As-Built” plans may not be current.
3. Check with the Bridge Preservation Unit for records of any unusual movements/rotations and
other structural information.
4. Original design calculations, which are stored in State Archives and can be retrieved by Bridge
Records personnel.
5. Current field data on Supplemental Site Data Form (including current deck elevations at interface
of widening and existing deck, as well as cross slopes), are obtained from District. Current field
measurements of existing pier crossbeam locations are recommended so that new prestressed
girders are not fabricated too short or too long. This is particularly important if piers have been
constructed with different skews. This information may not be available in any existing plans,
so field trips may be necessary to determine actual details.
6. Original and current Foundation Reports from the Materials Lab or from the Plans Vault.
7. Change Order files to the original bridge contract in Records Control Unit.
B. Original Contract Plans and Special Provisions
Location and size of reinforcement, member sizes and geometry, location of construction joints,
details, allowable design soil pressure, and test hole data are given on the plans. Original contract
plans can be more legible than the microfilm copies.
The special provisions may include pertinent information that is not covered on the plans or in the
Standard Specifications.
C. Original Calculations
The original calculations should be reviewed for any “special assumptions” or office criteria used
in the original design. The actual stresses in the structural members, which will be affected by the
widening, should be reviewed. This may affect the structure type selected for the widening.
D. Final Records
For major widening/renovation projects, the Final Records should be reviewed particularly for
information about the existing foundations and piles. Sometimes the piles indicated on the original
plans were omitted, revised, or required preboring. Final Records are available from Records Control
or Bridge Records (Final Records on some older bridges may be in storage at the Materials Lab).
5.5.2 Analysis and Design Criteria
A. General
Each widening represents a unique situation and construction operations may vary between widening
projects. The guidelines in this section are based on over 20 years of WSDOT design experience with
bridge widenings.
1. Appearance
The widening of a structure should be accomplished in such a manner that the existing structure
does not look “added on to.” When this is not possible, consideration should be given to enclo-
sure walls, cover panels, paint, or other aesthetic treatments. Where possible and appropriate, the
structure’s appearance should be improved by the widening.
2. Materials
Preferably, materials used in the construction of the widening shall have the same thermal and
elastic properties as the materials used in the construction of the original structure.
3. Load Distribution and Construction Sequence
The members of the widening should be proportioned to provide similar longitudinal and
transverse load distribution characteristics as the existing structure. Normally this can be
achieved by using the same cross sections and member lengths that were used in the existing
structure.
The construction sequence and degree of interaction between the widening and the existing
structure, after completion, shall be fully considered in determining the distribution of the dead
load for design of the widening and stress checks for the existing structure. The distribution of
live load shall be in accordance with the AASHTO specifications. Where precast-prestressed
girders are used to widen an existing cast-in-place concrete box girder or T-beam bridge, the live
load distribution factor for interior girder(s) shall be S/5.5.
The construction sequence or stage construction should be clearly shown in the plans to avoid
confusion and misinterpretation during construction. A typical construction sequence may
involve placing the deck concrete, removing the falsework, placing the concrete for the closure
strip, and placing the concrete for the traffic barrier. Indicate in the plans a suggested stage
construction plan to avoid misinterpretation.
4. Specifications
The design of the widening shall conform to the current AASHTO Specifications and the state of
Washington’s Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction.
The method of design for the widening shall be by load factor design methods even though the
original design may have been by service load design.
5. Geometrical Constraints
The overall appearance and geometrical dimensions of the superstructure and columns of the
widening should be the same or as close as possible to those of the existing structure. This is to
ensure that the widening will have the same appearance and similar structural stiffness as the
original structure.
6. Strength of Concrete
The allowable stresses shown in the latest AASHTO Specifications are to be used. For concrete
structures located in rural areas or where the volume of concrete is less than 30 cubic yards, use
Class 4000 (fc′ = 4000 psi) and Grade 60 reinforcement. For projects located in urban areas and
having a volume of concrete greater than 30 cubic yards, Class 5000 may be specified only if
necessary to meet structural requirements and if facilities are available. Concrete with a greater
strength may be used, if needed, with consultation and approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
7. Overlay
It should be established at the preliminary plan stage if an overlay is required as part of the
widening.
8. Strength of the Existing Structure
A review of the strength of the main members of the existing structure shall be made for
construction conditions utilizing AASHTO Load Factors.
A check of the existing main members after attachment of the widening shall be made for the
final design loading condition.
If the existing structural elements do not have adequate strength, consult your supervisor or in the
case of consultants, contact the Consultant Liason Engineer for appropriate guidance.
If significant demolition is required on the existing bridge, consideration should be given to
requesting concrete strength testing for the existing bridge and including this information in the
contract documents.
9. Special Considerations
a. For structures that were originally designed for HS20 loading, HS25 shall be used to design
the widening. For structures that were originally designed for less than HS20, consideration
should be given to replacing the structure instead of widening it.
b. Where large cambers are expected, a longitudinal joint between the existing structure and the
widening may be considered. Longitudinal joints, if used, should be located out of traveled
lanes or beneath median barriers to eliminate potentially hazardous vehicle control problems.
c. The Standard Specifications do not permit falsework to be supported from the existing
structure unless the Plans and Specifications state otherwise. This requirement eliminates the
transmission of vibration from the existing structure to the widening during construction.
The existing structure may still be in service.
d. For narrow widenings where the Plans and Specifications require that the falsework be
supported from the original structure (e.g., there are no additional girders, columns,
crossbeams, or closure strips), there should be no external rigid supports such as posts or
falsework from the ground. Supports from the ground do not permit the widening to deflect
with the existing structure when traffic is on the existing structure. This causes the uncured
concrete of the widening to crack where it joins the existing structure. Differential dead load
deflection during construction should be given consideration.
e. Precast members may be used to widen existing cast-in-place structures. This method is
useful when the horizontal or vertical clearances during construction are insufficient to build
cast-in-place members.
f. The alignment for diaphragms for the widening shall generally coincide with the existing
diaphragms.
g. When using battered piles, estimate the pile tip elevations and ensure that they will have
ample clearance from all existing piles, utilities, or other obstructions. Also check that there
is sufficient clearance between the existing structure and the pile driving equipment.
B. Seismic Design Criteria for Bridge Widenings
1. Adequacy of Existing Structure
Early in the project, determine whether earthquake loading poses any problems for the structural
adequacy of the existing structure (e.g., original unwidened structure). The amount of reinforce-
ment and structural detailing of older structures may not meet the current AASHTO seismic
design requirements. It is important that these deficiencies be determined as soon as possible so
that remedial/retrofitting measures can be evaluated. It should be noted that for some structures,
because of deterioration and/or inadequate details, the widening may not be structurally or
economically feasible. In this case, the Bridge Design Engineer should be consulted for possible
structure replacement instead of proceeding with widening the structure.
2. Superstructure Widening Without Adding Substructure
No seismic analysis is necessary for this condition. Check the support shelf length required at all
piers. Check the need for longitudinal earthquake restrainers and transverse earthquake stops.
3. Superstructure Widening by Adding Column(s) and Substructure
Use the AASHTO/BDM seismic design criteria with appropriate R factors to design and detail
the new columns and footings for the maximum required capacity.
Analyze the widening and the existing structure as a combined unit.
If the existing structure is supported by single column piers, and is located in SPC or C (LRFD
Seismic Zone 2, 3, or 4), the existing columns should be retrofitted if the existing column does
not have adequate ductility to meet current standards.
If the existing structure is supported by multiple column piers, determine the need to retrofit the
existing columns as part of the widening as follows:
a. For existing bridges in SPC B or C (LRFD, Zone 2, 3, or 4) that are widened with additional
columns and substructure, existing columns should be considered for retrofitting unless
calculations or column details indicate that the existing columns have adequate ductility.
Nonductile existing columns will likely not be able to carry vertical load if they experience
the inelastic deflection that a new (ductile) column can tolerate.
b. Only the columns should be retrofitted. Retrofitting the foundations supporting existing
columns is generally too expensive to consider for a widening project. Experience in past
earthquakes in California has shown that bridges with columns (only) retrofitted have
performed quite well.
c. Approval for retrofitting existing multiple column piers is subject to available funding and
approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
4. Other Criteria
a. If recommended in the foundation report, the superstructure widening with new substructure
shall also be checked for differential settlement between the existing structure and the new
widened structure. All elements of the structure shall be analyzed and detailed to account for
this differential settlement especially on spread footing foundations.
b. Check support width requirements; if there is a need for earthquake restrainers on the
existing structure as well as the widened portion, they shall be included in the widening
design.
c. The current AASHTO seismic design criteria may result in columns with more reinforce-
ment and larger footings for the widened portion than those on the existing structure. If it is
not possible to use larger footings because of limited space, an alternate design concept such
as drilled shafts may be necessary.
d. When modifications are made near or on the existing bridge, be careful to isolate any added
potential stiffening elements (such as traffic barrier against colmuns).
e. The relative stiffness of the new columns compared to the existing columns should be
considered in the combined analysis. The typical column retrofit is steel jacketing with
grouted annular space (between the existing column and the steel jacket).
f. When strutted columns (horizontal strut between existing columsn) are encountered, remove
the strut and analyze the existing columns for the new unbraced length and retrofit, if
necessary. Refer to WSDOT Research Report on Strutted Columns (nearing completion).
C. Substructure
1. Selection of Foundation
a. The type of foundation to be used to support the widening should generally be the same as
that of the existing structure unless otherwise recommended by the Geotechnical Engineer.
The effects of possible differential settlement between the new and the existing foundations
shall be considered.
b. Consider present bridge site conditions when determining new foundation locations. The
conditions include: overhead clearance for pile driving equipment, horizontal clearance
requirements, working room, pile batters, channel changes, utility locations, existing
embankments, and other similar conditions.
2. Scour and Drift
Added piles and columns for widenings at water crossings may alter stream flow characteristics
at the bridge site. This may result in pier scouring to a greater depth than experienced with the
existing configuration. Added substructure elements may also increase the possibility of trapping
drift. The Hydraulics Engineer should be consulted concerning potential problems related to
scour and drift on all widenings at water crossings.
D. Superstructure
1. Camber
Accurate prediction of dead load deflection is more important for widenings than for new
bridges, since it is essential that the deck grades match [15].
The multipliers for estimating long-term delfection and camber for bridge widening may be taken
as 2.7 times the elastic deflection due to the weight of the member and 3.0 times the elastic
deflection due to the superimposed loads.
To obtain a smooth transition in transverse direction of the bridge deck, the camber of the girder
adjacent to the existing structure shall be adjusted for the difference in camber between new and
existing structure. A linear interpolation may be used to adjust the camber of the girders located
away from the existing structure.
When large cambers are expected, see Section 5.5.2.A9b.
2. Closure Strip
Except for narrow deck slab widenings (see Section 5.5.2.A9c) a closure strip is required for all
cast-in-place widenings. The width shall be the minimum required to accommodate the necessary
reinforcement and for form removal. Reinforcement, which extends through the closure strip
shall be investigated in accordance with Section 5.5.4A7. Shear shall be transferred across the
closure strip by shear friction and/or shear keys.
All falsework supporting the widening shall be released and formwork supporting the closure
strip shall be supported from the existing and newly widened structures prior to placing concrete
in the closure strip. Because of deck slab cracking experienced in widened concrete decks,
closure strips are required unless the mid-span dead load deflection is 1/2 inch or less.
3. Stress Levels and Deflections in Existing Structures
Caution is necessary in determining the cumulative stress levels, deflections, and the need for
shoring in existing structural members during rehabilitation projects.
For example, a T-beam bridge was originally constructed on falsework and the falsework was
released after the slab concrete gained strength. As part of a major rehabilitation project, the
bridge was closed to traffic and the entire slab was removed and replaced without shoring.
Without the slab, the stems behave as rectangular sections with a reduced depth and width. The
existing stem reinforcement was not originally designed to support the weight of the slab without
shoring. After the new slab was placed, wide cracks, eminating from the bottom of the stem
opened, indicating that the reinforcement was overstressed. This overstress resulted in a lower
load rating for the newly rehabilitated bridge. This example shows the need to shore up the
remaining T-beam stems prior to placing the new slab so that excessive deflections do not occur
and overstress in the existing reinforcing steel is prevented.
It is necessary to understand how the original structure was constructed, how the rehabilitated
structure is to be constructed, and the cumulative stress levels and deflections in the structure
from the time of original construction through rehabilitation.
E. Stability of Widening
For relatively narrow box girder and T-beam widenings, symmetry about the vertical axis should be
maintained because lateral loads are critical during construction. When symmetry is not possible, use
pile cap connections, lateral connections, or special falsework. A minimum of two webs is generally
recommended for box girder widenings. For T-beam widenings that require only one additional web,
the web should be centered at the axis of symmetry of the slab. Often the width of the closure strip
can be adjusted to accomplish this.
5.5.3 Removing Portions of the Existing Structure
Portions of the existing structure to be removed shall be clearly indicated on the plans. Where a clean
break line is required, a 3/4″ deep saw cut shall be specified for a slab with normal wear and a 1/2″ deep saw
cut for worn roadway slabs. In no case, however, shall the saw blade cut or nick the main transverse top
slab reinforcement. The special provisions shall state that care will be taken not to damage any reinforce-
ment which is to be saved. Hydromilling is preferred where reinforcing bar cover is shallow and can
effectively remove delaminated decks because of the good depth control it offers. When greater depths of
slab are to be removed, special consideration should be given to securing exposed reinforcing bars to
prevent undue vibration and subsequent fatigue cracks from occurring in the reinforcing bars.
The current General Special Provisions should be reviewed for other specific requirements on slab
removal.
Removal of any portion of the main structural members should be held to a minimum. Careful consider-
ation shall be given to the construction conditions, particularly when the removal affects the existing
frame system. In extreme situations, preloading by jacking is acceptable to control stresses and deflections
during the various stages of removal and construction. Removal of the main longitudinal slab reinforce-
ment should be kept to a minimum. See “Slab Removal Detail,” Figure 5.5-1, for the limiting case for the
maximum allowable removal.
The plans should include a note that critical dimensions and elevations are to be verified in the field prior
to the fabrication of precast units or expansion joint assemblies.
In cases where an existing sidewalk is to be removed but the supporting slab under the sidewalk is to be
retained, district personnel should check the feasibility of removing the sidewalk. Prior to design, district
personnel should make recommendations on acceptable removal methods and required construction
equipment. The plans and specifications should then be prepared to accommodate these recommendations.
This will ensure the constructibility of plan details and the adequacy of the specifications.
5.5.4 Attachment of Widening to Existing Structure
A. General
1. Lap and Mechanical Splices
To attach a widening to an existing structure, the first choice is to utilize existing reinforcing
bars by splicing new bars to existing. Lap splices or mechanical splices should be used. However,
it may not always be possible to splice to existing reinforcing bars and spacing limitations may
make it difficult to use mechanical splices.
2. Welding Reinforcement
Existing reinforcing steel may not be readily weldable. Mechanical splices should be used
wherever possible. If welding is the only feasible means, the chemistry of the reinforcing steel
must be analyzed and acceptable welding procedures developed.
3. Drilling Into Existing Structure
It may be necessary to drill holes and set dowels in epoxy resin in order to attach the widening to
the existing structure.
When drilling into heavily reinforced areas, chipping should be specified to expose the main
reinforcing bars. If it is necessary to drill through reinforcing bars or if the holes are within
4 inches of an existing concrete edge, core drilling should be specified. Core drilled holes shall
be roughened before resin is applied. If this is not done, a dried residue, which acts as a bond
breaker and reduces the load capacity of the dowel, will remain. Generally, the drilled holes are
1
/8 inch in diameter larger than the dowel diameter for #5 and smaller dowels and 1/4 inch in
diameter larger than the dowel diameter for #6 and larger dowels.
In special applications requiring drilled holes greater than 11/2″ inch diameter or deeper than
2 feet, core drilling shall be specified. These holes should also be intentionally roughened prior
to applying epoxy resin.
Core drilled holes should have a minimum clearance of 3 inches from the edge of the concrete
and 1-inch clearance from existing reinforcing bars in the existing structure. These clearances
should be noted in the plans.
4. Dowelling Reinforcing Bars Into the Existing Structure
a. Dowel bars shall be set with an approved epoxy resin. The existing structural element shall
be checked for its adequacy to transmit the load transferred to it from the dowel bars.
b. Dowel spacing and edge distance affect the allowable tensile dowel loads [14]. Allowable
tensile loads, dowel bar embedments, and drilled hole sizes for reinforcing bars (Grade 60)
used as dowels and set with an approved epoxy resin are shown in Table 5.5-1. These values
are based on an edge clearance greater than 3 inch, a dowel spacing greater than 6 inch, and
are shown for both uncoated and epoxy coated dowels. Table 5.5-2 lists dowel embedment
lengths when the dowel spacing is less than 6 inch. Note that in Table 5.5-2 the edge
clearance is equal to or greater than 3 inch, because this is the minimum edge clearance
for a drilled hole from a concrete edge.
If it is not possible to obtain these embedments, such as for traffic railing dowels into
existing deck slabs, the allowable load on the dowel shall be reduced by the ratio of the
actual embedment divided by the required embedment.
c. The embedments shown in Table 5.5-1 and -2 are based on dowels embedded in concrete
with fc′=4,000 psi.
Allowable Tensile Load for Dowels Set With Epoxy Resin fc′=4,000 psi,
Gr 60 Reinforcing Bars, Edge Clearance ≥ 3 in., and Spacing ≥ 6 in.[14]
Table 5.5-1
Allowable Design Drill Hole Required Embedment, Le**
Bar Tensile Load, T* Size Uncoated Epoxy Coated
Size (kips) (in) (in) (in)
5
4 12.0 /8 7 8
3
5 18.6 /4 8 9
6 26.4 1 9 10
7 36.0 11/8 11 12
8 47.4 11/4 13 141/2
9 60.0 13/8 16 171/2
*Allowable Tensile Load (Strength Design) = (fy)(As).
**Based on removed cover. In cases where concrete cover is not removed, the designer
should add the cover thickness to the required embedment.
Allowable Tensile Load for Dowels Set With Epoxy Resin fc′=4,000 psi,
Gr 60 Reinforcing Bars, Edge Clearance ≥ 3 in., and Spacing < 6 in.[14]
Table 5.5-2
Allowable Design Drill Hole Required Embedment, Le**
Bar Tensile Load, T* Size Uncoated Epoxy Coated
Size (kips) (in) (in) (in)
5
4 12.0 /8 91/2 101/2
3
5 18.6 /4 101/2 111/2
6 26.4 1 111/2 121/2
7 36.0 11/8 131/2 15
8 47.4 11/4 161/2 18
9 60.0 13/8 20 22
*Allowable Tensile Load (Strength Design) = (fy)(As).
**Based on removed cover. In cases where concrete cover is not removed, the designer
should add the cover thickness to the required embedment.
5. Shear Transfer Across a Dowelled Joint
Shear should be carried across the joint by shear friction on an intentionally roughened surface
instead of depending on the dowels to transmit the shear force. Chipping shear keys in the
existing concrete can also be used to transfer shear across a dowelled joint, but is expensive.
B. Connection Details
The details on the following sheets are samples of details which have been used for widening
bridges. They are informational and are not intended to restrict the designer’s judgment.
Note: Falsework shall be maintained under pier crossbeams until closure pour is made and cured 10 days.
3. T-Beam Bridges
Use details similar to those for box girder bridges for crossbeam connections. See Figure 5.5-7
for slab connection detail.
Expansion Joint
Detail Shown for Compression Seal — Existing Reinforcing Steel Saved
Figure 5.5-9
Expansion Joint
Detail shown for compression seal with new reinforcing steed added.
Figure 5.5-10
5.5.6 Possible Future Widening for Current Designs
For current projects that include sidewalks (and where it is anticipated that the structure may be modified
or widened in the future), provide a smooth rather than a rough construction joint between the sidewalk
and the slab. This will normally pertain to flat slab bridges or where the sidewalk width exceeds the slab
cantilever overhang.
5.5.7 Bridge Widening Falsework
For widenings which do not have additional girders, columns, crossbeams, or closure pours, flasework
should be supported by the existing bridge. There should be an external support from the ground. The
reason is that the ground support will not allow the widening to deflect the existing bridge when traffic is
on the bridge. This will cause the “green” concrete to crack where it joins the existing bridge. Designer
should contact the bridge construction support unit regarding fasework associated with widenings.
Contract Type of
Bridge SR No. Bridge Unusual Features
S 74th-72nd St. O-Xing No. 5/426 3207 CIP Haunched Haunched P.C. P.T. Bath Tub girder
Con. Box Girder sections.
Pacific Avenue O-Xing No. 5/332 3087 CIP Conc. Longitudinal joint between new and
Box Girder existing.
Tye River Bridges 2/126 and 2/127 3565 CIP Conc. Stage construction with crown shift.
Tee Beam
SR 20 and BNRR O-Xing No. 5/714 9220 CIP Conc. Widened with prestressed girders
Tee Beam raised crossbeam.
NE 8th St. U’Xing No. 405/43 9267 Prestressed Pier replacement — widening.
Girders
So. 212th St. U’Xing SR 167 3967 Prestressed Widening constructed as stand alone
Girders structure. Widening column designed
as strong column for retrofit.
SE 232nd St. SR 18 5801 CIP Conc. Skew = 50 degree. Longitudinal “link
Post-tensioned pin” deck joint between new and
Box existing to accommodate new creep.
Obdashian Bridge 2/275 N/A CIP Post-tensioned Sidewalk widening with pipe struts.
1999 Box
P65:DP/BDM5
5.99 Bibliography
1. McCormac, J. C., Design of Reinforced Concrete, Harper & Row, New York, 1st Ed., 1978, 507 pp.
2. Wang, C.-K. and Salmon, C. G., Reinforced Concrete Design, Harper & Row, New York, 3rd Ed.,
1979, 918 pp.
3. Park, R. and Pauley, T., Reinforced Concrete Design, John Wiley & Sons, New york, 1st ed., 1975,
769 pp.
4. ACI 318-89, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and Commentary, American
Concrete Institute, 1989, pp.353.
5. Ghosh, S. K. and Rabbat, B. G., Editors, Notes on ACI 318-89, Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete with Design Applications, Portland Cement Association, 5th ed., 1990.
6. ACI-ASCE Committee 343, Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures,
American Concrete Institute, 1988, 162 pp.
7. Hsu, T. T. C., Torsion of Reinforced Concrete, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1st Ed.,
1984, 516 pp.
8. Collins, M. P. and Mitchell, D., Shear and Torsion Design of Prestressed and Non-Prestressed
Concrete Beams, PCI Journal, September-October, 1980, pp. 32-100.
9. ACI Committee 317, Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook — Working Stress Method, Publication
SP-3, American Concrete Institute, 3rd Ed., 1965, 271 pp.
10. Mirza, S.A., and Furlong, R.W., Design of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Inverted T Beams
for Bridge Structures, PCI Journal, Vol. 30, No. 4, July-August 1985, pp. 112-136.
11. Rabbat, B.G., Reader Comments Design of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete inverted T Beams
for Bridge Structures, PCI Journal, Vol. 31, No. 3, May-June 1986, pp. 157-163.
12. Supplement A, Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, AASHTO,
Washington, D.C., 1991, pp. 14-16.
13. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16th Edition, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1996.
14. Babaei, K. and Hawkins, N. M., Bending/Straightening and Grouting Concrete Reinforcing Steel:
Review of WSDOT’s Specifications and Proposed Modifications, Final Report WA-RD 168.1,
Washington State Transportation Center (TRAC), December 1988, 75 pp.
15. ACI Committee 345, Guide for Widening Highway Bridges, ACI Structural Journal, July/August,
1992, pp. 451-466.
16. AASHTO LRFD Specifications, 2nd Edition, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1998.
P65:DP/BDM5
#3 0.376 3
/ 8″ 0.42 0.11 40′ 30′
#4 0.668 1
/ 2″ 0.56 0.20 40′ 40′
#5 1.043 5
/ 8″ 0.70 0.31 60′ 40′
#6 1.502 3
/ 4″ 0.83 0.44 60′ 60′
#7 2.044 7
/ 8″ 0.96 0.60 60′ 60′
Table 5.1-A1
4 1 /2 0.29 0.53 0.83 1.17 1.60 2.11 2.67 3.39 4.16 6.00
4 3 /4 0.28 0.51 0.78 1.11 1.52 2.00 2.53 3.21 3.94 5.68
5 0.26 0.48 0.74 1.06 1.44 1.90 2.40 3.05 3.74 5.40
5 1 /4 0.25 0.46 0.71 1.01 1.37 1.81 2.29 2.90 3.57 5.14
5 1 /2 0.24 0.44 0.68 0.96 1.31 1.72 2.18 2.77 3.40 4.91
5 3 /4 0.23 0.42 0.65 0.92 1.25 1.65 2.09 2.65 3.26 4.70 8.35
6 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12 4.50 8.00
6 1 /2 0.20 0.37 0.57 0.81 1.11 1.46 1.85 2.35 2.88 4.15 7.38
7 0.19 0.34 0.53 0.75 1.03 1.35 1.71 2.18 2.67 3.86 6.86
7 1 /2 0.18 0.32 0.50 0.70 0.96 1.26 1.60 2.03 2.50 3.60 6.40
8 0.17 0.30 0.47 0.66 0.90 1.19 1.50 1.91 2.34 3.38 6.00
8 1 /2 0.16 0.28 0.44 0.62 0.85 1.12 1.41 1.79 2.20 3.18 5.65
9 0.15 0.27 0.41 0.59 0.80 1.05 1.33 1.69 2.08 3.00 5.33
9 1 /2 0.14 0.25 0.39 0.56 0.76 1.00 1.26 1.60 1.97 2.84 5.05
10 0.13 0.24 0.37 0.53 0.72 0.95 1.20 1.52 1.87 2.70 4.80
101/2 0.13 0.23 0.35 0.50 0.69 0.90 1.14 1.45 1.78 2.57 4.57
11 0.12 0.22 0.34 0.48 0.65 0.86 1.09 1.39 1.70 2.45 4.36
111/2 0.11 0.21 0.32 0.46 0.63 0.82 1.04 1.33 1.63 2.35 4.17
Size
No. #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11 #14 #18
1 0.11 0.20 0.31 0.44 0.60 0.79 1.00 1.27 1.56 2.25 4.00
2 0.22 0.40 0.62 0.88 1.20 1.58 2.00 2.54 3.12 4.50 8.00
3 0.33 0.60 0.93 1.32 1.80 2.37 3.00 3.81 4.68 6.75 12.00
4 0.44 0.80 1.24 1.76 2.40 3.16 4.00 5.08 6.24 9.00 16.00
5 0.55 1.00 1.55 2.20 3.00 3.95 5.00 6.35 7.80 11.25 20.00
6 0.66 1.20 1.86 2.64 3.60 4.74 6.00 7.62 9.36 13.50 24.00
7 0.77 1.40 2.17 3.08 4.20 5.53 7.00 8.89 10.92 15.75 28.00
8 0.88 1.60 2.48 3.52 4.80 6.32 8.00 10.16 12.48 18.00 32.00
9 0.99 1.80 2.79 3.96 5.40 7.11 9.00 11.43 14.04 20.25 36.00
10 1.10 2.00 3.10 4.40 6.00 7.90 10.00 12.70 15.60 22.50 40.00
11 1.21 2.20 3.41 4.84 6.60 8.69 11.00 13.97 17.16 24.75 44.00
12 1.32 2.40 3.72 5.28 7.20 9.48 12.00 15.24 18.72 27.00 48.00
13 1.43 2.60 4.03 5.72 7.80 10.27 13.00 16.51 20.28 29.25 52.00
14 1.54 2.80 4.34 6.16 8.40 11.06 14.00 17.78 21.84 31.50 56.00
15 1.65 3.00 4.65 6.60 9.00 11.85 15.00 19.05 23.40 33.75 60.00
16 1.76 3.20 4.96 7.04 9.60 12.64 16.00 20.32 24.96 36.00 64.00
17 1.87 3.40 5.27 7.48 10.20 13.43 17.00 21.59 26.52 38.25 68.00
18 1.98 3.60 5.58 7.92 10.80 14.22 18.00 22.86 28.08 40.50 72.00
19 2.09 3.80 5.89 8.36 11.40 15.01 19.00 24.13 29.64 42.75 76.00
20 2.20 4.00 6.20 8.80 12.00 15.80 20.00 25.40 31.20 45.00 80.00
21 2.31 4.20 6.51 9.24 12.60 16.59 21.00 26.67 32.76 47.25 84.00
22 2.42 4.40 6.82 9.68 13.20 17.38 22.00 27.94 34.32 49.50 88.00
23 2.53 4.60 7.13 10.12 13.80 18.17 23.00 29.21 35.88 51.75 92.00
24 2.64 4.80 7.44 10.56 14.40 18.96 24.00 30.48 37.44 54.00 96.00
25 2.75 5.00 7.75 11.00 15.00 19.75 25.00 31.75 39.00 56.25 100.00
26 2.86 5.20 8.06 11.44 15.60 20.54 26.00 33.02 40.56 58.50 104.00
27 2.97 5.40 8.37 11.88 16.20 21.33 27.00 34.29 42.12 60.75 108.00
28 3.08 5.60 8.68 12.32 16.80 22.12 28.00 35.56 43.68 63.00 112.00
29 3.19 5.80 8.99 12.76 17.40 22.91 29.00 36.83 45.24 65.25 116.00
30 3.30 6.00 9.30 13.20 18.00 23.70 30.00 38.10 46.80 67.50 120.00
Definition of Splice Classes: Class A: Low stressed bars – 75% or less are spliced
Class B: Low stressed bars – more than 75% are spliced
High stressed bars – 1/2 or less are spliced
Class C: High stressed bars – more than 50% are spliced
Class B Lap splice is the preferred and most commonly used by bridge office.
Table 5.1-A6
Concrete fc′ = 3,000 psi fc′ = 4,000 psi fc′ = 5,000 psi fc′ = 6,000 psi fc′ > 3,000 psi
Bar Minimum
Size Development Length, ld Lap Splice
Note:
1. Where excess bar area is provided, ld may be reduced by the ratio of required area to area provided.
2. *1′-0″ minimum (office practice).
3. ld (compression) must be developed with straight bar extension. Reduced length noted in (1) shall also be
straight bar extension.
4. 2′-0″ minimum (office practice).
5. When splicing smaller bars to larger bars, the lap splice shall be the larger of the minimum compression lap
splice or the development length of the larger bar in compression, AASHTO Art. 8.32.4.1.
Table 5.1-A7
Mu Mu Mu Mu
ρ φbd2 ρ φbd2 ρ φbd2 ρ φbd2
0.0010 59.3 0.0053 298.1 0.0097 515.4 0.0141 705.2
0.0011 65.1 0.0054 303.4 0.0098 520.0 0.0142 709.2
0.0012 71.0 0.0055 308.6 0.0099 524.6 0.0143 713.2
0.0013 76.8 0.0056 313.8 0.0100 529.2 0.0144 717.2
0.0014 82.6 0.0057 319.0 0.0101 533.8 0.0145 721.1
0.0015 88.4 0.0058 324.2 0.0102 538.3 0.0146 725.1
0.0016 94.2 0.0059 329.4 0.0103 542.9 0.0147 729.0
0.0017 100.0 0.0060 334.5 0.0104 547.4 0.0148 732.9
0.0018 105.7 0.0061 339.7 0.0105 551.9 0.0149 736.8
0.0019 111.4 0.0062 344.8 0.0106 556.4 0.0150 740.7
0.0020 117.2 0.0063 349.9 0.0107 560.9 0.0151 744.6
0.0021 122.9 0.0064 355.0 0.0108 565.4 0.0152 748.4
0.0022 128.6 0.0065 360.1 0.0109 569.9 0.0153 752.3
0.0023 134.3 0.0066 365.2 0.0110 574.3 0.0154 756.1
0.0024 139.9 0.0067 370.2 0.0111 578.8 0.0155 759.9
0.0025 145.6 0.0068 375.3 0.0112 583.2 0.0156 763.7
0.0026 151.2 0.0069 380.3 0.0113 587.6 0.0157 767.5
0.0027 156.8 0.0070 385.3 0.0114 592.0 0.0158 771.2
0.0028 162.4 0.0071 390.3 0.0115 596.4 0.0159 775.0
0.0029 168.0 0.0072 395.0 0.0116 600.7 0.0160 778.7
0.0030 173.6 0.0073 400.3 0.0117 605.1 ρmax 0.0161 782.5
0.0031 179.2 0.0074 405.2 0.0118 609.4
0.0032 184.8 0.0075 410.2 0.0119 613.7
0.0033 190.3 0.0076 415.1 0.0120 618.0
0.0034 195.8 0.0077 420.0 0.0121 622.3
0.0035 201.3 0.0078 424.9 0.0122 626.6
0.0036 206.8 0.0079 429.8 0.0123 630.9
0.0037 212.3 0.0080 434.7 0.0124 635.1
0.0038 217.8 0.0081 439.5 0.0125 639.4
0.0039 223.2 0.0082 444.4 0.0126 643.6
0.0040 228.7 0.0083 449.2 0.0127 647.8
0.0041 234.1 0.0084 454.0 0.0128 652.0
0.0042 239.5 0.0085 458.8 0.0129 656.2
0.0043 244.9 0.0086 463.6 0.0130 660.3
0.0044 250.3 0.0087 468.4 0.0131 664.5
0.0045 255.7 0.0088 473.2 0.0132 668.6
0.0046 261.0 0.0089 477.9 0.0133 672.8
0.0047 266.4 0.0090 482.6 0.0134 676.9
0.0048 271.7 0.0091 487.4 0.0135 681.0
0.0049 277.0 0.0092 492.1 0.0136 685.0
0.0050 282.3 0.0093 496.8 0.0137 689.1
0.0051 287.6 0.0094 501.4 0.0138 693.2
0.0052 292.9 0.0095 506.1 0.0139 697.2
0.0096 510.7 0.0140 701.2
Notes: Mu
1. Units of ρbd2 are in psi.
2. ρmin should be based on 1.2 Mcr or 1.33 ρ analysis, whichever is smaller.
3. ρmax = 0.75ρb = 0.0161 based on β1 = 0.85.
Table 5.2-A1
Mu Mu Mu Mu Mu
ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ
φbd2 φbd2 φbd2 φbd2 φbd2
0.0010 59.5 0.0056 319.3 0.0102 556.7 0.0148 771.7 0.0194 964.1
0.0011 65.4 0.0057 324.7 0.0103 561.7 0.0149 776.1 0.0195 968.1
0.0012 71.2 0.0058 330.1 0.0104 566.6 0.0150 780.5 0.0196 972.0
0.0013 77.1 0.0059 335.5 0.0105 571.5 0.0151 784.9 0.0197 975.9
0.0014 83.0 0.0060 340.9 0.0106 576.3 0.0152 789.3 0.0198 979.8
0.0015 88.8 0.0061 346.2 0.0107 581.2 0.0153 793.7 0.0199 983.7
0.0016 94.6 0.0062 351.6 0.0108 586.1 0.0154 798.1 0.0200 987.6
0.0017 100.5 0.0063 356.9 0.0109 590.9 0.0155 802.4 0.0201 991.5
0.0018 106.3 0.0064 362.2 0.0110 595.7 0.0156 806.8 0.0202 995.3
0.0019 112.1 0.0065 367.6 0.0111 600.6 0.0157 811.1 0.0203 999.2
0.0020 117.9 0.0066 372.9 0.0112 605.4 0.0158 815.4 0.0204 1003.0
0.0021 123.7 0.0067 378.2 0.0113 610.2 0.0159 819.7 0.0205 1006.8
0.0022 129.4 0.0068 383.4 0.0114 615.0 0.0160 824.1 0.0206 1010.7
0.0023 135.2 0.0069 388.7 0.0115 619.8 0.0161 828.3 0.0207 1014.5
0.0024 140.9 0.0070 394.0 0.0116 624.5 0.0162 832.6 0.0208 1018.3
0.0025 146.7 0.0071 399.2 0.0117 629.3 0.0163 836.9 0.0209 1022.0
0.0026 152.4 0.0072 404.5 0.0118 634.1 0.0164 841.2 0.0210 1025.8
0.0027 158.1 0.0073 409.7 0.0119 638.8 0.0165 845.4 0.0211 1029.6
0.0028 163.8 0.0074 414.9 0.0120 643.5 0.0166 849.7 0.0212 1033.3
0.0029 169.5 0.0075 420.1 0.0121 648.2 0.0167 853.9 0.0213 1037.1
0.0030 175.2 0.0076 425.3 0.0122 653.0 0.0168 858.1 ρmax 0.0214 1040.8
0.0031 180.9 0.0077 430.5 0.0123 657.7 0.0169 862.3
0.0032 186.6 0.0078 435.7 0.0124 662.3 0.0170 866.5
0.0033 192.2 0.0079 440.9 0.0125 667.0 0.0171 870.7
0.0034 197.9 0.0080 446.0 0.0126 671.7 0.0172 874.9
0.0035 203.5 0.0081 451.2 0.0127 676.3 0.0173 879.1
0.0036 209.1 0.0082 456.3 0.0128 681.0 0.0174 883.2
0.0037 214.7 0.0083 461.4 0.0129 685.6 0.0175 887.4
0.0038 220.3 0.0084 466.5 0.0130 690.3 0.0176 891.5
0.0039 225.9 0.0085 471.6 0.0131 694.9 0.0177 895.6
0.0040 231.5 0.0086 476.7 0.0132 699.5 0.0178 899.7
0.0041 237.1 0.0087 481.8 0.0133 704.1 0.0179 903.9
0.0042 242.6 0.0088 486.9 0.0134 708.6 0.0180 907.9
0.0043 248.2 0.0089 491.9 0.0135 713.2 0.0181 912.0
0.0044 253.7 0.0090 497.0 0.0136 717.8 0.0182 916.1
0.0045 259.2 0.0091 502.0 0.0137 722.3 0.0183 920.2
0.0046 264.8 0.0092 507.1 0.0138 726.9 0.0184 924.2
0.0047 270.3 0.0093 512.1 0.0139 731.4 0.0185 928.3
0.0048 275.8 0.0094 517.1 0.0140 735.9 0.0186 932.3
0.0049 281.2 0.0095 522.1 0.0141 740.4 0.0187 936.3
0.0050 286.7 0.0096 527.1 0.0142 744.9 0.0188 940.3
0.0051 292.2 0.0097 532.0 0.0143 749.4 0.0189 944.3
0.0052 297.6 0.0098 537.0 0.0144 753.9 0.0190 948.3
0.0053 303.1 0.0099 542.0 0.0145 758.3 0.0191 952.3
0.0054 308.5 0.0100 546.9 0.0146 762.8 0.0192 956.2
0.0055 313.9 0.0101 551.8 0.0147 767.2 0.0193 960.2
Notes: Mu
1. Units of ρbd2 are in psi.
2. ρmin should be based on 1.2 Mcr or 1.33 ρ analysis, whichever is smaller.
3. ρmax = 0.75ρb = 0.0214 based on β1 = 0.85.
Table 5.2-A2
Mu Mu Mu Mu Mu
ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ
φbd2 φbd2 φbd2 φbd2 φbd2
0.0010 59.6 0.0061 350.2 0.0113 623.8 0.0165 874.3 0.0217 1102.0
0.0011 65.5 0.0062 355.7 0.0114 628.8 0.0166 878.9 0.0218 1106.1
0.0012 71.4 0.0063 361.1 0.0115 633.8 0.0167 883.5 0.0219 1110.3
0.0013 77.3 0.0064 366.6 0.0116 638.8 0.0168 888.1 0.0220 1114.4
0.0014 83.2 0.0065 372.1 0.0117 643.8 0.0169 892.7 0.0221 1118.5
0.0015 89.0 0.0066 377.5 0.0118 648.9 0.0170 897.2 0.0222 1122.6
0.0016 94.9 0.0067 382.9 0.0119 653.8 0.0171 901.8 0.0223 1126.8
0.0017 100.8 0.0068 388.4 0.0120 658.8 0.0172 906.3 0.0224 1130.9
0.0018 106.6 0.0069 393.8 0.0121 663.8 0.0173 910.9 0.0225 1134.9
0.0019 112.5 0.0070 399.2 0.0122 668.8 0.0174 915.4 0.0226 1139.0
0.0020 118.3 0.0071 404.6 0.0123 673.7 0.0175 919.9 0.0227 1143.1
0.0021 124.1 0.0072 410.0 0.0124 678.7 0.0176 924.4 0.0228 1147.2
0.0022 129.9 0.0073 415.4 0.0125 683.6 0.0177 928.9 0.0229 1151.2
0.0023 135.8 0.0074 420.7 0.0126 688.6 0.0178 933.4 0.0230 1155.3
0.0024 141.6 0.0075 426.1 0.0127 693.5 0.0179 937.9 0.0231 1159.3
0.0025 147.3 0.0076 431.5 0.0128 698.4 0.0180 942.4 0.0232 1163.4
0.0026 153.1 0.0077 436.8 0.0129 703.3 0.0181 946.8 0.0233 1167.4
0.0027 158.9 0.0078 442.2 0.0130 708.2 0.0182 951.3 0.0234 1171.4
0.0028 164.7 0.0079 447.5 0.0131 713.1 0.0183 955.7 0.0235 1175.4
0.0029 170.4 0.0080 452.8 0.0132 718.0 0.0184 960.2 0.0236 1179.4
0.0030 176.2 0.0081 458.1 0.0133 722.9 0.0185 964.6 0.0237 1183.4
0.0031 181.9 0.0082 463.4 0.0134 727.7 0.0186 969.0 0.0238 1187.4
0.0032 187.7 0.0083 468.7 0.0135 732.6 0.0187 973.5 0.0239 1191.4
0.0033 193.4 0.0084 474.0 0.0136 737.4 0.0188 977.9 0.0240 1195.3
0.0034 199.1 0.0085 479.3 0.0137 742.3 0.0189 982.3 0.0241 1199.3
0.0035 204.8 0.0086 484.6 0.0138 747.1 0.0190 986.6 0.0242 1203.2
0.0036 210.5 0.0087 489.8 0.0139 751.9 0.0191 991.0 0.0243 1207.2
0.0037 216.2 0.0088 495.1 0.0140 756.7 0.0192 995.4 0.0244 1211.1
0.0038 221.9 0.0089 500.4 0.0141 761.5 0.0193 999.8 0.0245 1215.0
0.0039 227.5 0.0090 505.6 0.0142 766.3 0.0194 1004.1 0.0246 1218.9
0.0040 233.2 0.0091 510.8 0.0143 771.1 0.0195 1008.5 0.0247 1222.8
0.0041 238.9 0.0092 516.0 0.0144 775.9 0.0196 1012.8 0.0248 1226.7
0.0042 244.5 0.0093 521.3 0.0145 780.7 0.0197 1017.1 0.0249 1230.6
0.0043 250.1 0.0094 526.5 0.0146 785.4 0.0198 1021.5 0.0250 1234.5
0.0044 255.8 0.0095 531.7 0.0147 790.2 0.0199 1025.8 0.0251 1238.4
0.0045 261.4 0.0096 536.9 0.0148 795.0 0.0200 1030.1 ρmax 0.0252 1242.2
0.0046 267.0 0.0097 542.0 0.0149 799.7 0.0201 1034.4
0.0047 272.6 0.0098 547.2 0.0150 804.4 0.0202 1038.7
0.0048 278.2 0.0099 552.4 0.0151 809.1 0.0203 1042.9
0.0049 283.8 0.0100 557.5 0.0152 813.9 0.0204 1047.2
0.0050 289.4 0.0101 562.7 0.0153 818.6 0.0205 1051.5
0.0051 295.0 0.0102 567.8 0.0154 823.3 0.0206 1055.7
0.0052 300.5 0.0103 572.9 0.0155 827.9 0.0207 1060.0
0.0053 306.1 0.0104 578.1 0.0156 832.6 0.0208 1064.2
0.0054 311.6 0.0105 583.2 0.0157 837.3 0.0209 1068.4
0.0055 317.1 0.0106 588.3 0.0158 842.0 0.0210 1072.7
0.0056 322.7 0.0107 593.4 0.0159 846.6 0.0211 1076.9
0.0057 328.2 0.0108 598.5 0.0160 851.3 0.0212 1081.1
0.0058 333.7 0.0109 603.5 0.0161 855.9 0.0213 1085.3
0.0059 339.2 0.0110 608.6 0.0162 860.5 0.0214 1089.5
0.0060 344.7 0.0111 613.7 0.0163 865.1 0.0215 1093.6
0.0112 618.7 0.0164 869.7 0.0216 1097.8
Notes: Mu
1. Units of ρbd2 are in psi.
2. ρmin should be based on 1.2 Mcr or 1.33 ρ analysis, whichever is smaller.
3. ρmax = 0.75ρb = 0.0252 based on β1 = 0.80.
Table 5.2-A3
Figure 5.3-A1
Figure 5.3-A2
Figure 5.3-A3
Figure 5.3-A4
Figure 5.3-A5
Figure 5.3-A6
Notes:
1. Section “A-A” is taken to be the critical section. Other sections ordinarily do not need to be investigated.
2. Provide enough extension to the left of “A-A” to develop the As required (usually will require hooking bars).
3. Service Load fs = 20,000, Load Factor = (1.3D + 2.17L).
4. For Load Factor design, check distribution of flexural reinforcement — AASHTO 8.16-8.4. If #5 or #6 bars
are used to furnish the As from this chart, then this requirement will not have to be checked.
Figure 5.3-A7
Example 5.2-B1
Given: Center-to-center spacing of girders = 12 feet 3 inches
Width of top flange of steel girder = 18 inches wide
Deck concrete, Class 4000 fc′ = 4,000 psi
Reinforcing steel, Grade 60 fy = 60,000 psi
Cover to top bars = 2.5 inches
Cover to bottom bars = 1.0 inch
Analyze a 1 foot wide section of slab
Find: Deck thickness, deck reinforcement
1. Determine Deck Thickness
Seff = 12.25′ – 2 (18″) / (4) (12) = 11.50′
Minimum thickness, tmin = (Seff + 10) (12) / 30 = (11.50 + 10) (12) / 30 = 8.60″
Use 83/4″ thick slab
2. Determine Transverse Deck Reinforcement — Top Slab Reinforcement
Dead Load Moment, MDL:
MDL = (1/10) [ (8.75″ / 12) (0.160 kcf) ] (11.50)2 = 1.55 kip-ft/ft
Live Load Moment + Impact, MLL+I:
(S + 2)
MLL+I = (Pwheel) (0.8) (1.30) AASHTO, 1989, Section 3.24.3.1
32
where: Pwheel = 1.25 (16 kips/wheel) = 20.0 kips/wheel (HS25 Truck)
continuity factory = 0.8 AASHTO, 1989, Section 3.24.3.1
impact factor = 1.30
(11.50 + 2)
MLL+I = (20.0) (0.8) (1.30) = 8.78 kip-ft/ft
32
Factored Design Moment, Mu:
Mu = 1.3 [ 1.55 + (5/3) (8.78) ] = 21.04 kip-ft/ft
Determine As req’d: dtop bars = 8.75 – 2.5 – (0.75) / 2 = 5.875″
Mu / (φ) (b) (d)2 = 21.04 (12,000) / (0.9) (12) (5.875)2 = 677.3 psi
Interpolating from Table 5.2-A2, Appendix A: ρ = 0.01272
As req’d = ρ (b) (d) = 0.01272 (12) (5.875) = 0.90 in2/ft
Use #6 bars at 5″ ctrs, As = 1.06 in2/ft > 0.90 in2/ft ok
Use same bar size and spacing for bottom slab reinforcement. An alternate approach is to solve directly for
As req’d from Eq (5), BDM Section 5.2.1B:
As min =
0.85 fc′ (b)
fy ( √
d – d2 –
0.124 h2
√ f c′ ) (6)
As min =
0.85 (4) (12)
(60) ( √5.875 – (5.875)2 –
0.124 (8.75)2
√4
)
As min = 0.285 in2/ft Agrees with value from tables.
Check As max: From Table 5.2-A2, Appendix A, ρmax = 0.75 ρb = 0.0214
As max = 0.0214 (12) (5.875) = 1.51 in2/ft
Check As max using Eq (7), BDM Section 5.2.1B:
fc′
As max = 0.6375 β1 (b) (d) ( 87 87+ f )
fy y
(7)
(60) ( 87 + 60 )
(4) 87
As max = 0.6375 (0.85) (12) (5.875) = 1.51 in2/ft ok
Example 5.2-B2
Given: Center-to-center spacing of W58G girders = 8 feet 0 inches
Width of top flange = 25 inches wide
Average flange thickness = 6 inches
Girder concrete strength fc′ = 7,000 psi
Deck concrete, Class 5000 fc′ = 5,000 psi
Cover to top bars = 2.5 inches
Cover to bottom bars = 1.0 inch
Find: Deck thickness, deck reinforcement
1. Determine Deck Thickness
Minimum slab thickness = 7.5″ no overlay, per BDM, Chapter 6. This thickness permits the use of
#6 transverse and #5 longitudinal bars.
Seff = clear span per AASHTO 3.24.1.2(a)
Width of top flange/average flange thick = 4.16
Close enough to 4.0, use clear span for Seff
Seff = Sg – W2 = 8.0′ – 2.083′ = 5.92′
Check Minimum Slab Thickness, tmin:
tmin = (Seff + 10) (12) / 30 = (5.92′ + 10) (12) / 30 = 6.37″ < 7.5″ ok
2. Determine Transverse Deck Reinforcement — Top Slab Reinforcement
Dead Load Moment, MDL:
MDL = (1/10) [ (7.5″ / 12) (0.160 kcf) ] (5.92)2 = 0.43 kip-ft/ft
Live Load Moment + Impact, MLL+I:
(S + 2) (6.54 + 2)
MLL+I = (Pwheel) (0.8) (1.30) = (20.0) (0.8) (1.30)
32 32
MLL+I = 5.15 kip-ft/ft
Factored Design Moment, Mu:
Mu = 1.3 [ 0.35 + (5/3) (5.15) ] = 11.61 kip-ft/ft
Determine As req’d: dtop bars = 7.5 – 2.5 – (0.75) / 2 = 4.625″
Mu / (φ) (b) (d)2 = 12.54 (12,000) / (0.9) (12) (4.625)2 = 651.4 psi
Interpolating from Table 5.2-A3, Appendix A: ρ = 0.01089
As req’d = ρ (b) (d) = 0.01089 (12) (4.625) = 0.61 in2/ft
Use #6 bars at 8″ ctrs, As = 0.66 in2/ft ok
Use same bar size and spacing for bottom slab reinforcement.
Example 5.2-B3
Design Loads
Group I: Pu = 1600k H=0
Group VII: Pu = 1500 k H = 400k
Assume crossbeam dead load is included with bearing loads.
Use Section 12.4 of AASHTO’s Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges,
1989.
Determine Minimum Vertical and Horizontal Steel Using Sections 12.5.3.2 and 12.5.3.3:
For vertical reinforcing: As fy ≥ 120 bw s
d
where s < or 12″
4
120 bw s
Therefore, As ≥ = 0.002 bw s
60,000
Assume 4 legs of #6 stirrups: As = 1.76 in2
As 1.76
s ≤ =
0.002 bw 0.002 (72)
s ≤ 12.2 in
d 72 – 4.37
Check: = = 16.9″
4 4
Therefore, use 4 #6 legs at 12″ maximum spacing.
For horizontal reinforcing: As fy ≥ 120 bw s
where s < d or 12″
3
For s = 12″, As ≥ 0.002 (72) (12) = 1.73 in2 (2 – #9 bars)
Try 2 #8 bars: As = 1.58 in2
1.58
s ≤ = 11.0″
0.002 (72)
Use #8 bars at 11″ maximum spacing on side faces.
For bottom bars, use #6 at approximately 12″ (7 – #6 bars)
Example 5.2-B4
Service Load — Concrete Stresses and Constants
Page
6.0 Prestressed Concrete Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1-1
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
6.1.1 Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
6.1.2 Concrete Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Strength of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C. Creep Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Shrinkage Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
6.1.3 Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
6.1.4 Prestressing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
6.1.5 Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. Instantaneous Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Time-dependent Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
6.1.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. Contract Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
C. Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6.1.7 Connections (Joints) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
6.1.8 Deflection and Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6.2 Precast Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2-1
6.2.1 Pre-Tensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
6.2.2 Post-Tensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
6.2.3 Washington Standard Prestressed Girder Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Section Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
D. Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
E. Prestressing Strands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
F. Development of Prestressing Strand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
G. Fabrication and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.2.4 Precast Prestressed (Short Span Bridges) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A. Precast Prestressed Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. Precast Prestressed Tri-Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
C. Precast Prestressed Deck Bulb-Tee Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.2.5 Precast Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.3 Precast Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3-1
6.3.1 Criteria for Girder Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Support Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Composite Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Prestressed Girder Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Page
6.3.2 Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
A. Girder Selection and Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
B. Slab Cantilevers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
C. Diaphragm Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
D. Skew Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
E. Grade and Cross Slope Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
F. Curve Effect and Flare Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.3.3 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A. Simple Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
B. Continuous Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.3.4 Roadway Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
A. Slab Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
B. Transverse Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.3.5 Crossbeam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
B. Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
C. Geometry and Construction Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
D. Skin Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.3.6 Repair of Damaged Bridge Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
B. Repair Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
C. Miscellaneous References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.4 Cast-in-Place Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4-1
6.4.1 Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Bridge Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Section Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Strand and Tendon Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
E. Layout of Anchorages and End Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
F. Superstructure Shortening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.4.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
A. Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
B. Preliminary Stress Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
C. Tendon Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
D. Prestress Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
E. Steel Stress Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
F. Prestress Moment Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
G. Flexural Stress in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
H. Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
I. Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
J. End Block Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
K. Anchorage Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
L. Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
M. Expansion Bearing Offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
N. Post-Tensioning Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.4.3 Review of Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.99 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.99-1
P65:DP/BDM6
7,500 psi. Release strengths of up to 8,500 psi can be achieved with extended curing for special
circumstances. The specified concrete strength at release should be rounded to the next highest
100 psi.
2. Cast-in-Place Post-tensioned Bridges
Since conditions for placing and curing concrete on cast-in-place bridges are not controlled,
as they are for precast bridge sections, a lower figure is used for concrete strength. Normally,
use class 4000 concrete for post-tensioned cast-in-place bridges. Where significant economy
can be gained and structural requirements dictate, the structure could be designed for class
5000 concrete.
3. Cast-in-Place Slabs
Concrete class 4000D shall be used for all cast-in-place bridge decks unless otherwise approved
by the Bridge Design Engineer.
B. Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity for concrete strength up to 10 ksi is normally 33w3/2 √ fc′, where w is the
weight of concrete in lbs/ft3. Normal weight concretes used in Washington generally have weights
close to 160 lbs/ft3. With this value, the modules of elasticity equation simplifies to E = 66,800 √fc′.
C. Creep Rate
The creep coefficient for standard conditions may be taken as follows:
Standard conditions are relative humidity ≤40 percent and average thickness of section 6 inches.
1. Cast-in-Place Girders
For most designs, the creep coefficient for loading at 7 days for moist-cured concrete and 1-3
days for steam-cured concrete is:
Ct = 22 . t0.60.6
6 + fc ′ 10 + t
The final deflection is a combination of the elastic deflection and the creep effect associated with
given loads shown by the equation below.
∆ total = ∆ elastic (1+ Ct)
For other factors affecting this equation, see Reference 6.99.2 and 6.99.4. Reference to 6.99.4
discusses methods for calculating creep effects.
2. Standard Prestressed Girders
The creep coefficient for standard prestressed girders may be taken as:
3.95 .
Ct = Ln (t + 1)
6 + f c′
Ct = creep coefficient
t = time in days
fc′ = ultimate strength of concrete in ksi
D. Shrinkage Rate
To compute the variation of shrinkage with time, use the following equations:
t
For moist cured concrete after 7 days: (∑SH)t = x 0.51 x 10-3
35 + t
t
For steam cured concrete after 1 to 3 days: (∑SH)t = x 0.56 x 10-3
55 + t
Where (∑SH)t is the shrinkage strain at any point in time.
For corrections to the shrinkage rate values including correction for initial shrinkage, see
Reference 6.99.4.
6.1.3 Prestressing Steel
A. General
Three types of high-tensile steel are used for producing prestress. They are:
1. Strands: ASTM A 416 Grade 270, low relaxation or stress relieved.
2. Bars: ASTM A 722 Grade 150, Type 2.
3. Parallel wires: ASTM A 421 Grade 240.
All WSDOT designs are based on low relaxation strands using either 1/2″ or 0.6″ diameter strands.
B. Allowable Stresses
Allowable stresses for design are as listed in AASHTO specifications.
6.1.4 Prestressing Systems
A. General
There are numerous prestressing systems. Most systems combine a method of stressing the
prestressing strands with a method of anchoring it to concrete.
B. Anchorages
WSDOT requires approval of all multi-strand and/or bar anchorages used in prestressed concrete
bridges by testing or by a certified report, stating that the anchorage assembly will develop the yield
strength of post-tensioning steel. Manufacturers whose anchorages have been approved are.
1. V.S.L. Corporation
2. Avar Construction System
3. Dywidag Systems International
6.1.5 Losses
AASHTO specifications outline the method of predicting prestress losses for usual prestressed concrete
bridges which may be used in design except as noted below.
The following sources of prestress loss can influence the effective stress in the strand.
A. Instantaneous Losses
1. Anchorage slippage. This slippage is assumed to be 1/4 inch for design purposes.
2. Friction losses. These losses are due to intended cable curvature and unintended wobble
coefficient. For strands against rigid galvanized metal duct these values are respectively µ = 0.20
and k = 0.0002. For strands against smooth polyethylene duct µ = 0.16 and k = 0.0002.
3. Elastic shortening of concrete.
B. Time-dependent Losses
1. Creep of concrete.
2. Shrinkage of concrete.
3. Steel relaxation.
For normal design in lieu of more accurate methods, time dependent losses may be taken as given in
Table 6.1.5-1.
6.1.6 Construction
A. General
Construction plans for conventional post-tensioned box girder bridges include two different sets of
drawings. The first set (contract) is prepared by the design engineer (WSDOT or contracting agency)
and the second set (shop) is prepared by the post-tensioning materials supplier (contractor).
B. Contract Plans
The plans should be prepared to accommodate any post-tensioning system, so only prestressing forces
and eccentricity should be detailed. The concrete sections should be detailed so that available systems
can be installed. Design the thickness of webs and flanges to facilitate concrete placement. Generally,
web thickness for post-tensioned bridges shall be at least 12 inches.
C. Shop Plans
The shop plans are used to detail, install, and stress the post-tensioning system selected by the
Contractor. These plans must contain sufficient information to allow the engineer to check their
compliance with the contract plans. These plans must also contain the location of anchorages,
stressing data, and arrangement of tendons.
6.1.7 Connections (Joints)
The connections or joints must divide the structure into a logical pattern of separate elements which also
permit ease of manufacture and assembly.
The connection or joint surfaces should be oriented perpendicular to the centroidal axis of the precast
element.
Types of Connections (Joints):
Connections or joints are either wide or match cast. Depending on their width, they may be filled
with cast-in-place concrete or grouted. Match cast joints are normally bonded with an epoxy bonding
agent. Dry match cast joints are not recommended.
Shear and Alignment Keys:
In order to assist shear transmission in wide joints, use a suitable system of keys. The shape of the
keys may be chosen to suit a particular application and they can be either single keys or multiple
keys. Single keys are generally large and localized whereas multiple keys generally cover as much
of the joint surface area as is practical.
Single keys provide an excellent guide for erection of elements. Single keys are preferred for all
match cast joints.
For all types of joints, the surfaces must be clean, free from grease and oil, etc. When using epoxy for
bonding, the joints should be lightly sand-blasted to remove laitance. For cast-in-place or other types
of wide joints, the adjacent concrete surfaces should be roughened and kept thoroughly wet, prior to
construction of the joint. Cast-in-place joints are generally preferred.
6.1.8 Deflection and Camber
Deflections of prestressed concrete beams can be predicted with greater accuracy than those for reinforced
concrete beams. Since prestressed concrete is more or less homogeneous and obeys ordinary laws of
flexure and shear, the deflection can be computed using elementary methods. However, accurate predic-
tions of the deflections are difficult to determine, since modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ec, varies with
stress and age of concrete. Also, the effects of creep on deflections are difficult to estimate. For practical
purposes, an accuracy of 10 to 20 percent is often sufficient. Prestressing can be used advantageously to
control deflections, however, there are cases where excessive camber due to prestress have caused
problems. For normal design, in lieu of more accurate methods, the deflection and camber of prestressed
members may be estimated by the multipliers as given in Table 6.1.8-1.
Multipliers for Estimating Long-term Deflection of Prestressed Concrete Girders
Table 6.1.8-1
Non- Non-
Composite Composite Composite Composite
Deflection at Erection
Apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight 1.85 1.85 1.75 1.75
at release of prestress
Apply to the elastic deflection due to prestressing at 1.80 1.80 1.70 1.70
release of prestress
Deflection at Final
Apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight 2.70 2.40 2.50 2.20
at release of prestress
Apply to the elastic deflection due to prestressing at 2.45 2.20 2.25 2.10
release of prestress
Apply to the elastic deflection due to the Super Imposed 3.00 3.00 2.75 2.75
Dead Loads
Apply to the elastic deflection due to weight of slab ---- 2.30 ---- 2.15
release of prestress
P65:DP/BDM6
C. Basic Assumptions
The following basic assumptions are used in the design of these standard girders. Figure 6.2.3-1
illustrates some of the factors which are constant in the WSDOT Prestressed Girder Design computer
program. Figure 6.2.3-2 show variations from those assumptions for a typical backwall design and a
typical notched girder design.
1. Prestress
For final conditions, the designer shall assume the prestress acting on the section to be NAs
(.70 fs′-PL) for stress relieved strands and NAs (.75 fs′-PL) for low relaxation strands.
Where:
N = number of stressed strands passing through the section
As = the area of one strand, in2
fs′ = the ultimate strength in ksi
PL = indicates total prestress losses in ksi in pretensioned members.
For checking of stresses during release, lifting, transportation, and erection of prestressed girders,
the elastic and time dependent losses shall be as follows:
Release — 1 day (lifting of girders from casting beds) computed losses
1 month — 4 months (transportation and erection of girders) 35 ksi
After 4 months computed losses
2. Strand Patterns
Standard strand patterns are shown in Appendix 6.5-A1 through A7.
D. Design Procedure
1. General
The WSDOT “Prestressed Girder Design” computer program uses a trial and error method to
arrive at solution for stress requirement and is the preferred method for final design of length
and spacing. Some publications suggest various direct means for determining stress and position,
but the procedures are generally quite complex.
2. Stress Conditions
The stress limits as described in Table 6.2.3-2 must be met for the girder and its prestress. One
or more of the conditions described below may govern design. Each condition is the result of
the summation of stresses with each load acting on its appropriate section (such as girder only,
composite section). Precast girders shall also be checked during lifting, transportation, and
erection stages by the designer to assure that girder delivery is feasible. Impact during the lifting
stage shall be 0 percent and during transportation shall be 20 percent of the dead load of the
girder. Impact shall be applied either upward or downward to produce maximum stresses.
E. Prestressing Strands
1. Straight Strands
The position of the straight strands in the bottom flange and temporary strands for shipping and
handling in top flange has been standardized for each size of flange. Those strand positions and
the girder flange size are summarized in Appendix 6.5-A1 through A7.
2. Harped Strands
The harped strands are bundled at the 4/10 points of the span for series W83G, W95G, WF74G
and W58G and at the 1/3 points at the girders for series W50G and W42G. The harped strands
are bundled at the harping points. Bundles are limited to 12 strands each. Twelve (12) and fewer
harped strands are placed in a single bundle with the centroid normally 3 inches above the bottom
of the girder. Strands in excess of 12 are bundled in a second bundle with the centroid 6 inches
above the bottom of the girder. At the girder ends, the strands are splayed to a normal pattern.
The centroid of strands at both the girder end and the harping point may be varied to suit girder
stress requirements.
3. Stirrups
Shear for computation of stirrup requirements is computed at a point 1/2 of the girder depth from
the end of the girder and at the harping point. Ultimate shear is computed at these points based on
1.3 DL + 2.17 (L.L. + Impact). The portion of this shear which is carried by the concrete is given
in section 9.20.2 of AASHTO. The stirrup spacing is then calculated using the formula:
Av • fy(d)
S= where Vs = Vu / 0.85 – Vc and
Vs
d is the distance from the extreme compressive fiber to the centroid of the prestressing force.
For precast girders made continuous for live load, d shall be the distance from the extreme
compressive fiber to the centroid of the negative moment reinforcement, i.e., d = h + A - 4.5",
where h = height of the girder; A as defined in Subsection 6.3.4 A(3).
Shear reinforcement are furnished by two vertical bars. Maximum spacing is taken to be 1 foot
6 inches The point where 1-foot 6-inch spacing starts is found by interpolating between the point
1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder and the harping point to find the location where
the portion of the shear carried by the stirrups (Vs) yields 1 foot 6 inches Vs for 1-foot 6-inch
Avfy(dmin)
stirrup spacing can be found by using Vs (18) = where dmin is the smallest of the
18
d values found for the point 1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder and the harping
point. The 1-foot 6-inch stirrup spacing is used throughout the rest of the girder.
If the stirrup spacing at the point 1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder is smaller than
about 1 foot 2 inches, further interpolation may be done to obtain a multiple step increment of
stirrup spacing.
4. End Section Reinforcement
The Washington State Standard Prestressed Concrete Girders are not provided with a thickened
end block section, but have constant thickness webs. The end section reinforcement is detailed
on the Office Standard Plans. This reinforcement is based on the requirement to resist bursting
forces due to strand force development in this area. If the stirrup spacing required at the end of
the girder is less than shown on the Office Standard Plans, end section stirrups spacing on the
Standard Plans should be altered to show this spacing. For a distance of 1.5d from the end of the
girder, reinforcement shall be placed to confine the p/s steel in bottom flange. The spacing of
confinement reinforcement shall not exceed 6 inch and shall be shaped to enclose the strands.
F. Development of Prestressing Strand
1. General
In determining the resistance of pretensioned concrete components in their end zones, the gradual
buildup of the strand force in the transfer and development lengths shall be taken into account.
The prestress force may be assumed to vary linearly from 0.0 at the point where bonding
commences to a maximum at the transfer length.
Between the transfer length and the development length, the strand force may be assumed
to increase in a parabolic manner, reaching the tensile strength of the strand at the end of
development length.
For the purpose of this article, the transfer length may be taken as 60 strand diameters and the
development length shall be taken as specified in Article 6.2.3F2.
The effects of debonding shall be considered as specified in Article 6.2.3F3.
2. Bonded Strand
Pretensioning strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for development length, in
inches, taken as:
Ld ′ ≥ (f* –
su
2
3 )
fse D
where:
D = nominal strand diameter (in)
fse = effective stress in prestressing steel after all losses (ksi)
fsu
* = in the prestressing steel at nominal strength (ksi)
3. Partially Debonded Strands
Where a portion or portions of a pretensioning strand are not bonded and where tension exists
in the precompressed tensile zone, the development length specified in Article 6.2.3F2 shall
be doubled.
The number of partially debonded strands should not exceed 25 percent of the total number
of strands.
The number of debonded strands in any horizontal row shall not exceed 40 percent of the strands
in that row.
Debonded strands shall be symmetrically distributed about the centerline of the member.
Debonded lengths of pairs of strands that are symmetrically positioned about the centerline of
the member shall be equal.
Exterior strands in each horizontal row shall be fully bonded.
4. Unbonding Strands
Where it is necessary to prevent a strand from actively supplying prestress force near the end
of a girder, it may be unbonded. This can be accomplished by taping a close fitting pvc tube to
the stressed strand from the end of the girder to some point where the strand can be allowed to
develop its load. Since this is not a common procedure, it should be carefully detailed on the
plans. It is important when this method is used in construction that the taping of the tube be
done in such a manner that grout cannot leak into the tube and provide an undesirable bond of
the strand.
5. Strand Development Outside of Girder
For girders made continuous for live load, extended bottom prestress strands are used to carry
positive live load, creep, and other moments from one span to another. Usually four strands per
girder will provide an adequate resistance. Strands used for this purpose must be developed in the
short distance between the two girder ends. This is normally accomplished by requiring strand
chucks and anchors as shown in Figure 6.2.3-4. The nominal development length is normally
2 feet. For wide crossbeams, the strands may be extended straight and a 1 foot 0 inch splice used.
At back walls, which are connected to the superstructure, the extended strands may be used to
withstand earthquake forces and, in this case, should be developed accordingly. The number
of strands to be extended cannot exceed the number of straight strands available in the girder.
Designer shall calculate the exact number of extended straight strands needed to develop the
required moment capacity at the end of girder. This calculation shall be based on the tensile
strength of the strands, the stress imposed to the anchor, and concrete bearing against the
projected area of the anchor.
The appropriate strand stress available to resist ultimate load (fgu*) at this section shall be no
greater than [(Ld / D -2/3 fse] where:
Ld is the developed length available
D is the diameter of the strand
fse is the effective prestress in steel after all losses.
Strand Development
Figure 6.2.3-4
The WSDOT prestressed girder sections are relatively wide and stiff about their weak axes
and, as a result, exhibit good stability, even at their longer pretentioned lengths. The simplest
method of improving stability is to move the lifting devices away from the ends. This
invariably increases the required concrete release strength, because decreasing the distance
between lifting devices increases the concrete stresses at the harp point. Stresses at the
support may also govern, depending on the exit location of the harped strands.
Alternatively, the girder sections may be braced to provide adequate stability. Temporary
prestressing in the top flange can also be used to provide a larger factor of safety against
cracking.
Other types of bracing have also been used successfully for many years. These systems
are generally based on experience rather than theory. Other methods of improving lateral
stability, such as raising the roll axis of the girder, are also an option.
For stability analysis of prestressed girder during in-plant handling in absence of more
accurate information, the following parameters shall be used:
• Height of pick point above top of girder = 0.0 in
• Lifting loop or lifting bars placement tolerance = 0.25 in
• Maximum girder sweep tolerance = 0.00052 in/in
c. Pick Up Points
The office standard plans show pick-up points for the girders. These points are critical since
the girder is in its most highly stressed condition just after strand release. In some cases,
fabricators may request to move the pick-up points toward the center of the girder. The
request must be reviewed carefully since a decrease in girder dead load moment near
centerline span may cause overstressing of the girder. Similarly, the girders must never be
supported at any point other than the centerline of bearing during storage. The girders are
also very sensitive to lateral loads and accordingly must be stored in a true vertical position.
d. Girder Lateral Bending
Long prestressed girders are very flexible and highly susceptible to lateral bending. Lateral
bending failures are sudden, catastrophic, costly, pose a serious threat to workers and
surroundings, and therefore must be guarded against. The office standard plans state that
girders over certain given lengths must be laterally braced and that all girders must be
handled carefully. It is the fabricator’s responsibility to provide adequate bracing and
provide suitable handling facilities. On unusually long girders, however, the designer should
give this matter additional consideration. Published material on girder lateral bending should
be consulted and used to assure the constructability of the girder design chosen (14, 17,
18, 19).
e. Shipping
The ability to ship deep girder sections can be influenced by a large number of variables,
including mode of transportation, weight, length, height, and lateral stability. Some variables
have more influence than others. As such, the feasibility of shipping deep girders is strongly
site-dependent. It is recommended that routes to the site be investigated during the prelimi-
nary design phase. To this end, on projects using long, heavy girders, WSDOT can place an
advisory in their special provisions including shipping routes, estimated permit fees, escort
vehicle requirements, Washington State Patrol requirements, and permit approval time.
f. Mode of Transportation
Three modes of transportation are commonly used in the industry: truck, rail, and barge.
In Washington State, an overwhelming percentage of girders are transported by truck, so
discussion in subsequent sections will be confined to this mode. However, on specific
projects, it may be appropriate to consider rail or barge transportation.
Standard rail cars can usually accommodate larger loads than a standard truck. Rail cars
range in capacity from approximately 120 to 200 kips. However, unless the rail system runs
directly from the precasting plant to the jobsite, members must be trucked for at least some
of the route, and weight may be restricted by the trucking limitations.
For large number of girders construction, barge transportation is usually most economical.
Product weights and dimensions are generally not limited by barge delivery, but by the
handling equipment on either end. In most cases, if a product can be made and handled in
the plant, it can be shipped by barge. Of course, this applies only if both the plant and jobsite
are fully accessible by barge.
g. Weight Limitations
Girders shipped in some states have weighed in excess of 200 kips. The net weight limitation
with trucking equipment currently available in Washington State is approximately 167 to
180 kips, if a reasonable delivery rate (number of pieces per day) is to be maintained.
Product weights of up to 200 kips can be hauled with currently available equipment at a
limited rate.
Local carriers should be consulted on the feasibility of shipping heavy girders on specific
projects. Some girders can be fabricated and shipped in two or more segments to reduce the
weight and assembled and post-tensioned at the bridge site. However, it is more economical
to fabricate and ship a single-piece pretensioned girder whenever possible.
h. Length Limitations
Length limitations are generally governed by turning radii on the route to the jobsite.
Potential problems can be circumvented by moving the support points closer together (away
from the ends of the girder), or by selecting alternate routes. A rule of thumb of 130 feet
between supports is commonly used. The support points can be moved away from the ends
while still maintaining the concrete stresses within allowable limits. Length limitations are
not expected to be the governing factor for most project locations.
i. Height Limitations
The height of a deep girder section sitting on a jeep and steerable trailer is of concern when
considering overhead obstructions on the route to the jobsite. The height of the support is
approximately 6 feet above the roadway surface. When adding the depth of the girder,
including camber, the overall height from the roadway surface to the top of concrete can
rapidly approach 14 feet. Overhead obstructions along the route should be investigated for
adequate clearance in the preliminary design phase. Obstructions without adequate clearance
must be bypassed by selecting alternate routes.
Expectations are that, in some cases, overhead clearance will not accommodate the vertical
stirrup projection on deeper WSDOT standard girder sections. Alternate stirrup configura-
tions can be used to attain adequate clearance, depending on the route from the plant to
the jobsite.
j. Lateral Stability During Shipping
Long, slender members can become unstable when supported near the ends. However, the
stability of girders sitting on flexible supports is governed by the rotational stiffness of the
support rather than the girder. Recommended factors of safety 1.0 against cracking, and
1.5 against failure (rollover of the truck) should be used.
The control against cracking the top flange is obtained by introducing the number of temp-
orary top strands, jacked to the same load as the permanent strands, required to provide a
factor of safety of 1.0. This variable depends on the combination of girder dead load, pre-
stressing, and tension in the top flange induced by the girder tilt. The calculated tilt includes
both the superelevation and its magnification based on the truck’s rotational stiffness.
For stability analysis of prestressed girders during shipping, in absence of more accurate
information, the following parameters shall be used:
• Roll stiffness of truck/trailer = 40500 kip-in/rad
• Height of girder bottom above roadway = 72 in
• Height of truck roll center above road = 24 in
• Center to center distance between truck tires = 72 in
• Maximum expected roadway superelevation = 0.06
• Maximum girder sweep tolerance = 0.001042 in/in
• Support placement lateral tolerance = 1 in
• Increase girder C.G. height for camber by 2%
k. Erection
A variety of methods are used to erect precast concrete girders, depending on the weight,
length, available crane capacity, and site access. Lifting long girders during erection is not as
critical as when they are stripped from the forms, particularly when the same lifting devices
are used for both. However, if a separate set of erection devices are used, the girder should
be checked for stresses and lateral stability. In addition, once the girder is set in place, the
free span between supports is usually increased. Wind can also pose a problem. Conse-
quently, when long girders are erected, they should immediately be braced at the ends.
Generally, the temporary support of the girders is the contractor’s responsibility.
l. Construction Sequence for Muli-Span Prestressed Girder Bridges
For multi-span prestressed girder bridges, the sequence and timing of the superstructure
construction has a significant impact on the performance and durability of the bridge. In
order to maximize the performance and durability, the “construction sequence” details
shown on the attached sheets shall be followed for all new WSDOT multi-span prestressed
girder bridges. Particular attention shall be paid to the timing of casting the lower portion of
the pier diaphragms/crossbeams (30 days minimum after release of prestress) and the upper
portion of the diaphragms/crossbeams (10 days minimum after placement of the roadway
slab). The requirements apply to multi-span prestressed girder bridges with monolithic and
hinge diaphragms/crossbeams.
P65:DP/BDM6
Design Specifications AASHTO Standard Specifications and WSDOT Bridge Design Manual
Design Method Prestressed girder are designed for service load stresses and checked for
the requirements of load factor design.
All other elements are designed in accordance with the requirements of
load factor design.
Design Assumption Prestressed girders are designed as simple span for both simple and
continuous span superstructures.
b. Flange Position
For purposes of calculating composite section properties, the bottom of the slab shall be
assumed to be directly on the top of the girder. This assumption may prove to be true at
center of span when excess girder camber occurs.
For dimensioning the plans, an increased dimension from top of girder to top of slab is used
at centerline of bearing. This is called the “A” dimension. This dimension accounts for the
effects of girder camber, vertical curve, slab cross slope, etc. See Appendix 6.1-A1 for
method of computing.
c. Flange Thickness
For purposes of computing composite section properties, the slab thickness shall be reduced
by 1/2 inch to account for wearing. Where it is known that a bridge will have an asphalt
overlay applied prior to traffic being allowed on the bridge, the full slab thickness can be
used as effective slab thickness. The effective slab width shall be reduced by the ratio Es/Eg.
The effective modulus of composite section is then Eg.
d. Section Dead Load
The slab dead load to be applied to the girder shall be based on full thickness plus any
overhang. The full effective pad (“A”-t) weight shall be added to that load. This assumed
pad weight is applied over the full length of the girder.
4. Shear Transfer
Transfer of shear forces in prestressed girder bridge design is critical in three areas. The first has
been previously discussed; the section through the web at the point 1/2 of the girder depth from
the end of the girder. The other two critical areas for shear transfer are between slab and girder
and at the end connection of the girder to the crossbeam for girders in continuous bridges. Shear
in these areas will normally be resisted by reinforcement extending from the girder.
a. Shear Between Slab and Girder
This shear represents a rate of change of compression load in the flange of simple span
girders or a rate of change of tension load in the flange near the piers of continuous girders.
For a simple span girder as represented by Figure 6.3.1-2, the top flange stress is the factored
centerline moment divided by the section modulus of the composite girder at the centerline
of the slab. The slab load is this stress times the area of the slab. The factored centerline
moment can be taken as total factored moment less 1.0 times dead load applied to girder.
For illustrative purposes, a single concentrated load has been shown. In actual practice, the
point of factored maximum moment of the actual moment diagram would be used.
Other flange shear problems are described in Section 5.4. These problems also need to be
considered for prestressed girder bridges.
2. Calculation
Figure 6.3.1-5 shows a typical pattern of girder deflection with time at centerline span. Portions
of this characteristic curve are described below. The subparagraph numbers correspond with
circled numbers on the curve.
a. Elastic Deflection Due to Prestress Force
The prestress force produces moments in the girder tending to bow the girder upward.
Resisting these moments are girder section dead load moments. The result is a net upward
deflection. In addition, a shortening of the girder occurs due to axial prestress loading.
b. Creep Deflection
The girder continues to deflect upward due to the effect of creep. This effect is computed
using the equation stated in Subsection 6.1.2C.2.
c. Diaphragm Load Deflection
The load of diaphragm is applied to the girder section resulting in an elastic downward
deflection.
d. Deflection Due to Removal of Temporary Strands
Removal of temporary strands results in an elastic upward deflection.
e. Slab Load Deflection
The load of the slab is applied to the girder section resulting in an elastic downward
deflection. It is this deflection which is offset by the screed camber that is to be applied to
the bridge deck during construction.
f. Final Camber
It might be expected that the above slab dead load deflection would be accompanied by
a continuing downward deflection due to creep. Many measurements of actual structure
deflections have shown, however, that once the slab is poured, the girder tends to act as
though it is locked in position. To obtain a smooth riding surface on the deck, the deflection
indicated on Figure 6.3.1-5 as “Screed Camber” is added to the profile grade elevation of the
deck screeds. The actual position of the girder at the time of the slab pour has no effect on
the screed camber.
6.3.2 Framing
A. Girder Selection and Spacing
Cost of the girders is a major portion of the cost of prestressed girder bridges. Much care is therefore
warranted in the selection of girders and in optimizing their position within the structure. The
following general guidelines should be considered.
1. Girder Series Selection
All girders in a bridge will normally be of the same series. If vertical clearance is no problem,
a larger girder series, utilizing fewer girder lines, may be a desirable solution. This must be
balanced with considerations such as appearance. At the present time, the following relative
girder series cost factors may be used as a guide for this decision:
Relative
Series Cost Factors
W42G 0.89
W50G 0.93
W58G 0.96
W74G 1.00
WF74G 1.05
W83G 1.10
W95G 1.25
Note that the small marginal cost factors between series tends to make the larger series more
economical.
The wider spacings expected when using larger series girders may result in extra reinforcement
and concrete but less forming cost. These items must also be considered.
2. Girder Concrete Strength
Higher girder concrete strengths should be specified where that strength can be effectively used
to reduce the number of girder lines. See Subsection 6.1.2 A.1. When the bridge consists of a
large number of spans, consideration should be given to using a more exact analysis than the
usual design program in an attempt to reduce the number of girder lines. This analysis should
take into account actual live load, creep, and shrinkage stresses in the girders.
3. Girder Spacing
Consideration must be given to the slab cantilever length to determine the most economical
girder spacing. This matter is discussed in Subsection 6.3.2.B. The slab cantilever length should
be made a maximum if a line of girders can be saved. The spacing of the interior girders must
be considered at the same time. Once the positions of the exterior girders have been set, the
positions and lengths of interior girders can be established. The following guidance is suggested.
a. Straight Spans
On straight constant width roadways, all girders should be parallel to bridge centerline and
girder spacings should be equal.
b. Tapered Spans
On tapered roadways, the minimum number of girder lines should be determined as if all
girder spaces were to be equally flared. As many girders as possible, within the limitations of
girder capacity should be placed. Slab thickness may have to be increased in some locations
in order to accomplish this.
c. Curved Spans
On curved roadways, normally all girders will be parallel to each other. It is critical that the
exterior girders are positioned properly in this case, as described in Subsection 6.3.2.B.
d. Geometrically Complex Spans
Spans which are combinations of taper and curves will require especially careful consider-
ation in order to develop the most effective and economical girder arrangement. Where
possible, girder lengths and numbers of straight and harped strands should be made the same
for as many girders as possible in each span.
e. Number of Girders in a Span
Usually all spans will have the same number of girders. Where aesthetics of the underside of
the bridge is not a factor and where a girder can be saved in a short side span, consideration
should be given to using unequal numbers of girders. It should be noted that this will
complicate crossbeam design by introducing torsion effects and that additional reinforcement
will be required in the crossbeam.
B. Slab Cantilevers
The selection of the location of the exterior girders with respect to the curb line of a bridge is a
critical factor in the development of the framing plan. This location is established by setting the
curb distance, which is that dimension from centerline of the exterior girder to the adjacent curb
line. For straight bridges, the curb distance will normally be no less than 1′-6″ for W42G, W50G,
and W58G; 2′-0″ for W74G; and 2′-6″ for WF74G, W83G, and W95G. Some considerations
which affect this are noted below.
1. Appearance
In the past, some prestressed girder bridges have been designed by placing the exterior
girders directly under the curb (traffic barrier). This gives a very poor bridge appearance and
is uneconomical. Normally, for best appearance, the largest slab overhang which is practical
should be used.
2. Economy
Fortunately, the condition tending toward best appearance is also that which will normally
give maximum economy. Larger curb distances may mean that a line of girders can be
eliminated, especially when combined with higher girder concrete strengths.
3. Slab Strength
This is one of the governing conditions which limits the maximum practical curb distance.
Chapter 5 Appendix, gives some guidance for cantilever design. It must be noted that for
larger overhangs, the slab section between the exterior and the first interior girder may be
critical and may require thickening. In some cases, live load moments which produce
transverse bending in the exterior girder should be considered.
4. Drainage
Where drainage for the bridge is required, water from bridge drains is normally piped across
the top of the girder and dropped inside of the exterior girder line. A large slab cantilever
length may severely affect this arrangement and it must be considered when determining
exterior girder location.
5. Bridge Curvature
When straight prestressed girders are used to support curved roadways, the curb distance
must vary. Normally, the maximum slab overhang at the centerline of the long span will be
made approximately equal to the overhang at the piers on the inside of the curve. At the
point of minimum curb distance, however, the edge of the girder top surface should be no
closer than 6 inches from the slab edge. Where curvature is extreme and the difference
between maximum and minimum curb distance becomes large, say 1 foot 6 inches, other
types of bridges should be considered. Straight girder bridges on highly curved alignments
have a poor appearance and also tend to become structurally less efficient.
C. Diaphragm Requirements
1. General
Diaphragms used with prestressed girder bridges serve two purposes. During the construc-
tion stage, the diaphragms provide girder stability for pouring the slab. During the life of the
bridge, the diaphragms act as load distributing elements, and are particularly advantageous
for distribution of large overloads. Standard diaphragms and diaphragm spacings are given in
the office standards for prestressed girder bridges. Diaphragms that fall within the limitations
stated on the office standards need not be analyzed. Where large girder spacings are to be
used or other unusual conditions exist, special diaphragm designs should be performed.
2. Design
Diaphragms shall be designed as transverse beam elements carrying both dead load and
live load. Wheel loads for design shall be placed in positions so as to develop maximum
moments and maximum shears.
3. Geometry
Diaphragms shall normally be oriented parallel to skew (as opposed to normal to girder
centerlines). This procedure has the following advantages:
a. The build-up of higher stresses at the obtuse corners of a skewed span is minimized.
This build-up has often been ignored in design.
b. Skewed diaphragms are connected at points of approximately equal girder deflections
and thus tend to distribute load to the girders in a manner which more closely duplicates
design assumptions.
On curved bridges, diaphragms shall normally be placed on radial lines.
D. Skew Effects
Skew in prestressed girder bridges affects structural behavior and member analysis and
complicates construction.
1. Analysis
Normally, the effect of skew on girder analysis is ignored. It is assumed that skew has little
structural effect on normal spans and normal skews. For short, wide spans and for extreme
skews (values over 50 degrees), the effect of the skew on structural action should be
investigated. All short span prestressed slabs, tri-beams, and bulb-tee girders have a skew
restriction of 30 degrees.
2. Detailing
To minimize labor costs and to avoid stress problems in prestressed girder construction, the
ends of girders for continuous spans shall normally be made skewed. When girder ends are
skewed, the angle of the girder end should be rounded to the nearest 5 degrees. If this causes
problems where the girder extends into the crossbeam, the angle can be specified to the
nearest degree. See Standard Specifications for girder tolerances.
E. Grade and Cross Slope Effects
Large cross slopes require an increased amount of girder pad dimension (‘A’ dimension) neces-
sary to ensure that the structure can be built. See Appendix 6.1-A1. This effect is especially
pronounced if the bridge is on a horizontal or vertical curve. Care must be taken that deck
drainage details reflect the cross slope effect (see Subsection 6.3.2 B). Girder lengths may need
to be modified to correct for added length along slope. Remember that the girder is a rectangle in
elevation; thus, the position of the girder top corner is affected by grade, girder camber, and
tolerances. Details must account for this.
F. Curve Effect and Flare Effect
Curves and tapered roadways each tend to complicate the design of straight girders. The designer
must determine what girder spacing to use for dead load and live load design and whether or not
a refined analysis, that considers actual load application, is warranted. Normally, the girder
spacing at centerline of span can be used for girder design, especially in view of the conservative
assumptions made for the design of continuous girders.
G. Always skew ends of prestressed girders shall match the piers they rest on at either end.
6.3.3 Reinforcement
This section discusses reinforcement requirements for resistance of longitudinal moments in continuous
multi-span precast girder bridges and is limited to reinforcement in the top slab since capacity for resisting
positive moment is provided by the prestressing of the girders.
A. Simple Spans
For simple span bridges, longitudinal slab reinforcement is not required to resist negative moments
and therefore the reinforcement requirements are nominal. Figure 6.3.3-1 defines longitudinal
reinforcement requirements for these slabs. The bottom longitudinal reinforcement is defined by
AASHTO requirements for distribution reinforcement. The top longitudinal reinforcement is based
on current office practice. The requirements of Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement do not apply
to these bars.
The minimum clearance between top and bottom bars should be 1-inch . Table 6.3.3-1 shows
required slab thickness for various bar combinations.
Transv. Bar
Longit. Bar #5 #6 #7
1
#4 7 /2 -- --
1 1 3
5 7 /2 7 /2 7 /4
1 3
6 7 /2 7 /4 8
3 1
7 7 /4 8 8 /4
1 3
8 8 8 /2 8 /4
1 3
9 8 /2 8 /4 9
3
10 8 /4 -- --
11 -- -- --
14 -- -- --
18 -- -- --
In all bar patterns, the reinforcement shall be well distributed between webs. Where this
cannot be done without exceeding the 1-foot 0-inch maximum spacing requirement,
the nominal longitudinal bars may be extended through to provide the 1-foot 0-inch
maximum.
Normally, no more than 20 percent of the main reinforcing bars shall be cut off at one
point. Where limiting this value to 20 percent leads to severe restrictions on the rein-
forcement pattern, an increase in this figure may be considered. Two main reinforce-
ment bars shall be carried through the positive moment area as stirrup hangers.
6.3.4 Roadway Slab
Requirements for longitudinal reinforcement of roadway slabs for prestressed girder bridges have been
given in Subsection 6.3.3. The following information is intended to provide guidance for slab thickness
and transverse reinforcement.
Information on deck deterioration prevention systems is provided in Chapter 8.
A. Slab Thickness
1. General
Slab thickness for prestressed girder bridges shall be controlled by the following limitations:
a. Seven inches minimum thickness when overlay is used; Seven and one-half inches minimum
without overlay.
b. The requirements for proper reinforcement clearances.
c. The requirements of strength.
The 7-inch or 71/2 inch minimum thickness is established in order to ensure that overloads on the
bridge will not result in premature slab cracking.
The requirement of adequate reinforcement clearances: 2 inches clear to top transverse
reinforcement for slabs with overlay and 21/2 inches clear to top transverse reinforcement for
slabs without overlay; 1-inch clear to bottom transverse reinforcement.
2. Computation of Slab Strength
The thickness and reinforcement requirements for usual slabs are shown in Chapter 5. The slab
design span is defined Figure 6.3.1-1 (Composite Prestressed Girder Section).
The thickness of the slab and reinforcement in the area of the cantilever may be governed by
traffic barrier loading. See appendix sheet in Chapter 5. Wheel loads plus dead load shall be
resisted by the sections shown in Figure 6.3.4-1.
Cantilever loads may govern the slab thickness just inside the exterior girder as shown by “Z”
in Figure 6.3.4-1.
Design of the cantilever is normally based on the expected depth of slab at centerline of girder
span. This is less than the dimensions at the girder ends. See Subsection 6.3.4A.3.
B. Transverse Reinforcement
The size and spacing of transverse reinforcement may be governed by interior slab span design,
cantilever design, or the requirements of traffic barrier load. Where traffic barrier load governs,
short hooked bars may be added at the slab edge to increase the reinforcement available in that
area. Top transverse reinforcement is always hooked at the slab edge unless a traffic barrier is not
used. Top transverse reinforcement is preferably spliced at some point between girders in order
to allow the clearance of the hooks to the slab edge forms to be properly adjusted in the field.
Usually, the slab edge hooks will need to be tilted in order to place them. On larger bars, the
clearance for the longitudinal bar through the hooks should be checked. Bottom transverse slab
reinforcement is normally carried far enough to splice with the traffic barrier main reinforcement.
The appendix in Chapter 5 can be used to aid in selection of bar size and spacing.
For skewed spans, the transverse slab reinforcement is placed parallel to the skew for skew
angles of 10 degrees or less. Where skew angles exceed 10 degrees, the transverse bars are
placed normal to bridge centerline and the areas near the expansion joints and bridge ends are
reinforced by partial length bars. For raised crossbeam bridges, the bottom transverse slab
reinforcement is discontinued at the crossbeam.
The spacing of bars over the crossbeam must be detailed to be open enough to allow concrete to
be poured into the crossbeam. For typical requirements, see Subsection 6.3.5.
For slabs with a crowned roadway, the bottom surface and rebar of the slab should be flat, as
shown in Figure 6.3.4-3 below.
Crossbeam is usually cast to the fillet below the top slab. To avoid cracking of concrete on top of the
crossbeam, construction reinforcement shall be provided at approximately 3 inches below the
construction joint. The design moment for construction reinforcement shall be the factored negative
dead load moment due to the weight of crossbeam and adjacent 10 feet of superstructure. The total
amount of construction reinforcement shall be adequate to develop an ultimate moment at the critical
section at least 1.2 times the cracking moment Mcr.
Ig
Where, Mcr = 7.5 √ fc′
Yt
Mu > = 1.2 Mcr
D. Skin Reinforcement
If the depth of crossbeam exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be provided on both
sides of the member for a distance of d/2 nearest the flexural reinforcement. The area of skin rein-
forcement per foot of height on each side shall be Ask >= 0.012 (d-30)
The maximum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed d/6 or 12 inches whichever is less.
6.3.6 Repair of Damaged Bridge Girders
A. General
This section is intended to cover repair of damaged girders on existing bridges. For repair of newly
constructed girders, see Section 6.2.3G. Overheight loads are a fairly common source of damage to
prestressed girder bridges. The damage may range from spalling and minor cracking of the lower
flange of the girder to loss of a major portion of a girder section. Occasionally, one or more strands
may be broken. The damage is most often inflicted on the exterior or first interior girder.
B. Repair Procedure
The determination of degree of damage of a prestressed girder is largely a matter of judgment.
Where the flange area has been reduced or strands lost, calculations can aid in making this judgment
decision. The following are general categories of damage and suggested repair procedures.
1. Minor Damage
If the damage is slight and concerns only spalling of small areas of the outside surface of the
concrete, repair may be accomplished by replacing damaged concrete areas with concrete grout.
The area where new concrete is to be applied shall first be thoroughly cleaned of loose material,
dried, and then coated with epoxy.
2. Moderate Damage
If damage is moderate, consisting of loss of a substantial portion of the flange and possibly loss
of one or more strands, a repair procedure must be developed using the following guidelines. It is
probable that some prestress will have been lost in the damaged area due to reduction in section
and consequent strand shortening or through loss of strands. The following repair procedure is
recommended to assure that as much of the original girder strength as possible is retained:
a. Determine Condition
Sketch the remaining cross section of the girder and compute its reduced section properties.
Determine the stress in the damaged girder due to the remaining prestress and loads in the
damaged state. If severe overstresses are found, action must be taken to restrict loads on the
structure until the repair has been completed. If the strand loss is so great that AASHTO
prestress requirements cannot be met with the remaining strands, consideration should be
given to replacing the girder.
b. Restore Prestress If Needed
If it is determined that prestress must be restored, determine the stress in the bottom fiber
of the girder as originally designed due to DL + LL + I + Prestress. (This will normally be
about zero psi). Determine the additional load (P) that, when applied to the damaged girder
in its existing condition, will result in this same stress. Take into account the reduced girder
section, the effective composite section, and any reduced prestress due to strand loss. Should
the damage occur outside of the middle one-third of the span length, the shear stress with the
load (P) applied should also be computed. Where strands are broken, consideration should be
given to coupling and jacking them to restore their prestress.
c. Prepare a Repair Plan
Draw a sketch to show how the above load is to be applied and specify that the damaged area
is to be thoroughly prepared, coated with epoxy, and repaired with grout equal in strength to
the original concrete. Specify that this load is to remain in place until the grout has obtained
sufficient strength. The effect of this load is to restore lost prestress to the strands which
have been exposed.
d. Test Load
Consideration should be given to testing the repaired girder with a load equivalent to 1.0DL
+ 1.5(LL + I).
3. Severe Damage
Where the damage to the girder is considered to be irreparable due to loss of many strands,
extreme cracking, etc., the girder may need to be replaced. This has been done several times, but
involves some care in determining a proper repair sequence.
In general, the procedure consists of cutting through the existing slab and diaphragms and
removing the damaged girder. Adequate exposed reinforcement steel must remain to allow
splicing of the new bars. The new girder and new reinforcement is placed and previously cut
concrete surfaces are cleaned and coated with epoxy. New slab and diaphragm portions are then
poured.
It is important that the camber of the new girder be matched with that in the old girders.
Excessive camber in the new girder can result in inadequate slab thickness. Girder camber can be
controlled by prestress, curing time, or dimensional changes.
Pouring the new slab and diaphragms simultaneously in order to avoid overloading the existing
girders in the structure should be considered. Extra bracing of the girder at the time of slab pour
should be required.
Methods of construction should be specified in the plans that will minimize inconvenience and
dangers to the public while achieving a satisfactory structural result. High early strength grouts
and concretes should be considered.
C. Miscellaneous References
Some of the girder replacement contracts which have been completed are:
C-9593 Columbia Center 1C Brs. 12/432 Repair (Simple Span)
C-9593 16th Avenue IC-Br. 12/344 Repair (Continuous Span)
C-9446 Mae Valley U-Xing (Simple Span)
KD-2488 13th Street O-Xing 5/220 (Northwest Region)
KD-2488 SR 506 U-Xing 506/108 (Northwest Region)
SR 12 U-Xing 12/118 (Northwest Region)
C-5328 Bridge 5/411 NCD (Continuous Span)
KD-2976 Chamber of Commerce Way Bridge 5/227
KD-20080 Golder Givens Road Bridge 512/10
KD-2154 Anderson Hill Road Bridge 3/130W
These and other similar jobs should be used for guidance.
P65:DP/BDM6
2. T-Beam Bridge
This type of bridge, combined with slope-leg columns, can be structurally efficient and
aesthetically pleasing, particularly when the spacing of the beams and the columns are the same.
A T-Beam bridge can also be a good choice for a single-span simply-supported structure.
3. Box Girder Bridge
This type of bridge has been a popular choice in this state. The cost of a prestressed box girder
bridge is practically the same as a conventionally-reinforced box girder bridge, however, longer
spans and shallower depths are possible with prestressing.
C. Section Requirements
1 Slabs
The Olalla Bridge (Contract 9202) has spans of 41.5 feet - 50 feet - 41.5 feet, a midspan structure
depth of 15 inches, and some haunching at the piers.
2. T-Beams
When equally spaced beams and columns are used in the design, the width of beam webs should
generally be equal to the width of the supporting columns. See SR 16, Union Avenue O’Xings,
for an example. Since longitudinal structural frame action predominates in this type of design,
crossbeams at intermediate piers can be relatively small and the post-tensioning tendons can be
placed side-by-side in the webs, resulting in an efficient center of gravity of steel line throughout.
For other types of T-Beam bridges, the preferred solution may be smaller, more closely spaced
beams and fewer, but larger pier elements. If this type of construction is used in a multispan,
continuous bridge, the beam cross-section properties in the negative moment regions need to be
considerably larger than the properties in the positive moment regions to resist compression.
Larger section properties can be obtained by gradually increasing the web thickness in the
vicinity of intermediate piers or, if possible, by adding a fillet or haunch. The slab overhang
over exterior webs should be roughly half the web spacing.
3. Box Girders
The superstructure shall be designed as a unit. The entire superstructure section (traffic barrier
excluded) shall be considered when computing the section properties.
Web spacing should normally be 8 to 11 feet and the slab overhang over exterior girders should
be approximately half the girder spacing unless transverse post-tensioning is used. The apparent
visual depth of box girder bridges can be reduced by sloping all or the lower portion of the
exterior web. If the latter is done, the overall structure depth may have to be increased (for
clearance requirements see Subsection 2.3.1D). Web thickness should be 12 inches minimum,
but not less than required for shear and for concrete placing clearance. Providing 21/2-inches of
clear cover expedites concrete placement and consolidation in the heavily congested regions
adjacent to the post-tensioning ducts. Webs should be flared at anchorages. Top and bottom slab
thickness should normally meet the requirements of Subsection 5.3.1B, but not less than required
by stress and specifications. Generally, the bottom slab would require thickening at the interior
piers of continuous spans. This thickening should be accomplished by raising the top surface of
the bottom slab at the maximum rate of 1/2-inch per foot.
For criteria on distribution of live loads, see Subsection 4.1.2 B. All slender members subjected
to compression must satisfy buckling criteria.
Figure 6.4.1-5
Sufficient room must be allowed inside the member for mild steel and concrete placement and outside
the member for jacking equipment. The size of the anchorage block in the plane of the anchor plates
should be large enough to provide a minimum of 1-inch clearance from the plates to any free edge.
In general, the end block dimensions must meet the requirements of the AASHTO Code. Note that in
long-span box girder superstructures requiring large bearing pads, the end block should be somewhat
wider than the bearing pad beneath to avoid subjecting the relatively thin bottom slab to high bearing
stresses. When the piers of box girder or T-beam bridges are severely skewed, the layout of end
blocks, bearing pads, and curtain walls at exterior girders become extremely difficult (see Figure
6.4.1-6). Note that if the exterior face of the exterior girder is in the same plane throughout its entire
length, all the end block widening must be on the inside. To lessen the risk of tendon break-out
through the side of a thin web, the end block should be long enough to accommodate a horizontal
tendon curve of 200 feet minimum radius. For a discussion of the radial component of force in a
curved cable, see Chapter 4-7 of reference 6.99.1.
F. Superstructure Shortening
Whenever members such as columns, crossbeams, and diaphragms in bridges without prestressing
steel are appreciably affected by post-tensioning of the main girders, those effects should be included
in the design. This will generally be true in structures containing rigid frame elements. For further
discussion, see Chapter 2.6 of reference 6.99.8 and Subsection 9.3.2.
Past practice in the state of Washington regarding control of superstructure shortening in post-
tensioned bridges with rigid piers can be illustrated by a few examples. Single-span bridges have been
provided with a hinge at one pier and longitudinal slide bearings at the other pier. Two-span bridges
have been detailed with longitudinal slide bearings at the end piers and a monolithic middle pier. On
the six-span Evergreen Parkway Undercrossing structure, the center pier (pier 4) was built monolithic
with the superstructure, and all the other piers were constructed with slide bearings. After post-
tensioning, the bearings at piers 3 and 5 were converted into fixed bearings to help resist large
horizontal loads such as earthquakes.
Superstructures which are allowed to move longitudinally at certain piers are typically restrained
against motion in the transverse direction at those piers. This can be accomplished with suitable
transverse shear corbels or bearings allowing motion parallel to the bridge only. See Subsection
9.3.2E of this manual. The casting length for box girder bridges shall be slightly longer than the
actual bridge layout length to account for the elastic shortening of the concrete due to prestress.
6.4.2 Analysis
The procedures outlined in Section 2.1 through 2.5 of reference 6.99.8 for computation of stress in single
and multispan box girders can be followed for the analysis of T-beams and slab bridges, as well.
The BDS program available on the WSDOT system will quickly perform a complete stress analysis of a
box girder, T-beam, or slab bridge, provided the structure can be idealized as a plane frame. For further
information, see the program user instructions.
The STRUDL program is recommended for complex structures which are more accurately idealized as
space frames. Examples are bridges with sharp curvature, varying superstructure width, severe skew,
or slope-leg intermediate piers. An analysis method in Chapter 10 of reference 6.99.1 for continuous
prestressed beams is particularly well adapted to the loading input format in STRUDL. In the method,
the forces exerted by cables of parabolic or other configurations are converted into equivalent vertical
linear or concentrated loads applied to members and joints of the superstructure. The vertical loads are
considered positive when acting up toward the center of tendon curvature and negative when acting down
toward the center of tendon curvature. Forces exerted by anchor plates at the cable ends are coded in as
axial and vertical concentrated forces combined with a concentrated moment if the anchor plate group is
eccentric. Since the prestress force varies along the spans due to the effects of friction, the difference
between the external forces applied at the end anchors at opposite ends of the bridge must be coded in at
various points along the spans in order for the summation of horizontal forces to equal zero. With correct
input (check thoroughly before submitting for computation), the effects of elastic shortening and second-
ary moments are properly reflected in all output listings, and the prestress moments printed out are the
actual resultant (total) moments acting on the structure. For examples of the application of STRUDL to
post-tensioning design, see the calculations for SR 90 West Sunset Way Ramp (simple), SR 5 Nalley
Valley Viaduct (complex), and the STRUDL manuals.
A. Section Properties
As in other types of bridges, the design normally begins with a preliminary estimate of the superstruc-
ture cross-section and the amount of prestress needed at points of maximum stress and at points of
cross-section change. For box girders, See Figure 2.0 through 2.5 of Reference 6.99.8. For T-beam
and slab bridges, previous designs are a useful guide in making a good first choice.
For frame analysis, use the properties of the entire superstructure regardless of the type of bridge
being designed. For stress analysis of slab bridges, calculate loads and steel requirements for a 1-foot
wide strip. For stress analysis of T-beam bridges, use the procedures outlined in the AASHTO
specifications.
Note that when different concrete strengths are used in different portions of the same member, the
equivalent section properties should be calculated in terms of either the stronger or weaker material.
In general, the concrete strength should be limited to the values indicated in Subsection 6.1.2A of
this manual.
B. Preliminary Stress Check
In accordance with AASHTO, flexural stresses in prestressed members are calculated at service load
levels. Shear stresses, stirrups, moment capacities vs. applied moments are calculated at ultimate load
levels.
During preliminary design, the first objective should be to satisfy the allowable flexural stresses in the
concrete at the critical points in the structure with the chosen cross-section and amount of prestressing
steel, then the requirements for shear stress, stirrups, and ultimate moment capacity can be readily
met with minor or no modifications in the cross-section. For example, girder webs can be thickened
locally near piers to reduce excessive shear stress.
In the AASHTO formulas for allowable tensile stress in concrete, bonded reinforcement should be
interpreted to mean bonded auxiliary (nonprestressed) reinforcement in conformity with Article 8.6
of the 1995 ACI Code for Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures. Normal
practice is to use the time-dependent prestress loss from Table 6.1.5-1. The long-hand formulas for
computing time-dependent losses in steel stress given in the code should be used only when a more
thorough investigation is deemed necessary. To minimize concrete cracking and protect reinforcing
steel against corrosion for bridges, the allowable concrete stress under final conditions in the
precompressed tensile zone should be limited to zero in the top and bottom fibers.
In all cases where tension is allowed in the concrete under initial or final conditions, extra mild steel
(auxiliary reinforcement) should be added to carry the total tension present. This steel can be
computed as in the following example (also see Chapter 9-5 of Reference 6.99.1):
Figure 6.4.2-1
In case of overstress, try one or more of the following remedies: Adjust tendon profiles, add or
subtract prestress steel, thicken slabs, revise strength of concrete of top slab, add more short tendons
locally, etc. Then repeat calculations as necessary.
C. Tendon Layout
After a preliminary estimate has been made of the concrete section and the amount of prestressing
needed at points of maximum applied load, it may be advantageous in multispan bridges to draw a
tendon profile to a convenient scale superimposed on a plot of the center of gravity of concrete
(c.g.c.) line. The most efficient tendon profile from the standpoint of steel stress loss will normally be
a series of rather long interconnected parabolas, but other configurations are possible. For continuous
bridges with unequal span lengths, the tendon profile (eccentricity) shall be based on the span
requirement. This results in an efficient post-tensioning design. The tendon profile and c.g.c. line plot
is strongly recommended for superstructures of variable cross-section and/or multiple unsymmetrical
span arrangements, but is not necessary for superstructures having constant cross- section and
symmetrical spans. The main advantages of the tendon profile and c.g.c. plot are:
1. The primary prestress moment curves (prestress force times distance from c.g.c. line to center of
gravity of steel (c.g.s.) lines) at all points throughout all spans are quickly obtained from this plot
and will be used to develop the secondary moment curves (if present) and, ultimately, to develop
the resultant total prestress moment curve.
2. Possible conflicts between prestressing steel and mild steel near end regions, crossbeams, and
diaphragms may become apparent.
3. Possible design revisions may be indicated. For example, camber in bridges with unequal spans
can be balanced by adjusting tendon profiles.
The tendon profile and c.g.c. line diagram should also contain a sketch of how the end bearing
plates or anchors are to be arranged at the ends of the bridge. Such a sketch can be useful in
determining how large the end block in a girder bridge will have to be and how much space will
be required for mild steel in the end region. In general, the arrangement of anchor plates should
be the same as the arrangement of the ducts to which they belong to avoid problems with duct
cross-overs and to keep end blocks of reasonable width.
D. Prestress Losses
Friction losses occurring during jacking and prior to anchoring, depend on the system and materials
used. For purposes of design, this office has specified a rigid spiral galvanized ferrous metal duct
system for which µ shall be 0.20 and K = 0.0002. This system is at present available from several
large suppliers. To avoid the substantial friction loss caused by sharp tendon curvature in the end
regions where the tendons flare out from a stacked arrangement towards the bearing plates, use
0.10 times the span length or 20 feet as the minimum flare zone length. The recommended minimum
radius (horizontal or vertical) of flared tendons is 200 feet. In the special cases where sharp curvature
cannot be avoided, extra horizontal and vertical ties should be added along the concave side of the
curve to resist the tendency to break through the web. See stirrup calculations for SR 2, EU-Line
O’Xing, for a suggested method of calculating this additional steel.
When summing the α angles for total friction loss along the structure, horizontal curvature of the
tendons as well as horizontal and vertical roadway curvature should be included in the summation.
All other losses (those due to shrinkage, elastic shortening, creep, and relaxation of steel) shall be as
indicated in Subsection 6.1.5.
E. Steel Stress Curve
Steel stresses may be plotted either as the actual values or as a percentage of the jacking stresses.
A steel stress diagram for a typical two-span bridge is shown below. Spans are symmetrical about
pier 2 and the bridge is jacked from both ends. All values are in ksi and pertain to 270 ksi either
stress relieved or low relaxation strands. Fs’ denotes ultimate strength of strands in ksi.
Losses due to creep, shrinkage, and relaxation of prestressing steel are 33.30 ksi for
structures of usual design and normal weight concrete.
Yield Stress for Stress-Releive Strands = 0.85
Yield Stress for Low-Relaxation Strands = 0.90
Figure 6.4.2-2
Accurate plotting of steel stress variation due to local curvature is normally not necessary, and
straight lines between intersection points on the diagram are usually sufficient. When tendons are
continuous through the length of the bridge, the stress for design purposes at the jacked end should be
limited to 0.75 x fs′ or 202 ksi for 270 ksi stress relieved strands or 0.79 x fs′ or 213 ksi for 270 ksi
low relaxation strands. This would permit the post-tensioning contractor to jack to the slightly higher
value of 0.77 x fs′ for stress relieved strands or 0.81 x fs′ for low relaxation strands as allowed by the
AASHTO Code in case friction values encountered in the field turn out somewhat greater than the
standard values used in design. Stress loss at jacked end should be calculated from the assumed
anchor set of 1/4 inch, the normal slippage during anchoring in most systems. At the high points on the
initial stress curve, the stress should not exceed 0.70 x fs′ for stress relieved strands or 0.75 x fs′ low
relaxation strands after sealing of anchorage. If these values are exceeded, the jacking stress can be
lowered or alternately the specified amount of anchor set can be increased.
When the total tendon length (L) is less than the length of cable influenced by anchor set (x) and the
friction loss is small, as in short straight tendons, the 0.70 x fs′ value governs. In these cases, the
maximum allowable jacking stress value of 0.75 x fs′ for stress relieved or 0.78 x fs′ for low relax-
ation strands cannot be used and a slightly lower value should be specified. See the following sketch:
Figure 6.4.2-3
In single-span, simply supported superstructures friction losses are so small that jacking from both
ends is normally not warranted. In the longer multispan bridges where the tendons experience greater
friction losses, jacking from both ends will usually be necessary. Jacking at both ends need not be
done simultaneously, since final results are virtually the same whether or not the jacking is simulta-
neous. If unsymmetrical two-span structures are to be jacked from one end only, the jacking must be
done from the end of the longest span.
F. Prestress Moment Curves
1. Single-Span Bridges, Simply Supported
The primary prestress moment curve is developed by multiplying the initial steel stress curve
ordinates by the area of prestressing steel times the eccentricity of steel from the center of gravity
of the concrete section at every tenth point in the span. The primary prestress moment curve is
not necessary for calculating concrete stresses in single-span simply supported bridges. Since
there is no secondary prestress moment developed in the span of a single span, simply supported
bridge which is free to shorten, the primary prestress moment curve is equal to the total prestress
moment curve in the span. However, if the single span is rigidly framed to supporting piers, the
effect of elastic shortening should be calculated. The same would be true when unexpected high
friction is developed in bearings during or after construction.
2. Multispan Continuous Bridges
The primary prestress moment curve for all spans is developed as in 1. above for single span
bridges.
With the exception of T.Y. Lin’s equivalent vertical load method used in conjunction with the
STRUDL program, none of the methods described in the following take into account the elastic
shortening of the superstructure due to prestressing. To obtain the total prestress moment curve
used to check concrete stresses, the primary and secondary prestress moment curves must be
added algebraically at all points in the spans. As the secondary moment can have a large absolute
value in some structures, it is very important to obtain the proper sign for this moment, or a
serious error could result.
H. Temperature Effects*
Most specifications for massive bridges call for a verification of stresses under uniform temperature
changes of the total bridge superstructure. Stresses due to temperature unevenly distributed within the
cross-section are not generally verified. In reality, however, considerable temperature gradients are
set up within the cross-section of superstructures. Such temperature differences are mostly of a very
complex nature, depending on the type of cross-section and direction of solar radiation.
Solar radiation produces uniform heating of the upper surface of a bridge superstructure which is
greater than that of the lower surface. An inverse temperature gradient with higher temperatures at the
lower surface occurs rarely and involves much smaller temperature differences. In statically indeter-
minate continuous bridge beams, a temperature rise at the upper surface produces positive flexural
moments which cause tensile stresses in the bottom fibers. When the temperature gradient is constant
over the entire length of a continuous beam superstructure, positive flexural moments are induced in
all spans. These moments are of equal constant magnitude in the interior spans and decrease linearly
to zero in the end spans. The most critical zones are those which have the lowest compressive stress
reserve in the bottom fibers under prestress plus dead load. Normally, these are the zones near the
interior supports where additional tensile stresses develop in the bottom fibers due to (1) a concen-
trated support reaction and (2) insufficient curvature of prestressed reinforcement.
Studies have shown that temperature is the most important tension-producing factor, especially in
two-span continuous beams in the vicinity of intermediate supports, even when the temperature
difference is only 10°C between the deck and bottom of the beam. In practice, a box girder can
exhibit a DT=30°C. The zone at a distance of about 0.3 to 2.0d on either side of the intermediate
support proved to be particularly crack-prone.
Computation of stresses induced by vertical temperature gradients within prestressed concrete bridges
can become quite complex and are ignored in typical designs done by WSDOT. It is assumed that
movements at the expansion devices will generally relieve any induced stresses. However, such
stresses can be substantial in massive, deep bridge members in localities with large temperature
fluctuations. If the structure being designed falls within this category, a thermal stress investigation
should be considered. See Reference 6.99.10 and the following temperature criteria for further
guidance.
1. A Mean temperature 50°F with Rise 45°F and Fall 45°F for longitudinal analysis using one-half
of the Modulus of Elasticity. (Maximum Seasonal Variation.)
2. The superstructure box girder shall be designed transversely for a temperature differential
between inside and outside surfaces of ±15°F with no reduction in Modulus of Elasticity
(Maximum Daily Variation).
3. The superstructure box girder shall be designed longitudinally for a top slab temperature increase
of 20°F with no reduction in modulus of elasticity. (In accordance with Post-Tensioning Institute
Manual, Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual, Subsection 3.3.4.)
The coefficient of thermal expansion used is 0.000006.
Modulus of Elasticity Wc1.5 33 √ fc′ (W=weight of concrete in lbs. per cubic foot).
*From “Conclusions Drawn from Distress of Prestressed Concrete Bridges” by Dr. Fritz Leonardt.
I. Shear
Concrete box girder and T-beam bridges with horizontal construction joints (which result from webs
and slabs being cast at different times) should be checked for both vertical and horizontal shear
capacity. Generally, horizontal shear requirements will control the stirrup design.
Vertical concrete shear capacity for prestressed or post-tensioned structural members is calculated as
the lesser of Vci or Vcw as outlined in Section 9.20.2 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges. Minimum stirrup area, maximum stirrup spacing, and maximum stirrup capacity,
Vs, are further subject to the limitations presented in Section 9.20.3. For further explanation, refer to
Section 11.4 of the ACI 318-95 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and Commen-
tary. Chapter 27 of Notes on ACI 318-95 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete with
Design Applications presents two excellent example problems for vertical shear design. The use of
an electronic spreadsheet simplifies the repetitive and detailed nature of these calculations.
Horizontal shear stress acts over the contact area, of width bv, between two interconnected surfaces
of a composite structural member. The moment gradient produced by vertical shear causes this
horizontal stress. At elastic stress levels, this shear stress is generally expressed as t=VQ/(Ibv).
Because the concrete section is generally cracked at the full factored load level, VQ/(Ibv), based
upon Q and I of the uncracked section, does not apply. Instead, the moment gradient is, essentially,
developed as a couple; the steel reinforcement being in tension and the concrete slab being in com-
pression. The distance between these two forces approximately equals the structural depth d. Hence,
the resulting horizontal shear stress at the interface can be shown to approximately equal Vu/(bvd).
This stress can be resisted by a combination of 1) interlock of the two concrete surfaces and 2) shear-
friction resulting from stirrups being placed across the interface. The vertical shear capacity corre-
sponding to the concrete horizontal resistance is Vnh-c. The vertical shear capacity corresponding to
the horizontal resistance of the stirrup steel is Vnh-s. The post-tensioning force does not subject the
horizontal interface to compression along the full span length. Therefore, the horizontal concrete
shear capacity should not be augmented by Vp, as is done when calculating the vertical concrete
shear capacity Vcw.
Horizontal shear design is relatively straightforward. However, the presentation in Section 9.20.4 of
the AASHTO specifications is somewhat confusing in that it deviates from the standard load factor
format. The AASHTO procedure differs somewhat from the ACI 318-95 procedure which refers
directly to shear-friction design.
When the concrete interface is clean, free of laitance, intentionally roughened, and has a minimum
quantity of stirrup reinforcement of 50bvs/Fy, the AASHTO specifications allow a concrete ultimate
horizontal shear stress of 350 psi, where s is the longitudinal spacing between adjacent stirrups.
This corresponds to a concrete vertical shear capacity, Vnh-c, of (350 psi) bvd.
Additional stirrups in a quantity exceeding the specified minimum provide additional vertical shear
capacity, Vnh-s. It is shown below that the equation in Section 9.20.4.3(d) of the AASHTO specifi-
cations for additional shear capacity provided by these stirrups is equivalent to designing for the
additional horizontal shear force by mobilizing shear friction using a m value of 0.4.
τ·bv·s = Vnh-s·bv·s/(bv·d)
= [(160·Fy·bv·d/40000)·Av/(.01·bv·s)]·bv·s/(bv·d)
= 0.4·Fy·Av
The total stirrup quantity required is the sum of the minimum 50 bv s/Fy and the additional required
amount to mobilize shear friction.
In load factor notation, these relationships can be expressed as follows:
Vu ≤ φ·Vnh = φ·Vnh-c + φ·Vnh-s
Vnh-s ≥ Vu/φ - Vnh-c
Vnh-c = (350 psi)·bv·d
Vnh-s = 0.4·Av·Fy·d/s
(Av/s)total ≥ 50·bv/Fy + Vnh-s/(0.4·Fy·d)
≥ 50·bv/Fy + 2.5·Vnh-s/(Fy·d)
≥ 50·bv/Fy + 2.5·(Vu/φ - Vnh-c)/(Fy·d)
The horizontal shear requirements of the AASHTO specifications can be satisfied using either of two
methods: (1) Stirrup spacing is designed to satisfy the shear capacity requirement at each and every
point along the span (AASHTO Section 9.20.4.3), or (2) Stirrup spacing is designed to transfer the
change in flange axial force over a segment length not exceeding one tenth of the span (AASHTO
Section 9.20.4.4). The second method permits the designer to average the stirrup spacing over one
tenth the span, resulting in an increased minimum stirrup spacing. Again, the use of an electronic
spreadsheet can simplify these repetitive computations.
For cast-in-place sloped outer webs, increase inside stirrup reinforcement and bottom slab top
transverse reinforcement as required for the web moment locked-in during construction of the top
slab. This moment about the bottom corner of the web is due to tributary load from the top slab
concrete placement plus 10 psf form dead load. See Figure 5.3.2 for typical top slab forming.
For precast tub outer webs, increase the stirrup and bottom slab steel as required by moment induced
by falsework overhang brackets supporting concrete plus 10 psf overhang deck load.
J. End Block Stresses
The highly concentrated forces at the end anchorages cause bursting and spalling stresses in the
concrete which must be resisted by vertical and horizontal reinforcement. For a better understanding
of this subject, see Chapter 7 of Reference 6.99.1, 6.99.3, and Section 2.82 of Reference 6.99.8.
Note that the procedures for computing horizontal bursting and spalling steel in the slabs of box
girders and T-beams are similar to those required for computing vertical steel in girder webs, except
that the slab steel is figured in a horizontal instead of a vertical plane. In box girders, this slab steel
should be placed half in the top slab and half in the bottom slab. See Appendix 6.4-A1 for typical box
girder end block reinforcement details. The anchorage zones of slab bridges will require vertical
stirrups as well as additional horizontal transverse bars extending across the width of the bridge.
The horizontal spalling and bursting steel in slab bridges shall be placed half in a top layer and half
in a bottom layer.
K. Anchorage Stresses
The average bearing stress on the concrete behind the anchor plate and the bending stress in the plate
material should satisfy the requirements of the AASHTO Code. In all sizes up to the 31-strand
tendons, the square anchor plates used by three suppliers (VSL, AVAR, Stronghold) meet the
AASHTO requirements, and detailing end blocks to accommodate these plates is the recommended
procedure. In the cases where nonstandard (rectangular) anchor plates must be specified because of
space limitations, assume that the trumpet associated with the equivalent size square plate will be
used. In order to calculate the net bearing plate area pressing on the concrete behind it, the trumpet
size can be scaled from photos in supplier brochures. Assume for simplicity that the concrete bearing
stress is uniform. Bending stress in the steel should be checked assuming bending can occur across a
corner of the plate or across a line parallel to its narrow edge.
See Appendix 6.4-A3 for preapproved anchorages for post-tensioning.
L. Camber
The camber to be shown on the plans should include the effect of both dead load and final prestress
and may be taken as given in Table 6.1.8-1.
M. Expansion Bearing Offsets
Figure 6.4.1-6 indicates expansion bearing offsets for the partial effects of elastic shortening, creep,
and shrinkage. The initial offset shown is intended to result in minimal bearing eccentricity for the
majority of the life of the structure. The bearing should be designed for the full range of anticipated
movements: ES+CR+SH+TEMP.
N. Post-Tensioning Notes
The design plans shall contain the following information for use by the post-tensioner and state
inspector: Strength of concrete in superstructure, tendon jacking sequence, friction coefficients, duct
type, elastic and time-dependent losses, anchor set, prestress forces, strand elongations, deviation of
±7 percent between measured and theoretical elongations, false work construction and removal. If
jacking is done at both ends of the bridge, the minimum strand elongation due to the specified jacking
load for the end jacked first as well as the end jacked last should be indicated. When calculating
strand elongation, use Es = 28,000 ksi. The calculated strand elongations at the ends of the bridge are
compared with the measured field values to ensure that the friction coefficients (and hence the levels
of prestressing throughout the structure) agree with the values assumed by the designer.
The tendons shall be jacked in a sequence that avoids causing overstress or tension in the bridge.
The following notes for the sequence of stressing of longitudinal tendons should be shown in
the plans:
1. The final prestressing force shall be distributed with an approximately equal amount in each web
and shall be placed symmetrically about the centerline of the bridge.
2. No more than one half of the prestressing force in any web may be stressed before an equal force
is stressed in the adjacent webs. At no time during the stressing operations will more than 1/6 of
the total prestressing force be applied eccentrically about the centerline of the structure.
Sidewalks and traffic barriers are normally cast after post-tensioning.
See Appendix 6.2-B1 for typical post-tensioning notes for plans.
P65:DP/BDM6
6.99 Bibliography
1. Prestressed Concrete Structures
T. Y. Lin Wiley
2. Prestressed Concrete Design and Construction
F. Leonhardt (in WSDOT Library)
3. Prestressed Concrete Vol. I and II
Guyon Wiley
4. Designing for Effects of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature
ACI SP 27 620.1 Design 1 1971 (WSDOT Library)
5. Post-Tensioned Bridges - Design & Construction Manual of WCRSI
1499 Bayshore Highway, Burlingame, California
Copyright 1969
6. Analysis & Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures
ACI Committee 443 Report 71-14
ACI Journal, April 1974
7. Preapproved Repair Procedures
WSDOT Manual for Repair of Concrete
8. Post-Tensioned Box Girder Bridge Manual
Post-Tensioning Institute
301 West Osborn, Phoenix, Arizona
9. Cracking of Voided Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Decks
Ministry of Transportation and Communications
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
10. Design of Concrete Bridges for Temperature Gradients
ACI Journal, May 1978
11. Transportation Research Board Report No. 226 titled, Damage Evaluation and Repair Methods for
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Members.
12. Transportation Research Board Report No. 280 titled, Guidelines for Evaluation and Repair of
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Members.
13. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
14. Seguirant, S.J., “New Deep WSDOT Standard Sections Extend Spans of Prestressed Concrete
Girders,” PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 4, July-August 1998, pp. 92-119.
15. PCI Bridge Design Manual, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1997.
16. PCI Design Handbook, Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Fifth Edition, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL, 1999.
17. Mast, R.F., “Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams, Part 1,” PCI JOURNAL, V. 34,
No. 1, January-February 1989, pp. 34-53.
18. Mast, R.F., “Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams, Part 2,” PCI JOURNAL, V. 38,
No. 1, January-February 1993, pp. 70-88.
19. Imper, R.R., and Laszlo, G., “Handling and Shipping of Long Span Bridge Beams,” PCI JOURNAL,
V. 32, No. 6, November-December 1987, pp. 86-101.
20. Standardization of Shear Reinf. for WSDOT Standard Prestressed Girders.
21. AASHTO LRFD Specifications. Second Edition 1998.
P65:DP/BDM6
The basic attempt is to have the top of girder not higher than 3/4″ below the bottom of slab at the center of the span.
This provides that the actual girder camber could exceed the calculated value by 13/4″ before the top of the girder
would start interfering with the slab steel.
1
Allowance for the amount the girder camber, at time of slab pour, exceeds the screed camber.
* Use 2.50 @ preliminary plan stage to determine vertical clearance. Note in left margin of Layout:
“A” Dimen. = “X” (not for design).
Use value from deflection program results to determine “A” Dimen. to use for design.
φ = 5,730 × S × m
R 400
H = 573Sm × 0.01746 × S × 12
4R 2
H 1.5 × S2 × m (inches)
R
(approx.)
K = 100G a=K × S2 × 12 = G × S2 × 12
2L 40,000 2L 400
a = 1.5 × G × S2 (inches)
100 L
P65:DP/BDM6
Notes to Designer for Pretensioned “Deep” Standard Girders — W95G and W83G
Section Dimensions and Properties
1. Girder section dimensions and properties of the W95G and W83G are based on hard metric units as shown
on the metric version of the Washington Standard Girders sheet in Appendix A. The U.S. Customary unit
dimensions of the W95G and W83G are conversions from metric units.
2. Girder section dimensions and properties of other standard girders are based on U.S. Customary units as
shown on the U.S. Customary version of the Washington State Girder sheet in Appendix A. Metric versions
of other standard girders are conversions from U.S. Customary units.
Design Assumptions and Requirements
1. These design assumptions and requirements apply to pretensioned girders only.
2. Design is to be in accordance with the current edition of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications13,
and the following requirements:
• Deck thickness is to be 9 inches minimum unless a thinner deck can be justified by analysis or by the
space necessary to place the deck reinforcement with the required clearances and cover.
• Deck wearing surface is to be assumed as 1/2 inch.
• Concrete Strengths:
• Deck strength fc′ shall be 4.0 ksi (Class 4000D Concrete).
• Girder strength at transfer of pretension force fci′ shall be 3.50 ksi minimum and 7.50 ksi maximum.
Girder transfer strength shall be determined by analysis (see section on girder handling), rounded up
to the nearest 0.10 ksi. Transfer strengths less than or equal to 7.00 ksi can be achieved on a daily turn
around schedule. Transfer strengths between 7.00 ksi and 8.50 ksi can be achieved with extended
curing time. For transfer strengths between 7.50 ksi and 8.50 ksi, the girders shall be designed as
pretensioned, but the substructure shall be designed for the heavier post-tensioned, segmental sections
(W83PTG and W95PTG) to allow for alternate bid proposals. Transfer strengths higher than 8.50 ksi
shall not be specified.
• Girder design strength fc′ shall be 7.00 ksi minimum and 10.00 ksi maximum. The design strength
shall be specified as the calculated maximum of 1) the required transfer strength, 2) the strength
required at shipping (see section on girder shipping) and, 3) the strength required in service. The
maximum calculated value shall be rounded up to the nearest 0.10 ksi. For design strengths less than
or equal to 9.00 ksi, the age at cylinder testing shall be specified at 28 days. For design strengths
between 9.00 ksi and 10.00 ksi, the age at cylinder testing shall be specified at 56 days. The design
strength shall not be specified higher than 10.00 ksi.
• Prestressing:
• The prestressing strand shall be 0.6 inch diameter, AASHTO M 203, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strand.
• Temporary strands in the top flange of the girder will most likely be required for shipping (see section
on girder shipping). These strands may be pretensioned and bonded only for the end 10 feet of the
girder, or may be post-tensioned prior to lifting the girder from the form. These strands shall be
considered in the design to reduce the required transfer strength, to provide stability during shipping,
and to reduce the “A” dimension. These strands must be cut before the cast-in-place deck is placed,
and preferably after the diaphragms are cast and cured.
• The maximum number of harped strands is 22, harped at 0.40 of the span length.
• The maximum number of straight strands is 46 in the bottom flange of the girder.
• The center to center strand spacing is 2 inches.
• The jacking stress fpi = 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi.
• The slope of the harped strands shall not be steeper than 8 horizontal to 1 vertical.
• The harped strand exit location at the girder ends shall be held as low as possible while maintaining
the concrete stresses within allowable limits.
• Allowable Stresses:
• At Service: Tension = zero (0)
Sustained compression fc = 0.45 fc′
Total compression fc = 0.60 fc′
• At Release: Tension ft = 7.5√ fc′ (psi)
Compression fci = 0.60 fci′
• For flexural strength, it has been determined14 that AASHTO LRFD Article 5.7.3 underestimates the
strength of the composite deck-girder system. The strain compatibility method given in Section 8.2.2.5 of
the PCI Bridge Design Manual15 is recommended for this analysis. In addition to the effective area of the
deck, the top flange of the girder and the mild reinforcement in the deck and the top flange of the girder
should be included in the analysis.
• Simple spans shall be assumed for positive moment flexural design.
• The W83G and W95G girders shall not be used for bridges with skew angles that exceed 30o.
3. The W95G and W83G sections are high performance girders. They generally rely on high strength concrete
to be effective for the spans expected as a single piece. Maximum girder length is based on a single piece
weight not to exceed 200 kips. The approximate range of maximum span lengths for practical minimum
and maximum girder spacings are as follows:
W83G 10 155 –
W95G 10 164 –
Handling
The designer shall specify the lifting device locations and the corresponding concrete transfer strength that
provides an adequate factor of safety for lateral stability. The calculations shall conform to Article 5.2.9 of the
PCI Design Handbook, Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Fifth Edition16, or other approved methods. Other
references14,15,17,18,19 provide the derivation of the theory and design examples. Temporary top strands may be
used to improve the stability of the girder during handling, and to reduce the required concrete transfer strength.
Shipping
1. The designer shall assure that the girders can be reasonably delivered to the site as part of the preliminary
design. The girder weight shall not exceed 200 kips. Vertical and horizontal clearances along the selected
delivery route shall be verified.
2. The designer shall check the lateral stability of the girder during shipping14,18,19. Temporary top strands shall
be used to provide a minimum factor of safety against cracking of 1.0. In the absence of more accurate
information on the properties of the truck, the following may be used: 1) the truck rotational spring stiffness
Kq = 41,000 kip-in./radian, 2) the height of the roll center above the road hr = 24 in., 3) the height of the top
of the truck support above the road = 6 ft, 4) the distance from the center of truck to the center of dual tires
zmax = 36 in. and, 5) the maximum distance between truck supports = 130 ft. The maximum superelevation
along the selected route shall be used in the analysis.
Shear Reinforcement in End Region
1. The end region is considered to be about 1.5 times the depth of the girder, h, from the end of the girder.
2. The vertical reinforcement shown on the standard plans provides for the maximum bursting (splitting) demand
at the end of the girder for the maximum number of straight and harped strands plus six temporary strands in
the top flange of the girder (46 + 22 high + 6 respectively). This need not be changed unless the number of
strands is increased. Generally the maximum number of strands is limited to 68 plus 6 temporary by the
maximum concrete transfer strength of 8.50 ksi. The vertical bursting (splitting) reinforcement is located
within approximately h/5 from the end of the girder and closely approximates 4 percent of the applied
prestressing force at transfer (AASHTO LRFD 5.10.10).
3. Other reinforcement shown in the end region accounts for vertical shear for the span configurations above and
four (4) support conditions,
• Lifting with no reaction at the end region, i.e. lifting devices located interior from the end of the girder,
• Girder plus three intermediate diaphragms plus 20 psf supported on oak bunking block,
• Bridge reactions on elastomeric bearings introducing compression into the end region, and
• Bridge reactions at the end face of the girder (End Types C and D).
The designer shall investigate any additional vertical reinforcement for reaction forces, in the direction of the
applied shear, along the vertical end face of the girder. This applies to girder End Types C and D, where all
loads are eventually transferred to the face of the hinge diaphragm or crossbeam. Adequate vertical shear
reinforcing is required to take the reaction back up to the top of the girder near the diaphragm interface.
Reinforcing bars and pretensioned strands project from the end of the girder. The designer shall assure
that these bars and strands fit into the end diaphragm. Embedment of the girder end into the end dia-
phragm shall be a minimum of 3 inches and a maximum of 6 inches. For girder ends where the tilt would
exceed 6 inches of embedment, the girder ends shall be tilted to attain a plumb surface when the girder is
erected to the profile grade. Embedment into the end wall shall be 3 inches.
The gap between the end diaphragm and the stem wall shall be a minimum of 21/2 inches or 1/2 inch greater
than required for longitudinal direction.
• End Type B – is for “L” type abutments. End Type B also has a recess at the bottom of the girder for an
elastomeric bearing pad. Notes regarding the bearing recess on End Type A also apply to End Type B.
End Type B is the only end type that does not have reinforcing or strand projecting from the girder end.
Note that the centerline of the bearing is not coincident with the centerline of the diaphragm. For girders
on a grade, dimensions for each bearing, P1 and P2, from the ends of the girder will be different. Typi-
cally the centerline of bearing will be 1′-3″ minimum from the end of the girder to fit the bearing and
provide adequate edge distance. The designer may want to locate the diaphragm such that it is equal
distance from the centerline of the bearing, and the centerline of the bearing is equal distance from the
face of the back wall of both abutments. This should create consistency in dimensions and make it easier
to calculate girder lengths.
• End Type C – is for continuous spans and an intermediate hinge diaphragm at an intermediate pier. There
is no bearing recess and the girder is temporarily supported on oak bunking blocks. This detail is generally
used only in low seismic areas. This end type is generally used for bridges east of the Cascade Mountains.
The designer shall check the edge distance and provide a dimension that prevents edge failure, or spalling,
at the top corner of the supporting cross beam for load from the oak bunking block.
• End Type D – is for continuous spans fully fixed to columns at intermediate piers. There is no bearing
recess and the girder is temporarily supported on oak bunking blocks.
The designer shall check the edge distance and provide a dimension that prevents edge failure, or spalling,
at the top corner of the supporting cross beam for load from the oak bunking block.
P65:DP/BDM6
P65:DP/BDM6
Bar Anchorages
DYWIDAG Systems International
1-inch thread bars through 13/8 at fu of 150 ksi only.
P65:DP/BDM6
Post-Tensioning Notes
1. The cast-in-place concrete in superstructure shall be Class _____. The minimum compressive strength of
the cast-in-place concrete at the time of post-tensioning shall be _____. ksi.
2. The minimum prestressing load after seating for each web shall be _____. ksi. Each web shall have a
minimum of _____ strands.
3. The design is based on _____ inch diameter low relaxation strands with a jacking load of _____ ksi each web,
an anchor set of 1/4 inch, a friction curvature coefficient, m=0.20, and a friction wobble coefficient, k=0.0002.
The actual anchor set used by the contractor shall be specified in the shop plans and included in the transfer
force calculations.
4. The design is based on the estimated prestress loss of post-tensioned prestressing strands of _____. ksi due to
steel relaxation, elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete.
5. The contractor shall submit the stressing sequence and elongation calculations to the engineer for approval.
All losses due to tendon horizontal curvature must be included in elongation calculations. The stressing
sequence shall meet the following criteria:
A. The prestressing force shall be distributed with an approximately equal amount in each web and shall be
placed symmetrically about the center line of bridge.
B. No more than one-half of the prestressing force in any web may be stressed before an equal force is
stressed in the adjacent webs. At no time during stressing operation will more than one-sixth of the total
prestressing force be applied eccentrically about the center line of the bridge.
6. The maximum outer diameter of the duct shall be _____ inches. The area of the duct shall be at least 21/2 times
the net area of the prestressing steel in the duct.
7. All tendons shall be stressed from pier _____.
Note to Designers:
1. Small changes in thickness of web (up to 1 inch) shall not require redesign of structure on the part of the
contractor.
2. Commonly used stress levels in note number 1 are 3000 psi and 3500 psi.
3. Use of a tendon with more strands than the maximum noted above requires the approval of the Bridge Design
Engineer and the Design Unit Supervisor.
4. Post-tensioning shop drawings detailing a tendon with more strands than the maximum specified by the
contract shall be returned “Not Approved” with a note stating “the number of strands per tendon exceeds the
maximum specified in the contract.”
P65:DP/BDM6
Width
Contract Award Curb Span/ Skew
No. Name County Date Span Curb (ft.) Depth Deg. Remarks
9215 AR Line O’xing Spokane 12/71 112 38 28.9 Curved Limited available
6000′R structure depth.
0902 Allen Street I/C O’xing* Cowlitz 2/78 132 52 22.0 Curved
3274′R
*Twin bridges.
Width
Contract Award Curb Span/ Skew
No. Name County Date Span Curb (ft.) Depth Deg. Remarks
9737 Mill Plain Road I/C U’xing Clark 5/74 167 84 22.2 8 5′ sidewalk on
172 each side.
Width
Contract Award Curb Span/ Skew
No. Name County Date Span Curb (ft.) Depth Deg. Remarks
2156 14-D Line U’xing (North) Clark 11/81 196 26 21.8 Curbed
196 600′R
2217 Keene Road U’xing Benton 2/82 150 34 21.4 Curved 25′ counterweighted
150 11,459′R cantilever spans at
each end. Transv. P.T.
2207 G Line U’xing Benton 4/82 162.4 Varies 20.5 0 30′ counterweighted
180.6 78.6-84.6 cantilever spans at
each end. Transv. P.T.
2207 SR 240 Connection U’xing Benton 4/82 163.5 72 20.4 0 25′ counterweighted
(R-Line) 163.5 cantilever spans at
each end. Transv. P.T.
Width
Contract Award Curb Span/ Skew
No. Name County Date Span Curb (ft.) Depth Deg. Remarks
40
NB 2/70 200 Varies Varies 0 6′ sidewalk
200 46.5 on one side.
40
88
8761 Valley View Road O’xing Snohomish 2/70 170 38 25.2 0
88
190
9102 Columbia River Bridge Chelan & 7/71 260 74 Varies 0
at Olds** Douglas 190
100.5
145
9749 Evergreen Parkway Thurston 145 26 Varies 47 Hourglass columns.
114
114
87.5
160
9840 W Sunset Way Ramp U’xing King 12/74 159 26 22.9 Curved
100 500′R &
600′R
129
1193 24F Over MD Line Clark 8/78 201 26 Varies 0
129
126
3794 Sen. Sam C. Guess Memorial 5/90 182 77 Varies 12 Replaced arch, built
(Division St. 2/644) 126 in two stages.
Width
Contract Award Curb Span/ Skew
No. Name County Date Span Curb (ft.) Depth Deg. Remarks
63.5
1439 SR 516 O’xing King 3/79 133 42 24.2 40
63.5
137
NB 8/79 6@172 38 25.1 Curved
166 1200′R
Width
Contract Award Curb Span/ Skew
No. Name County Date Span Curb (ft.) Depth Deg. Remarks
2327 Spokane River Bridge Spokane 6/82 175 76 Varies 0 Transverse post-
Stage 1 255 tentioning.
175
126
3794 Sen. Sam C. Guess Memorial 5/90 182 77 Varies 12 Replaced arch, built
(Division St. 2/644) 126 (depth 5.5 to in two stages.
8.5 at piers)
P65:DP/BDM6
Page
7.0 Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0-1
.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
7.1 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-1
.2 Girder Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.3 Girder Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.4 Estimating Structural Steel Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.5 Types of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.6 Available Plate Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
.7 Girder Segment Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
.8 Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
.9 Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
7.2 Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-1
.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.2 “I” Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
7.3 Design “I” Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-1
.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.2 Composite Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.3 Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.4 Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.5 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.6 Longitudinal Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.7 Bearing Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.8 Crossframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.9 Bottom Laterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
.10 Bolted Field Splice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
.11 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
.12 Roadway Slab Placement Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
.13 Bridge Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
.14 Surface Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
.15 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
.16 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.4 Plan Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4-1
.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.2 Structural Steel Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.3 Framing Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.4 Girder Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.5 Typical Girder Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
.6 Crossframe Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.7 Camber Curve and Bearing Stiffener Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.8 Roadway Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
.9 Safety Cable Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
7.5 Shop Plan Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-1
7.99 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.99-1
Appendix A
7.0-A1 Steel Plate Girder Design Flow Chart
7.4-A1 Girder Framing Plan and Elevation View
7.4-A2 Part Longitudinal Girder Elevation
7.4-A3 Primary Stiffeners
7.4-A4 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners
7.4-A5 Splices
7.4-A6 Optional Web Splices
7.4-A7 Fillet Weld Termination Detail
7.4-A8 Field Splice Detail
7.4-A9 Drip Plate Details
7.4-A10 Crossframes
7.4-A11 Crossframe Attachment Details
7.4-A12 Lateral Plate Detail
7.4-A13 Camber Curve and Bearing Stiffener Camber Details
7.4-A14 Roadway Slab-Plan View
7.4-A15 Roadway Slab-Section View
7.4-A16 Safety Cable Details
P65:DP/BDM7
P65:DP/BDM7
Other features such as notching at hinges (combined with notching for expansion joint system), vertical
clearances, etc., should be considered in selecting the superstructure depth.
7.1.3 Girder Spacing
For simplicity of design, girders should be spaced such that each is designed for the same load; that is
basically, girders will be identical. Spacing should be such that slab dead load is equally distributed on
all girders and the distribution of wheel loads on the exterior girder is close to that of the interior girder.
Barrier weights shall be equally distributed to a maximum of two “I” girders. The least number of girders
should be used that is consistent with a reasonable deck design.
In general, live load distribution to girders shall be in accordance with AASHTO Section 3, Part C for
“I” girders. When these bounds are exceeded, a rational live load distribution method should be used.
7.1.4 Estimating Structural Steel Weights
For the preliminary quantities or preliminary girder design, an estimate of steel weights for built-up plate
composite “I” girders can be obtained from Figures 7.1.4-1 through 7.1.4-3. These figures are based upon
previous designs with HS-20 live loads with no distinction between service load designs and load factor
designs. These charts provide a good double check on final quantities.
The weights shown include webs, flanges, and all secondary members (web stiffeners, diaphragms,
crossframe, lateral systems, gusset plates) plus a small allowance (usually 5 percent or less) for weld
metal, bolts, and shear connectors.
7.1.5 Types of Steel
The most common types of steel used for bridges are now grouped in ASTM A 709 or AASHTO M 270
specifications. The following table shows equivalent designations. Grades of steel are based on minimum
yield points.
ASTM ASTM A 709 AASHTO AASHTO M 270
A 36 Grade 36 M 183 Grade 36
A 572 gr 50 Grade 50 M 223 gr 50 Grade 50
A 588 Grade 50W M 222 Grade 50W
A 852 Grade 70W M 313 Grade 70W
A 514 Grade 100 M 244 Grade 100
Grade l00W Grade l00W
Plates and rolled sections are available is these specifications and grades. Rolled sections include beams
(W, S, and M shapes), H-piles, tees, channels, and angles. These materials are prequalified under the
Bridge Welding Code.
Use AASHTO M 270 grade 50W for plate girders. The fabricated costs of structural carbon and structural
low alloy steel plate girders are about equal. The use of M 270 grade 100, 100W requires approval by the
Bridge Design Engineer.
Availability of weathering steel can be a problem for some sections. For example, steel suppliers do not
stock angles or channels in weathering steel. Weathering steel wide flange and tee sections are available
but difficult to locate. Also, AASHTO M 270 steels are not stocked by local suppliers. The use of M 270
steel should be restricted to large quantities such as found in typical plate girder projects.
Structural tubes and pipes are covered by other specifications. See Table 1-4 of AISC Manual of Steel
Construction for selection and availability. These materials are not considered prequalified under the
Bridge Welding Code. They are covered under the Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1. Structural
tubing ASTM A 500 is not recommended for dynamic loading applications.
7.1.6 Available Plate Sizes
Readily available lengths and thicknesses of steel plates should be used to minimize costs. Tables of
standard plate sizes have been published by various steel mills and should be used for guidance. These
tables are available through the steel specialist.
In general, an individual plate should not exceed 14 feet in width, including camber requirements, or a
length of about 60 feet. If either or both of these dimensions are exceeded, a butt splice is required and
should be shown or specified on the plans.
Plate thicknesses of less than 5/16 inches should not be used for bridge applications.
7.1.7 Girder Segment Sizes
Locate bolted field splices so that individual girder segments can be handled, shipped, and erected
without imposing unreasonable requirements on the contractor. Crane limitations need to be considered
in congested areas near traffic or buildings. Transportation route options between the girder fabricator
and the bridge site can effect the size and weight of girder sections allowed. The region should help
determine the possible routes, and the restrictions they impose, during preliminary planning or early in
the design phase.
“I” girder segment lengths should be limited to 150 feet depending upon their cross section. Weight is
seldom a controlling factor. However, 40 tons is a practical limit for some fabricators. Long, slender
segments can be difficult to handle and ship due to their flexibility. Horizontal curvature of girder
segments may increase handling and shipping concerns.
Consider the structure’s span length and the above factors when determining girder segment lengths.
7.1.8 Computer Programs
The designer should consult the design supervisor to determine the computer program currently being
used for analyses. Instruction manuals for the programs are available in the Bridge Office Computer
Section.
Office practice and good engineering principles require that the results of any computer program should
be independently verified for accuracy. Verification is necessary to identify input errors which renders
erroneous output. Also, programs with built-in code checks must be checked for default settings. Default
settings may reflect old code or office practice may supercede the code that the program was written for.
7.1.9 Fasteners
All bolted connections shall be friction type. Design is based on Class B coating on fraying surfaces.
The term “slip critical” implies a friction type connection.
Properties of High-Strength Bolts
Tensile Yield
Strength Strength
Material Bolt Diameter ksi ksi
AASHTO
1
M 164 /2 - 1″ inc. 120 92
(ASTM A325) 11/8 - 1″ inc. 105 81
Over 11/2″ Not Available
ASTM A 449 1
/4″ - 1″ inc. 120 92
(No AASHTO 11/8 - 11/2″ inc. 105 81
equivalent) 13/4″ -3″ inc. 90 58
Over 3″ Not Available
AASHTO
M 314 1
/4″ - 3″ inc. 125-150 105
ASTM F 1554
Grade 105
AASHTO
M253 1
/2″ - 11/2″ inc. 150-170 130
(ASTM A 490)
Over 11/2″ Not Available
ASTM A 354 1
/2 - 21/2″ inc. 150 130
Grade BD
(No AASHTO 3″ - 4″ inc. 140 115
equivalent)
Over 4″ Not Available
Structural Steel
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Composite Welded Steel Plate “I” Girder — Three or More Continuous Spans
Figure 7.1.4-3
July 2000
Design Considerations
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
Figure 7.1.5-1
P65:DP/BDM7
side of the web, welded to the compression flange, and cut short of the tension flange. Stiffeners located
between crossframes in regions of stress reversal shall be welded to one side of the web and cut short of
both flanges. Alternatively, they may be welded to both flanges if fatigue Category C is checked.
7.3.6 Longitudinal Stiffeners
On long spans where web depths exceed 12 feet, comparative web evaluations shall be made to determine
whether the use of longitudinal stiffeners will be more economical. Fabrication costs indicate the use of
longitudinal stiffeners is not economical on webs 12 feet deep or less.
7.3.7 Bearing Stiffeners
Stiffeners are required at all bearings to enable the reaction to be transmitted from the web to the bearing.
These stiffeners are designated as columns, therefore, must be vertical under total dead load. The connec-
tion of the bearing stiffener to the girder consists of full penetration groove welds to the bottom flange and
fillet welding to the top flange and web. These connection details limit the design stress to Category C for
all girder sections at points of maximum negative moment.
In the case of severe horizontal curvature on structures where girders and crossframes are subjected to
large transverse forces resulting in considerable lateral flange bending, full penetration welds at top and
bottom flanges may be necessary. Full penetration welds are expensive and should be used only where
necessary.
7.3.8 Crossframes
The primary function of intermediate crossframes is to distribute vertical loads transversely and give
torsional rigidity to the superstructure. Together with the bottom laterals they stabilize the superstructure
during erection, pouring, and curing of the roadway slab. On curved bridges, the crossframes also resist
lateral flange bending. Pier crossframes are subjected to lateral loads that originate primarily from wind,
earthquake, and curvature and are transmitted from the roadway slab to the bearings.
Crossframes are generally patterned as K-frames or as X-frames. Typically the configuration selected is
based on the most efficient geometry. The members should closely approach a slope of 1:1 or 45°. Avoid
conflicts with utilities passing through the girders.
On K-frames like the following, avoid connection congestion at bottom laterals:
K-frames like the following may be better for utilities, however, create some congestion at the bottom
lateral connection:
X-frames like the following, where girder depth approaches girder spacing, are more efficient
geometrically:
Intermediate crossframes for straight girders with little or no skew should be designed as secondary
kL
members. Choose a section which satisfies ≤ 140 and design connections only for anticipated loads,
r
not for 75 percent strength of member. This should result in greater economy but still meet the intent of
AASHTO specifications.
In general, crossframes should be installed parallel to piers for skew angles of 0° to 10°. For greater skew
angles, other arrangements may be used. Consult with the design unit supervisor or the steel specialist for
special requirements.
Intermediate crossframes for curved I-girders require special consideration. Curved girder systems should
be designed according to AASHTO “Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges.”
Use Table 1.4A of the guide specifications to distinguish between straight and curved girders.
Crossframes at piers must be designed to transmit transverse loads due to wind or earthquake from the
roadway slab to the bearings or transverse stops. Design and detail pier crossframes separately from
intermediate crossframes.
Bolted connections for crossframes are favored because they allow adjustment during fit up and erection.
Connections of crossframes to web stiffeners require careful attention to detailing to minimize fabrication
difficulties and most importantly increase fatigue resistance. Web stiffeners at crossframes shall be
welded to top and bottom flanges. This practice minimizes out-of-plane bending of the girder web.
The resulting detail must be checked for Category C stress range.
7.3.9 Bottom Laterals
The primary function of a bottom lateral system is to stabilize the girders against lateral loads before the
deck hardens and stabilize the steel portion of the superstructure while the roadway slab is placed.
On straight bridges, office practice is to design the diagonal members in bottom laterals as secondary
members. X-framing may be designed in tension only. K-framing must be designed as compression and
tension members. One hundred fifty percent of the allowable service load design stress is permitted in the
laterals for the temporary construction condition. Consult AASHTO for further guidance. Determine one
size of diagonal member to be used throughout the structure. Partial loading (total panels less one-half of
the end panel) yields maximum shear in the end panel.
Also, on curved structures, the bottom laterals are effective in resisting live load plus impact thereby
becoming primary members and must be modeled in the structure to determine the actual forces the
members experience.
Lateral patterns are formed depending on number of girder lines, girder spacing, and crossframe
spacing. Cost considerations should include geometry, repetition, number, and size of connections.
See Figure 5.1.2-1. Consideration should be given to limiting bottom laterals to one or two bays on
straight bridges.
Note: Where lateral gusset plates are welded to girder webs, the design stress level in the girder, at the
web, is governed by the Category E detail.
For widening projects, bottom laterals are not needed since new can be braced against existing construc-
tion. Framing which is adequately braced should not require bottom laterals.
7.3.10 Bolted Field Splice
Office practice is to use bolted field splices. Splices are usually located at the dead load inflection point to
minimize the design bending moment. The latest USS Highway Structures Design Handbook should be
consulted for examples of splice designs. See AASHTO Section 10.18 for splice design requirements.
Splices should be designed for the greater of:
1. 75 percent of the moment capacity of the smaller section.
2. The average of the required moment due to factored loads and the moment capacity of the smaller
section.
Web splice bolts are designed to resist a shear force due to:
1. Total factored shear force plus;
2. Shear force due to moment resulting from the above shear force times the eccentricity of the distances
from the centerline of the splice to the center of gravity of the bolt group on one side of the centerline
of the splice plus;
3. Shear force due to the portion of the design moment resisted by the web, which is:
I WEB
× design moment at centerline of splice
I SECTION
The outer most bolt in the bolt group is the most highly stressed. The shear force can be determined by
using the “elastic moment of inertia” method.
The flange splice is designed to resist the portion of the design moment not resisted by the web.
Split splice plates are used at the bottom of the bottom flange to allow moisture to pass through the splice.
Fill plates are used to maintain constant flange splice plate thickness across the splice.
Allow fabricators to use steel sheet (ASTM A 715) for fill plates less than 1
4 inch thick.
Fill plates are not subject to tension and therefore a charpy V-notch toughness test should not be required
for them. Mark splice plates that carry tensile stress.
Allow fill plates to be fabricated from AASHTO M183, if steel is painted.
7.3.11 Camber
Permanent girder deflections shall be shown in the contract plans in the form of camber diagrams.
The traditional format for detailing these diagrams should be adhered to for the benefit of construction.
Camber curves are used by shop plan detailers, girder fabricators at the shop assembly stage, girder
erectors, and field personnel. Most, if not all, phases of girder fabrication and erection involve potential
sources of error in camber. Also, the Standard Specifications provide for adjustments at the time of slab
forming. Therefore, the slab design should reflect the possibility of reduced slab depths.
Girder camber is accomplished at three stages of construction. First, girder webs are cut from plates so
that the completed girder segment will assume the shape of camber superimposed on profile grade. The
fabricated girder segment will incorporate the as-cut web shape and some degree of welding distortion.
Next, the girder segments are brought together for shop assembly. Field splices are drilled as the segments
are placed in position to fit profile grade plus total dead load camber. Finally, the segments are erected,
sometimes with supports at field splices. There may be slight angle changes at field splices, resulting in
altered girder profiles. Errors at mid-span can be between one to two inches at this stage.
The following is a general outline for calculating camber and is based on girders having shear studs the
full length of the bridge.
Two curves will be required, one for total dead load plus slab shrinkage and one for girder self-weight
(steel only).
Girder dead load deflection is determined by using various computer programs. Girder self-weight is
assumed to include the basic section plus stiffeners, crossframes, welds, shear studs, etc. These items
may be accounted for by adding an appropriate percentage of basic section weight. Fifteen percent of
total girder weight, distributed evenly along the bridge, should suffice. This loading is applied to the
steel section only.
Total dead load camber shall consist of:
1. Steel weight.
2. Slab weight.
3. Traffic barriers and overlays.
4. Slab shrinkage.
Slab dead load deflection will require the designer to exercise some judgment concerning degree of
analysis. A two-span bridge of regular proportions, for example, should not require a rigorous analysis.
The slab may be assumed to act instantaneously on the steel section only. Therefore, the calculation would
be performed as above. For long structures, unusual girder arrangements, and especially structures with
hinges, an analysis coupled with a slab pour sequence may be justified. This would require an incremental
analysis where previous slab pours are treated as composite sections and successive slab pours are added
on noncomposite sections. Each slab pour requires a separate deflection analysis. The total effect of slab
construction is the superposition of each slab pour. A note must accompany the camber diagram explain-
ing the relation between camber and the slab pour sequence. The contractor should be required to submit
a new camber diagram if a different slab pour sequence is proposed.
Traffic barriers, overlays, and other items constructed after the slab pour should be analyzed as if applied
to a composite section full length of the bridge. The modulus of elasticity of the slab concrete should be
reduced to one third of its short term value. For example, if f′c = 5000 psi, then use a value of n = 21.
Slab shrinkage has a varying degree of effect on superstructure deflections. Again, the designer must use
some judgment in evaluating this effect on camber. Slab shrinkage should be the smallest portion of the
total camber (approximately 20 percent).
In addition to girder deflections, show girder rotations at bearing stiffeners. This will allow shop plan
detailers to compensate for rotations so that bearing stiffeners will be vertical in their final position.
Camber tolerance is governed by the Bridge Widening Code AWS D1.5. A note of clarification is added
to the plan camber diagram: “For the purpose of measuring camber tolerance during shop assembly,
assume top flanges are embedded in concrete without a designed haunch.” This allows a high or low
deviation from the theoretical curve. In the past, no negative camber tolerance was allowed.
7.3.15 Welding
All structural steel and rebar welding shall be in accordance with the WSDOT Standard Specifications,
amendments thereto and the special provisions. The Standard Specifications currently calls for welding
structural steel according to the AASHTO/AWS D1.5-96 Bridge Welding Code (BWC) and the latest
edition of the AWS D1.1 Structural Weld Code. The designers should be especially aware of current
amendments to the following sections of the Standard Specifications, 6-03.3(25) Welding and Repair
Welding and 6-03.3(25)A Welding Inspection.
Exceptions to both codes and additional requirements are shown in the Standard Specifications and the
special provisions.
Standard symbols for welding, brazing, and nondestructive examination can be found in the
ANSI/AWS A 2.4 by that name. This publication is a very good reference for definitions of
abbreviations and acronyms related to welding.
The designer must consider the limits of allowable fatigue stress, specified for the various welds used to
connect the main load carrying members of a steel structure. See Chapter 10 of AASHTO.
The minimum fillet weld size shall be as shown in the following table. Weld size is determined by the
thicker of the two parts joined unless a larger size is required by calculated stress. The weld size need not
exceed the thickness of the thinner part joined.
Base Metal Thickness of Minimum Size of
Thicker Part Joined Fillet Weld
Inches (mm) Inches (mm)
1
To 3
4 (20 mm) inclusive 4 (6 mm)
Over 3
4 (20 mm) 5
16 (8 mm)
The minimum size seal weld shall be 3
16 inch (5 mm) fillet weld.
In general, the maximum size fillet weld which may be made with a single pass is 5 16 inch for submerged
arc, gas metal arc, and flux-cored arc welding processes. The maximum size fillet weld made in a single
pass is 1 4 inch for the shield metal arc welding process.
The major difference between AWS D1.1 and D1.5 is the welding process qualification. The only process
deemed prequalified in D1.5 is shielded metal arc. All others must be qualified by test. Qualification of
M 270 grade 50W (A709 grade 50W) in Section 5 of D1.5 qualifies the welding of all AASHTO approved
steels with a minimum specified yield of 50 Ksi or less. Bridge fabricators generally qualify to M 270
grade 50W (A709 grade 50W).
All welding procedure specifications (WPS) submitted for approval must be accompanied by a procedure
qualification record (PQR), a record of test specimens examination and approval except for SMAW
prequalified. Some handy reference aids in checking WPS in addition to PQR are:
Matching filler metal requirements are found in BWC Section 4.
Prequalified joints are found in BWC Section 2.
AWS electrode specifications and classifications are obtained from the structural steel specialist.
Lincoln Electric Arc Welding Handbook.
Many of Lincoln Electric’s published materials and literature are available through those designers and
supervisors who have attended their seminars.
P65:DP/BDM7
P65:DP/BDM7
P:DP/BDM7
7.99 Bibliography
The following publications can provide general guidance for the design of steel structures. Some of this
material may be dated and its application should be used with caution.
1. U.S. Steel Highway Structures Design Handbook, Volumes I and II.
This is a detailed design reference for “I” girders and box girders, both straight and curved, utilizing
either service load design or load factor design. Guidance for the design of wide flange beams is also
included.
2. Design of Welded Structures by Omer H. Blodgett.
This publication is quite helpful in the calculation of section properties and the design of individual
members. There are sections on bridge girders and many other welded structures.
3. Curved Girder Workshop produced by the Federal Highway Administration.
This publication is helpful in the design of curved “I” girders and box girders with explanation of the
associated lateral flange bending, torsional, and warping stresses.
P:DP/BDM7
Page
8. Miscellaneous Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1 Other Bridge Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1.1 Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1.2 Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1.3 Movable Bridge and Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1.4 Cable Stayed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1.5 Floating Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1.6 Suspension Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1.7 Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
B. Cut and Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
C. Bored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.1.8 Elevated Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.2 Sign and Luminaire Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2-1
8.2.1 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Deadloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. Ice Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
F. Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
G. Load Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
8.2.2 Bridge-Mounted Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. Vertical Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Geometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C. Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
D. Sign Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
E. Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
F. Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8.2.3 Sign Bridges Mounted on Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A. Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
B. Vertical Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
C. Geometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
8.2.4 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.3 Miscellaneous Highway Structures Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3-1
8.3.1 Impact Attenuator Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Push Force on Back-Up Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Pulling Force from Restraining Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Ground Mounted Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
E. Factored Load Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
F. Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Page
8.3.2 Traffic Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.2-1
A. Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Bridge Railing Performance Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Available Bridge Rail Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. At Grade Cast-in-Place Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
8.3.3 Bridge Rail Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.3-1
A. Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. WSDOT Bridge Inventory of Bridge Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Available Retrofit Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
8.3.4 Bridge Approach Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.3.5 Utility Installation on Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.5-1
A. Confined Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. General Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Criteria for Utility Installation on New Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. Special Considerations for Various Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
F. Type of Conduit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
G. Types of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
H. Utility Review Procedure for Existing Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
I. Utility Review Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8.3.6 Structural Plate Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.4 Bridge Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.1-1
8.4.1 Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Specifications for Bridge Deck Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
C. Reviewing Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
D. Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8.4.2 Drainage Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.2-1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Geometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. On Bridge Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
E. Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
8.4.3 Bridge Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.3-1
A. Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Forces to Be Resisted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Bearing Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
E. Orientation of Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
F. Bearing Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
8.4.4 Bridge Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.4.5 Ladders, Stairs, Grates, Etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.4.6 Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
Page
8.4.7 Deck Protective Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.7-1
A. System Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. System 1 (Epoxy Coated Bars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C. System 2 (Dense Concrete or Latex Modified Concrete Overlay) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
D. System 3 (Asphalt Overlay with Waterproof Membrane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
E. System Selection for New Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
F. System Selection for Bridge Deck, Widening, and Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
8.5 Lighting and Electrical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.5.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.5.2 Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.5.3 Navigation Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.5.4 Electrical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *
8.99 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.99-1
Appendix B — Examples
8-B1 Notes to Designers — Pin Bearings
8-B2 Notes to Designers — Spherical Bearings
8-B3 Notes to Designers — General
8-B4 Notes to Designers — Post-Tensioning
8-B5 Notes to Designers — Structural Steel (Box Girder)
8-B6 Notes to Designers — Structural Steel (Plate Girder)
8-B7 Notes to Designers — Strip Seal Expansion Joint
8-B8 Notes to Designers — Modular Expansion Joint
8-B9 Notes to Designers — Rail Rehabilitation
8.4-B1 Compression Seal Design Example
8.4-B2 Strip Seal Design — Example 1
8.4-B3 Strip Seal Design — Example 2
8.4-B4 Strip Seal Design — Example 3
8.4-B5 Gmin and Gmax for Modular Joints
8.4-B6 Modular Joint Design — Example 1
8.4-B7 Modular Joint Design — Example 2
8.4-B8 Modular Joint Design — Example 3
8.4-B9 Elastomeric Bearing Pad Example for P.S. Girder (Prestressed)
8.4-B10 Vacant
8.4-B11 Vacant
8.4-B12 Girder Stop Bearing Pads Example
8.4-B13 Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Chart
8.4-B14 Girder Stop Bearing Pads Spacing Chart
8.4-B15 Girder Stop Bearing Pads Pad Thickness Chart
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
Wind Pressure **
Height above for 80 MPH Wind
Ground (FT) P (psf)
0 < H < 14 22
14 < H < 29 28
29 < H < 49 31
49 < H < 99 35
99 < H < 149 39
149 < H < 199 42
199 < H < 299 44
**Values in this table were computed using Cd = 1.00; design pressures must be corrected by using the
specified value for Cd.
Wind Combination Normal Comp. Trans. Comp.
1 1.0 BL 0.2 BL
2 .6 BL 0.3 BL
BL is a wind force and is equal to P times the exposed area of the sign and support system. BL is
then applied to the centroid.
D. Live Load
500 lbs. applied as a concentrated load at 3 feet from sign face (only where maintenance walkways
are used).
E. Ice Loads
3 psf applied around all the surfaces of structural supports, horizontal members, and luminaires, but
applied to only one face of sign panels.
F. Snow Loads
The above stated ice load shall be considered to include any snow load for the commonly used
structural support systems.
G. Load Groups
Sign, luminaire, and signal structures are designed using the maximum of the following three load
groups:
Percent of *
Loads Allowable Stress
Group I – DL 100
Group II – DL + W 140
Group III – DL + Ice + 1/2 (W**) 140
*No load reduction factors shall be applied in conjunction with these increased allowable stresses.
**W to be computed on the basis of the wind pressure formula, 25 psf minimum for W Group III.
B. Geometrics
1. Signs should be installed at approximate right angles to approaching motorists. For structures
above a tangent section of roadway, signs may be installed parallel to the structure provided the
structure skew does not exceed 10°. If the structure skew exceeds 10°, support brackets should be
designed to provide a sign skew of no more than 10° from perpendicular to the lower roadway
(see Figure 8.2.2-2).
2. For structures located on or just beyond a horizontal curve of the lower roadway, signs may be
installed parallel to the structure provided the structure chord-skew does not exceed 10°. If the
structure chord-skew exceeds 10°, support brackets should be designed to provide a sign chord-
skew of no more than 10° from perpendicular to the chord-point determined by the approach
speed (see Figure 8.2.2-3).
3. The top of the sign shall be level.
C. Aesthetics
1. Preferably, the top of the sign and its support should not project above the bridge rail (see Figure
8.2.2-4).
2. Whenever possible, the support structure should be hidden from view of traffic.
3. The sign support shall be detailed in such a manner that will permit the sign and lighting bracket
to be installed level.
4. When the sign support will be exposed to view, special consideration is required in determining
member sizes and connections to provide as pleasing an appearance as possible.
E. Installation
1. Consideration shall be given to the method of installing the sign support and sign on the
structure. For example, a sign located underneath the overhang can cause problems in lifting the
material into position and making the required connections.
2. When locating sign support brackets on the structure, a minimum of 2 inches of clearance shall
be provided between the edge of the required sign lighting zee-bar bracket and edge of the
vertical sign support members.
3. An expansion-type concrete anchor is undesirable for attaching sign support brackets to the
structure. This is because the nature of the loads imposed on the anchors can cause vibration and
pull-out. The Hilti HVA, Molly Parabond, Kelken-Gold Keli Bond, or ITW/Redhead EPCON
Ceramic 6, or approved equal with AASHTO M164 anchor bolts should be used for existing
structures and cast-in-place anchor bolts (ASTM A307) for new structures. When Hilti HVA,
Molly Parabond, or Kelken-Gold, or ITW/Redhead systems are specified, the following should
be included:
(a) Anchor bolt system is to be installed using manufacturer recommendations in dry conditions.
(b) Torque anchor bolt nuts to proof load.
F. Dimensioning
Where show on the plans, the sign size shall be expressed in terms of horizontal by vertical
dimension, i.e., X x Y, where X = horizontal dimension and Y = vertical dimension.
8.2.3 Sign Bridges Mounted on Bridges
A. Design Loads
Design loads for the supports of the sign bridges should be calculated based on assuming a 12-foot
deep sign over the entire roadway width, under the sign bridge. This will account for any signs that
may be added in the future. The design loads should follow the same criteria as described in
Section 8.2.1. Loads from the sign bridge should be included in the design of the structure.
B. Vertical Clearance
Vertical clearance for sign bridges follow the same requirements as Bridge-Mounted Signs as stated
in Section 8.2.1A.
C. Geometrics
Sign structures should be placed at approximate right angles to approaching motorists. Dimensions
and details of sign structures are shown in the Standard Plans, Sheets G-2, G-2a, G-3, and
Appendix A of this chapter. When maintenance walkways are included, refer to Standard Sheet G-6.
8.2.4 Foundations
The most efficient foundation design for sign, luminaire, and signal supports is the Caisson Foundation.
Standard foundations have been designed; see Standard Plans G-2b, G-3a, J-1b, and Appendix A of this
chapter.
The headquarters Materials Lab should be consulted as to which foundation type is to be used. Foundation
type 1 and 2 are designed for a lateral bearing pressure of 2,500 psf. Type 2 is the alternate to type 1
when drilled shafts are not suitable. The type 3 foundation is designed for poor soil conditions where the
lateral bearing pressure is between 2,500 psf and 1,500 psf.
The standard foundations have been modified for placement under traffic barrier, see Appendix A of this
chapter.
8-2:V:BDM8
P65:DP/BDM8
Figure 8.3.2-1
Figure 8.3.2-2
8-3-3:V:BDM8
Figure 8.3.3-4
Figure 8.3.3-7
8.3.4 - 1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
employed. Stub outs for galvanized steel pipe shall be protected against corrosion as stated in
subparagraph 5.
5. Rigid Electrical Conduit for Highway Circuits
In the case of all new bridge construction where roadway shoulders have not yet been paved and
where usable shoulder width is 4 feet or greater in width, electrical conduit shall be stubbed-out
and capped 1 foot 6 inches below grade and 3 feet 0 inches horizontally toward roadway center-
line from the face of the traffic barrier. Longitudinally, this stub-out location should be near the
back of pavement seat. The conduit in this location should clear any foreseeable obstructions. The
location of the stubbed-out conduit at bridge ends should be clearly shown on the plans. The
galvanized steel conduit stub out shall be wrapped with corrosion resistant tape at least one foot
inside and outside of the concrete structure, and this requirement shall be so stated on the plans.
The corrosion resistant tape shall be 3M Scotch 50, Bishop 5, Nashua AVI 10, or approved equal.
The usual location of the conduit throughout the remainder of the bridge should be in the traffic
barrier.
The number and size of conduits within the traffic barrier shall be minimized to assure proper
concrete consolidation. A maximum of one (1) 4-inch conduit or two (2) 2-inch conduits will be
allowed.
Pull boxes shall be provided at a maximum spacing of 200 feet. Their size shall conform to the
specifications of the National Electric Code or be a minimum of 6 inches by 6 inches by
18 inches to facilitate pulling of wires. Galvanized steel pull boxes (or junctions boxes)
shall meet the specifications of the “NEMA Type 4X” standard and shall be so stated on the plans.
Stainless steel pull boxes shall be allowed as an option to the galvanized steel.
In the case of existing bridges, an area 2 feet in width shall be reserved for conduit beginning at a
point either 4 feet or 6 feet outside the face of usable shoulder. The fastening for and location of
attaching the conduit to the existing bridge should be worked out on a job-by-job basis.
See Figure 8.3.5-1.
F. Type of Conduit
1. Steel Pipe
All steel pipe conduits shall be Schedule 40 or greater. All pipe and fittings shall be galvanized
except for special uses.
2. PVC Pipe
PVC pipe may be used with suitable considerations for deflection, the location and placement of
expansion fittings, and of freezing water within the conduits. Where conduit is to be exposed in
the cells of box girder bridges, PVC should be avoided because of the possibility of damage
occurring when the top slab falsework collapses. If such falsework is specified on the plans to be
removed after construction, this provision does not apply.
PVC pipe should not be placed in concrete traffic barriers due to damage and pipe separation that
often occurs during concrete placement and from temperature variations.
Where conduit is to be supported by hangers or pedestals at intervals, the distance between
supports shall be small enough to avoid excessive sag of the conduit. For recommended support
spacing and tabulated properties of PVC pipe, see Table 8.3.5-1.
Occasionally, a utility company wants a conceptual approval of their proposed attachment before they
invest their time in detailed drawings and calculations. Often they will request this approval by send-
ing a sketch of their proposal directly to the Bridge Office. We will usually respond directly to them
in a letter by concurring with their proposal or by suggesting an alternate. This letter includes instruc-
tions for them to resubmit their final proposal through the District Utilities Engineer with a courtesy
copy of this letter sent to the District Utilities Engineer.
Utility attachments which exert moments or large forces at the bridge connection should be accompa-
nied by at least one set of calculations from the utility company. Bridge attachments designed to resist
surge forces should always be accompanied by calculations. The engineer may request calculations
from the utility company for any attachment detail that may be questionable.
The engineer shall check the utility company’s design with his own calculations. The connection
detail shall be designed to successfully transfer all forces to the bridge without causing overstress in
the connections or to the bridge members to which they are attached. For large utilities, the bridge
itself shall have adequate capacity to carry the utility without affecting the live load capacity.
For more detailed guidelines, see “General Notes and Design Criteria . . .” and “Guide for Utility
Installations to Existing Bridges” in Appendix A of this chapter.
1. Utility Review Checklist
(For review of all proposed utility attachments to existing bridges.)
1. Do a cursory check to become familiar with the proposal.
2. Determine location of existing utilities.
a. Check Bridge Inspection Report for any existing utilities (available in Bridge Conditions).
b. Check utility file for any existing utility permits or franchises and possible as-built plans.
(Currently maintained in the Bridge Management Section.)
c. Any existing utilities on the same side of the structure as the proposed utility should be
shown on the proposal.
d. Obtain as-built plans from bridge vault if not in an existing utility file.
3. Review the following with all comments in red:
• Layout with directions, SR no. and bridge no.
• Adequate spacing of supports.
• Adequate strength of supports as attached to the bridge (calculations may be necessary).
• Maximum design pressure and regular operating pressure for pressure pipe systems.
• Adequate lateral bracing and thrust protection for pressure pipe systems.
• Does the utility obstruct maintenance or accessibility to key bridge components. Check with
the Bridge Condition Section if in doubt.
• Location (elevation and plan view) of the utility with respect to pier footings or abutments. If
trench limits encroach within the 45° envelope from the footing edge, consult the Materials
Lab.
Figure 8.3.5-2
Figure 8.3.5-4
• Force mains or water flow systems may require encasement if they are in excavations below
the bottom of a footing.
4. Write a preliminary IDC or letter of reply for the supervisor to review before final typing. Upon
his approval, include your initials at the bottom of the IDC or letter so that a copy will be
returned to you indicating that the package has been accepted and sent out.
5. Stamp and date the plans using the same date as shown on the IDC.
6. Create a file folder:
a. Bridge no., name, utility company or type of utility, and franchise or permit number.
b. One set of approved plans and possibly one or two pages of the original design plans if
necessary for quick future reference. (Previous transmittals and plans not approved or
returned to correction should be discarded to avoid unnecessary clutter of the files.)
c. The letter of submittal and a copy of the IDC or letter of reply after it has been accepted.
7. Give the complete package to the section supervisor for review and place the folder in the utility
file after the review.
8-3-5:V:BDM8
An asphaltic plug joint consists of polymer modified asphalt (PMA) installed within a blockout
over a steel plate. The steel plate spans across the expansion gap to retain the PMA during its
installation. In theory, asphaltic plug joints provide a smooth seamless riding surface for traffic.
This office has used asphaltic plug joints for motion ranges up to 1 inch.
Application guidelines must be carefully followed to assure successful performance of asphaltic
plug joints. They should not be used at joints subjected to differential vertical movements (for
example, longitudinal separation joints). They should not be used for joints having large skew
angles, joints subjected to large rotations, or in situations where the total height of the polymer
modified asphalt above the steel plate is less than 2 inches. The PMA has a tendency to creep
out of the blockout, particularly within wheel lines. This tendency is amplified by any horizontal
loading applied to the asphaltic plug joint. Therefore, asphaltic plug joints should not be used in
situations where the adjacent pavement is subjected to significant acceleration or deceleration
(off ramps, traffic signals). Overall, asphaltic plug joints have demonstrated erratic performance
in Washington State. Consult the Expansion Joint Specialist for current policy and guidelines.
Silicone sealants are generally poured in place directly over a foam backer rod placed in the
expansion gap. A primer may be sprayed onto the vertical faces of the concrete or steel substrate
to enhance bonding of the sealant. Several different chemical variations of silicone sealant are
available depending upon the joint geometry and construction requirements. The primary
differentiating characteristics of the silicone sealants are viscosity and curing time. A commonly
used silicone sealant for rehabilitation projects is the two-part Dow Corning 902 RCS sealant.
This product is self leveling, can bond to itself, and cures very quickly. In situations were the
rapid curing and self leveling properties are not required, less expensive silicone sealants can be
used. The completely cured silicone sealant joint can accommodate tensile movements of up to
100 percent and compressive movements of up to 50 percent of the sealant width at installation.
This office has used silicone sealant joints for motion ranges up to 1 inch. A minimum recess is
required from the top of the pavement to the top of the silicone sealant in order to prevent tire
traffic from contacting and debonding the sealant from the substrate. Consult the Expansion
Joint Specialist for guidelines and example details.
Polymer concrete headers are generally recommended at compression seal joints and at silicone
sealant joints. Polymer concrete provides tensile strength and toughness to resist traffic impact.
Generic and proprietary polymer concrete formulations are available. Proprietary elastomeric
concretes are occasionally used in lieu of polymer concrete to further enhance impact resistance.
Consult the Expansion Joint Specialist regarding patent infringement issues which may result
when generic polymer concrete is used in combination with a Dow Corning silicone sealant.
a. Design Criteria
(1) When more exact temperature data is not available, use the following design
temperature ranges:
Concrete Structure 0° to 100°F
Steel Structures (Eastern Washington) -30° to 120°F
Steel Structures (Western Washington) 0° to 120°F
All plan dimensions are based on a normal installation temperature of 64°F in
accordance with the WSDOT Standard Specifications.
(2) Use a shrinkage coefficient 0.0002 for normal weight concrete. The calculated shrinkage
is multiplied by a shrinkage factor, µ, to account for anticipated future shrinkage that
occurs after the joint is installed.
b. Compression Seal Size Determination
To function properly, seals must be compressed at all times, otherwise they will fall out.
Generally, the compression range for bridge compression seals is 40 to 85 percent of
the uncompressed width. All movement of the joint must be within this range. It is
recommended that compression seals not be used when the skew exceeds 45 degrees.
To determine the compression seal size (W) required, proceed as follows:
(1) Determine the total movement, Mt, along the bridge centerline:
Mt = Temp + Shrink + Other Movement = Total Movement (1)
where:
Temp = 12 L α ∆ T
Shrink = 12 L ,ß µ
Other Movement includes all other factors which affect movement.
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion: 0.000006 per degree Fahrenheit
for concrete 0.0000065 per degree Fahrenheit for steel
ß = Shrinkage coefficient for reinforced concrete: 0.0002 ft/ft
µ = Shrinkage factor: 1.0 for Rat slabs, 0.8 for box girders and T-beams,
0.5 for prestressed-precast girder bridges, and 0.0 for steel bridges
L = Length of structure contributing to movement of the joint in feet
∆ T = Design temperature range
(2) Determine movements parallel to the joint, Mp, and normal to the joint, Mn
(Figure 8.4.1-1):
Mp = Mt Sin θ (Movement parallel to the joint) (2)
Mn = Mt Cos θ (Movement normal to the joint) (3)
where: θ = skew angle
(3) Define the working range of joint width, A, in terms of required uncompressed seal
width, W:
Width of joint opening, A, shall be:
A min = 0.4W = maximum compression of 40%
(4)
A max = 0.85W = minimum compression of 85% (5)
A movement = 0.85W - 0.4W = 0.45W = movement range
normal lo the seal (6)
To facilitate installation of the seals, size the joint and position the edge beams so that
the joint opening, normal to the joint, is equal to the minimum installation width at
64°F. The seal can now be installed at any temperature below 64°F. Generally, all
strip seals have a minimum installation width of 11/2 inch normal to the joint.
(7) Use only steel shapes, plates, reinforcement, and anchors in edge beams. No aluminum
parts shall be permitted.
(8) Use continuous seals for the full width of the bridge including parapets. No splices in
the seals other than one preapproved manufacturer’s shop vulcanized field splice per
seal is permitted. No welding of shipping clamps, lifting straps, hooks, or temperature
adjusting devices shall be permitted. Temporary threaded studs, used for positioning
and securing the edge beams during placement of concrete in the blockout, may be
tack welded to the edge beams and removed later by grinding.
(9) Carefully detail joints at sidewalks and parapets with respect to leakage, constructibility,
and maintenance. If required by the manufacturer, strip seal extrusions may be split at
the curb or traffic barrier. Do not use steel shapes with horizontal projecting legs in the
curb or barrier region. Steel sliding plates shall be used in sidewalk areas to prevent
seal damage.
(10) Many anchorage systems of bridge joints in the medium movement range have failed
because of high impact from wheel loads. These dynamic impact loads can be as much
as 70 percent greater than a static wheel load. For an HS25 vehicle, the maximum
static wheel load is 20 kips per wheel without impact (1.25 times 16 kips per wheel).
Anchorage systems must resist the rebound effect of the impact wheel loads.
(11) Bolt-down panel elastomeric joints were widely used in the past. When the bolts holding
the panel failed, the panel was no longer restrained and a safety hazard to motorists
(particularly to motorcyclists) was created because of the loose panel in the roadway.
In addition to continued maintenance because of loose hold down bolts, these joints
were subject to snowplow damage. Do not use bolt-down elastomeric expansion joints.
b. Strip Seal Size Determination
(1) Starting with a temperature of 64°F, calculate the total opening movement, using the
length of the bridge along centerline, due to:
(a) Temperature
64°F to 0°F for concrete superstructures, and
64°F to either 0°F or -30°F for steel superstructure.
(b) Shrinkage
Use a shrinkage coefficient of 0.0002 for normal weight concrete and a shrinkage
factor, pL, to account for anticipated future shrinkage that occurs after the joint is
installed. Shrinkage is not required for rehabilitation projects where shrinkage of
the superstructure has already taken place.
(2) Starting with a temperature of 64°F, calculate the total closing movement, along the
bridge centerline, due to:
(a) Temperature
64°F to 100°F, for concrete superstructures, and
64°F to 120°F for steel superstructure.
(b) Minimum Opening Required for Seal Installation at 64°F
For calculation purposes, strip seal joints have been classified as either Group 1 or
Group 2 (see Appendix 8.4-A1).
A Group 1 joint requires a 1/2 inch gap between steel supporting elements at full
closure so the seal is not damaged. The minimum opening normal to the joint is
1 inch (e.g., minimum installation width less 1/2 inch minimum gap equals 1 inch).
A Group 2 joint permits full closure between steel supporting elements. Generally,
Group 2 joints use a 11/2 inch minimum opening normal to the joint.
(3) Determine the required strip seal size by adding the total opening movement and the
larger of either the total closing movement or the minimum installation width.
(4) Determine the “G” dimension at time of edge beam installation
Show the construction width, G, at time of edge beam installation for temperatures
of 40°F, 64°F, and 80°F. Note that the “G” dimension is normal to the joint and is
measured from face-to-face of edge beams. This helps the Contractor adjust the edge
beams during construction at different temperatures.
(5) See Appendixes 8.4-B2 through 8.4-B4 for typical design calculations.
3. Large Movement Joints — Modulas Expansion Joints
Modular joints are the first choice for movements greater than 5 inches. See the Expansion Joint
Specialist for approved manufacturers and latest plan details.
a. Design Criteria
(1) Where applicable, the “Design Criteria” for medium movement joints applies to large
movement joints where the total movement is expected to exceed 5 inches.
(2) All seals must be continuous across the full roadway width, including curb and traffic
barriers. The entire joint shall be shipped completely preassembled to the job site. No
splices in the seals other than one preapproved manufacturer’s shop vulcanized splice
per seal is permitted.
(3) The expansion joint system must be durable enough to resist the damaging effects of
traffic impact, abrasion, and snowplow damage.
(4) Joints should be designed for the total movement normal to the joint (e.g., the product
of the total movement along the centerline of the bridge and the cosine of the skew
angle) plus a 15 percent factor of safety, which allows for unpredictable non-seismic
movements. Try to avoid skews greater than 30 degrees for modular expansion joints.
(5) The movement allowed per sealing element shall be limited to 3 inch maximum. The
maximum gap between centerbeams or centerbeam and edge beams is 31/2 inches at the
minimum temperature condition. The purpose of limiting the gap is to reduce the wheel
impact on the joint system and subsequent wear on supporting elements.
(6) All supporting structural members shall be designed for the limit states, wheel loads,
impact percentages, and distribution factors specified in the Special Provision “Modular
Expansion Joint System.” These requirements are derived from research summarized in
NCHRP Report 402 “Fatigue Design of Modular Bridge Expansion Joints,” National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1997.
(7) In the past, box seals were used; the current practice is to use factory installed strip
seals. Consideration should be given to using reinforced strip seals.
(8) To allow for replacement of damaged seals or seal installation under stage construction,
all seals shall be removable and replaceable at 64°F per manufacturer’s recommended
procedure. Generally, this is accomplished by jacking the center beams apart or to one
side. This creates a larger gap between center beams for seal removal and reinstallation.
For retrofit or stage construction applications, this procedure may be both time
consuming and expensive. It may be more convenient to oversize the joint so that the
seals can be installed at the minimum manufacturer’s installation width at 64°F. The
designer should work closely with his Supervisor and the Expansion Joint Specialist
to determine the best solution considering the time constraints of stage construction
and increased cost.
(9) Access to the modular expansion joint components shall be provided so that repairs,
adjustments, and replacement of components can be made.
(10) Only manufacturers who have satisfied the prequalification requirements stipulated in
the Special Provisions “Modular Expansion Joint System” will be permitted to supply
modular expansion joints. This Special Provision includes requirements for fatigue
resistance characterization, testing, and design.
(11) Traffic barrier cover plates should be designed for removability.
b. Modular Expansion Joint Size Determination
Modular joints are sized according to movement rating (MR) and are in increments of
3 inches beginning with a 6-inch modular system. The movement rating is equal to the
product of the number of seals and the 3 inch maximum allowable movement rating of each
seal. For example, a three seal modular joint with three strip seals, each with a maximum
allowable movement rating of 3 inches, has a total movement rating of 9 inches.
(1) “G” Dimension and Temperature Setting
The “G” dimension, face-to-face of edge beams, helps the Contractor adjust the joint
assembly in the field for different temperatures. This dimension is normal to the joint
and is dependent upon two variables:
(a) Flange width of center beams.
(b) Minimum gap per seal permitted by the manufacturer at full closure.
Therefore, Gmin and Gmax can be determined from:
Gmin = (N-l)(B) + (N)(MG) (13)
Gmax = Gmin + MR (14)
sedimentation. However, the slope may vary depending on the expected rainfall and debris at
each location. The troughs should be attached in a secure manner with a minimum of 5/8-inch
diameter bolts at 18-inch centers.
The designer should avoid specifying finger joints for new construction. However, they may
be needed where snowplow use is extensive or where widening of an existing structure
precludes the use of any other joint system.
B. Specifications for Bridge Deck Joints
Bridge deck joints shall be specified as follows:
1. Specify only approved manufacturers that provide good field performance and service. Do not
specify “or an approved equal.”
2. A single manufacturer (sole source) may be specified if the designer determines that their system
is the only one that can satisfy the design criteria. Furnish justification to the Specifications
Section and check with the Joint Specialist. Approval will have to be obtained from the FHWA
by the Bridge Design Engineer before a sole source can be specified.
3. Specify quality assurance requirements, material specifications, design requirements, fabrication
requirements (e.g., welding, personnel requirements, inspection, testing), acceptance criteria,
corrosion protection, and payment.
4. Specify that the manufacturers of modular joints or finger joints, be certified under the AISC
Quality Certification Program (Simple Steel Bridges). For all joints, specify that welding
inspection shall be done by certified welding inspectors under AWS QC1, Standard for
Qualification and Certification of Welding Inspectors. Personnel performing nondestructive
testing (NDT) shall be certified as NDT Level II under the American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT) Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1a.
C. Reviewing Shop Plans
1. Review the shop plans to ensure that they conform with the Contract Plans and Special
Provisions regarding the following information
a. Plan and elevation of the joint.
b. Complete details of all components and sections showing all materials incorporated in
the joint.
c. All AASHTO or other material designation and method of corrosion protection.
d. Movement rating. HS 25 live loading plus impact. Behavior on skew, if present.
e. Opening dimensions at 40°F, 64°F, and 80°F for setting the joint. Note on the shop plans
whether these temperatures are structure temperatures or ambient air temperatures taken
in the shade.
f. Installation procedures, including any required services by a manufacturer’s field
representative.
g. Consideration of weld details in areas of stress concentration, welding procedures to
include pre- and post-heat, and methods proposed by the manufacturer to prevent weld
induced cracks.
h. Prohibition of temporary lifting, temperature, and construction adjustment devices that are
welded to the centerbeams or edge beams, except for threaded studs used to support strip
seal joints. Threaded studs should be removed by grinding and an appropriate corrosion
protection system applied to the steel affected by grinding.
i. Manufacturer’s part numbers, so replacement parts can be easily identified and ordered.
j. Anchorage details, blockout size to facilitate placement of concrete, method of support
during placement of deck concrete, and all blockout reinforcing steel.
k. Treatment of curbs, sidewalks, parapets, and traffic barriers (to include the non-traffic side)
with respect to leakage and maintenance.
1. Ease of removal and handling of traffic barrier cover plates by two persons without special
lifting equipment.
m. Minimum radii permitted by the AISC for cold bending steel traffic barrier cover plates.
n. Design calculations for all structural elements of modular expansion joints. All calculations
shall satisfy the requirements of the Special Provision “Modular Expansion Joint System.”
See the Expansion Joint Specialist for sample calculations.
2. Provide the following information to the Expansion Joint Specialist for performance tracking and
maintenance purposes:
a. Contract Number/Bridge Number.
b. Location.
c. Manufacturer.
d. Type of Joint.
e. Type of Extrusion/Steel Shape Designation.
f. Seal Size/Manufacturer’s Designation.
g. Approved By/Date Approved.
D. Other Considerations
1. Maintenance
During design, consideration should be given to maintenance of the joints. For large movement
joints, parts availability, replaceability, and access provisions should be considered. The designer
should consult with the Expansion Joint Specialist on the maintenance and durability of the
modular joints.
2. Widening and Rehabilitation of Bridges
a. For the rehabilitation of bridges, existing joints and structure layout should be studied
to determine if existing joints can be eliminated. It will be necessary to determine what
modifications to the structure are required to provide an adequate and functional system
when existing joints are eliminated.
b. Consideration should be given to proper anchorage of edge beams for wheel impact loads.
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
C. Movements
Allowance must be provided in the design of each structure for all anticipated movements. Normally
these movements will be primarily in the longitudinal direction. For extremely wide structures,
transverse movements may also be significant. The following material provides guidance for design.
1. Temperature
Expansion and contraction due to temperature change will occur throughout the life of the
structure. Proper temperature expansion provisions are essential to ensure that the structure will
not be damaged by restricting such movements Where these movements are restrained due to
poor design or construction, extremely high forces may be imposed on other portions of the
structure. It should be noted for setting bearings that the mean annual temperature throughout the
state of Washington is approximately 50°. Standard construction specifications specify a “nor-
mal” temperature of 64°, which is the temperature at which it is assumed steel will be fabricated,
expansion joints and bearings set, etc. This means that the plan dimensions are taken to be correct
at 64°. Except for elastomeric bearings, bearing setting dimensions should be shown on the plans
for a range of temperatures other than 64°. Figure 8.4.3C1-1 gives additional temperature data for
specific areas. The National Weather Service has information on other areas.
Sample Temperature versus Motion Graph for a Concrete Box Girder Bridge
Figure 8.4.3Clb-l
October 1975
2. Shrinkage
All concrete tends to shrink during curing unless special additives are used. See 5.1.1A. The
design of bearing elements shall accommodate this shrinkage movement. If the calculated
movements are significant, bearings for concrete structures (except elastomeric bearings) should
be installed in the direction of the “hot” position (opposite to anticipated shrinkage) in order to
be in the “normal” position after shrinkage has taken full effect. Such adjustment must be shown
on the plans.
3. Creep
In certain structures, creep associated with applied loads must be taken into account in the
bearing details. This is particularly true for post-tensioned bridges where the prestressing force
will cause an immediate clastic shortening of the structure and an associated long-term creep
effect. On very unusual structures, this effect could result from dead load sidesway forces.
Similar to the adjustment for shrinkage, bearings should be designed and installed to compensate
for this effect.
4. Earth Pressure
In several structures which have been designed and constructed, unanticipated earth pressure
movements have resulted in tilted rocker bearings, closed expansion joints, and jammed joint
openings. Where it is anticipated that such action may occur, bearings should be designed so
that they can be readjusted in position, if necessary, to account for such motions. Similar action
should be considered where settlements may cause bearing misalignment. Consideration should
be given to providing jacking pads to minimize the labor involved in making such adjustments.
In any case, bearings should be designed so that if these motions occur, they will not result in
damage to the structure.
5. Force/Motion Combinations
In the process Of bearing design, the question often arises as to what position of the bearing to
assume for design. Usually the bearing will be designed in the “normal” position for dead load
and live load. Design will include an analysis of bearing elements at high and low temperature
positions utilizing the load factors normally associated with those temperature conditions.
Similar procedures should be used for other motion conditions.
6. Replacement Considerations
Whenever possible, bearings shall be detailed, fabricated, and installed to facilitate inspection,
maintenance, and eventual replacement if required. Jacking points shall be identified on the
contract drawings so that bearings can be reset, replumbed, or replaced to mitigate construction
induced displacement.
7. Construction Tolerances
Care should be taken that the design includes adequate construction tolerance for setting
bearings.
D. Bearing Details
The following are some specific design criteria with discussion for various bearing types and details
(see Figure 8.4.3C-1).
1. Fixed Bearings
The bearings are called “fixed” because they do not allow longitudinal motion. They are nor-
mally not fixed in the static sense but are actually pinned, in that they allow rotational motion
in the longitudinal direction (see Figure 8.4.3C-1). Base plate pressures on the concrete are
governed by AASHTO Specifications. Bending stress in the base plate of all steel bearings shall
normally not exceed 24,000 psi in order to avoid use of thin plates and the resultant concentration
of loads due to flexural distortions of the plate. Higher plate stresses may be allowed if a more
rigorous analysis is used. The body of the bearing is normally cast steel or a weldment. Nor-
mally, castings will be specified only where the bearings will be duplicated several times due
to the high cost of the pattern.
Forces in the longitudinal direction are assumed to act through the center of the pin, and the
moment applied to the base plate is the horizontal force times h. Forces in the transverse direc-
tion (along the axis of the pin) may be assumed to act on the bearing in double bending. That is,
the moment applied to the base and to the pin along its length is equal to the force times h/2. The
base plate must be capable of transmitting the horizontal forces to the concrete through positive
means. This may include anchor bolts, shear lugs, or other suitable devices. Normally, friction
alone will not be considered to be adequate. Webs of the body of the bearing will be designed
taking into account the minimum thickness requirements for steel plates.
Bearing Details
Figure 8.4.3C-l
October 1975
2. Rocker Bearings
These bearings are intended to allow the end of the structure to move longitudinally along a
horizontal line. They are usually used for movable bearings supporting very large loads. The base
plate of these and of all movable bearings shall be placed level in order to avoid the tendency for
the bridge to move down slope. AASHTO equations are used to select an appropriate line bearing
value and a dimension for the rocker radius. Sufficient clearance must be maintained between the
edges of the top and bottom bearing blocks to allow the bearing to rotate freely at the extremes
of motion. Pintles are always used with thcse bearings to prevent “walking” of the rocker on the
base plate and to resist transverse horizontal forces. The line bearing force values should be
based on a net contact length, deducting the pintle widths.
The line bearing values should take into account the increase in line pressure due to transverse
loads when the loading combination being considered contains such loads. Moment at the
bearing line of the rocker due to transverse loads can be developed using assumptions similar to
those noted for fixed bearings. Base plate design consists of selecting a plate thickness to satisfy
the strength requirements shown in Figure 8.4.3C-1. The strength of the plate ends beyond the
end of the rocker may require additional investigation. Provision must be made to hold down the
rocker to the base plate for earthquake uplift requirements. The designer should be aware of the
longitudinal horizontal force which may be developed through pin friction. That force is equal to
P w/R, where u is the steel friction coefficient (could be taken as 0.7 for the dry static condition),
P the load, and r and R the radius of the pin and rocker respectively.
Other design provisions are similar to those for fixed bearings.
3. Roller Bearings
These bearings are simpler than rocker bearings, but due to the smaller radius are suitable for
carrying only moderate loads. These bearings are limited to a maximum of about 7 inches in
roller size due to availability of bar stock. They are normally made from finished roller stock,
but may be manufactured from thick plates (see Figure 8.4.3C-l). Yield points to 70,000 psi
may be specified in order to keep the line bearing values within AASHTO allowables. If bearing
plates and rollers are fabricated from steels with different yield strengths, the line bearing value
will be controlled by the lowest yield strength. Pintles are required at both the top and bottom of
the roller. Office practice is to not allow roller nests (multiple rollers in one bearing) except for
temporary bearings. Roller nests do not allow rotation of the beam end (unless special pins and
guides are used) and are difficult to maintain. For additional criteria, see “fixed bearings” and
“rocker bearings.”
4. Sliding Bearings
These bearings rely on a reduced coefficient of friction between the two contact surfaces to allow
longitudinal bearing motion. These bearings must be used in combination with a device which
will allow beam end rotation. This device can be curved sliding surfaces, neoprene pads, or pins.
Numerous bearing materials and configurations are possible. Sliding materials may be Tronze,
“Teflon,” “Lubrite,” stainless steel, or other patented materials. Many combinations of the above
are possible. Sliding bearings will always develop significant horizontal longitudinal forces, and
these forces must be accounted for in the design. Reasonable friction coefficients must be
selected for the particular materials selected.
5. Elastomeric Bearings
An elastomeric bearing is fabricated wholly or partially from either natural rubber or neoprene.
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings are reinforced with multiple steel shim plates vulcanized
between adjacent elastomeric layers. Elastomeric bearings rely on their inherent shear flexibility
to accommodate bridge movements in any horizontal direction. This shear flexibility also
enhances their rotational capability. Steel shim plates limit the tendency for elastomer to bulge
laterally. Elastomeric bearings are commonly used on prestressed girder bridges and may be
used on other bridge types. The cost of elastomeric bearings is relatively low compared to
most high-load multi-rotational bearings.
a. General Design Criteria
Design of elastomeric bearings shall be in accordance with the AASHTO specifications.
Conventional elastomeric bearings are designed using the Method A procedure. High-load
elastomeric bearings are designed using the Method B procedure. The Method B design
procedure allows significantly higher average compressive stresses. These higher allowable
stress levels are justified by an additional acceptance test, specifically a long-duration
compression test. Design criteria for both methods is based upon satisfying fatigue, stability,
delamination, steel reinforcement yield/rupture, and elastomer stiffness requirements. The
design of a steel reinforced elastomeric bearing requires an appropriate balance of compres-
sive, shear, and rotational stiffnesses. The shape factor, as defined by the steel shim spacing,
significantly affects the compressive and rotational stiffness of the bearing. However, it has
no impact on the translational stiffness of the bearing or its translational deformation
capacity. Large rotations and translations generally require taller bearings.
Figure 8.4.3D5a-l
October 1975
c. Elastomeric Bearings for Cast-in-Place Concrete Spans
For cast-in-place concrete spans, it should be assumed that the temperature of concrete
at time of casting is the normal temperature. However, allowance must be made for
full shrinkage.
Minimum Pad Thickness for Cast-in-Place Girders = 2 [∆ Temp. Fall + ∆ Shrink.],
where temperature fall is the deflection corresponding to a temperature change of 45°.
d. Elastomeric Bearings for Steel Girder Spans
For steel girder spans, it should be assumed that the beams may not be placed at the “mean”
temperature and design should provide for 3/4 of the total temperature range. No allowance
is needed for shrinkage.
Minimum Pad Thickness for Steel Girders = 2 [3/4 (∆ Temp. Rise + ∆ Temp. Fall)]
e. Girder Stop Bearing Pads
Where earth pressure on the back wall (end diaphragm) of skewed bridges or other
transverse loads must be resisted by girder stops, these stops must be capable of allowing the
anticipated motion (see Article 9.3.2D and Figure 8.4.3DSe-l). The following procedure is
recommended for design of stop pads for skewed prestressed girder bridges for loads due to
earth pressure on back walls.
Design Assumptions (Series 80, 100, and 120 Prestressed Girders Only)
Cold Climate
Elastomeric Bearing Pads of 60 Durometer Hardness and 1/2-inch Laminates
T = 2 [3/4 (∆ Temp. Range) +1/2 (Shrink.)]
Pad Width Equals 5 inches
By reentering the Pad Thickness Chart on the bottom with the pad thickness (from chart
as rounded), F(Ep)T (from the Spacing Chart), and the number of lines of girders in the
end span, the number of girders in the end span requiring girder stop bearing pads can be
obtained. See the sample problem Appendix B Section 8.4-B12.
6. Preformed Fabric Pads
These pads can withstand large compression loads. They can provide for rotation. When used
in combination with a PTFE sliding surface, they will allow bridge movements in a horizontal
direction. When a PTFE sliding surface is specified, the PTFE sheet shall be 1/8 inch thick and
shall be recessed 1/16 inch into 1/2 inch-thick steel plate that is bonded to the top of the fabric pad.
They have been used on reinforced and post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges and can be
used on other bridge types. The cost of bearings incorporating preformed fabric pads is relatively
low compared to most steel bearings.
a. Criteria
Maximum average allowable bearing pressure on the fabric pad is 1,200 psi at service load.
Maximum allowable concrete bearing pressure is determined by 1977 AASHTO Article
1.5.26(3).
Maximum total load on bearing is 500 kips. If the design load exceeds this value, another
type of bearing should be used.
Maximum bearing thickness is 4 inches.
b. Sample Problem
The following method is used to calculate the required dimensions of a preformed fabric pad
used in combination with a TFE sliding surface:
Maximum Edge Strain = Average Strain + Rotation
Where:
T = Pad Thickness
L = Pad Length (parallel to longitudinal axis of beam)
R = Rotation due to loading plus construction tolerances
Allowance for Rotation = .015 Radians minimum (AASHTO)
0.14 = maximum strain with edge stress of 2,000 psi
At 1,200 psi, strain = 10 percent or 0.10T
Hence:
L
0.14T = (0.10)T + (R)
2
T = 12.5LR
Given:
DL + LL + I = 260 kips/bearing
Rotation = 0.015 radians
Allowable Bearing Pressure for Fabric Pad = 1,200 psi
fc′ = 3,000 psi
Solution:
Pad Area Required = 260,000 lbs./1,200 psi = 216.67 in2
Try a 20-inch-wide by 11-inch-long pad
Area = 220 in2
Check allowable concrete bearing pressure by AASHTO
A2
Al = 20 inches × 11 inches = 220 in2 A1 = 1.42 ≤ 2
steel with slightly different composition from the bearing blocks in order to avoid the possibility
of “freezing” of the bearing surface. Pins of ASTM A-108 grade 1040, 70,000 Y.P. have been
used successfully with A36 bearing blocks. The keeper rings used with such pins must be
adequate to carry required uplift loads.
Bearing Block
Figure 8.4.3D10-1
September 1986
Design of such blocks is nominal. The dimension “T,” least thickness to pin, must be large
enough to clear the nut and the weld on the end of the block. It must also be large enough to
ensure that the stress due to vertical pin loads is within allowables. If P is the vertical load
applied to the bearing, R is the pin radius, W is the width of the load applying element, H is the
horizontal component of force developed by the pin curvature, and x and y are the distances
to the reactive forces P/2 and H then; the movement on the section dimensioned at “T” can be
shown to be:
T + R − W
M=P
2π π 8
This moment tends to fail the bearing block in bending at this section and must be resisted by the
strength of the section at that point.
11. Anchor Bolts
Anchor bolts are used for all except neoprene bearings and perform a variety of functions. These
functions may be:
Hold down uplift loads. Resist transverse loads from bearings. Provide temporary support for
base plate. Hold base plate firmly to erection shims.
Not all of these functions are necessarily needed in each design. Figure 8.4.3C11-1 shows a
section through a typical anchor bolt. AASHTO Specifications give sizes for nominal anchor
bolts. Where uplift loads must be held, the bolts must be adequate in length and the washer nut
must be of sufficient size and strength to engage a mass of concrete as specified in AASHTO
under “Uplift.” Where reinforcement in the concrete can be engaged, that reinforcement may also
be considered to act to resist uplift Transverse loads cannot be resisted by the anchor bolts unless
the void between the pipe and the bolt has been well grouted. The plans should require that the
contractor grout from the bottom of the pipe before grouting the bearing plate. An arrangement
for doing this must be shown on the plans. See Figure 8.4.3C11-2 for a typical detail. If the
anchor bolt is to provide temporary support for a base plate, sufficient number of shims shall be
used to carry the weight of the plate and other loads applied before grouting the plate. These may
include the weight of erected steel superstructure for structural steel bridges.
Anchor bolts shall be ASTM A 449 where strengths equal to ASTM A 325 are desired, and
ASTM A 354, Grade BD, where strengths equal to ASTM A 490 are desired.
For anchor bolt specifications and properties, see Bridge Instruction 7.1.8, Volume 1.
12. Construction Shims
The Construction Specifications require that bearings for steel bridges be supported on sets of
21/2 inch square shims while the steel is being erected. The plans shall normally show how these
shims are to be placed in order to avoid overstressing the base plate or bearing webs or the
concrete of the pier.
13. Pintles
Pintles are used with rollers and rockers to carry transverse loads and to keep the moving parts
in alignment. They are detailed so that transverse shear is applied at the surface of the parts.
Their size must be such that these shear forces can be adequately resisted by the cross section
of the pintle.
F. Bearing Selection
Consideration should be given to elimination of bearings by making the superstructure continuous
with the substructure, where feasible. Engineering judgment based on the particular design conditions
should govern bearing in any particular case. The following bridge types and bearings are commonly
used together:
Prestressed Girder Bridges - Elastomeric Bearings
Slab Bridges - Continuity or Elastomeric Bearings
Concrete Box Girder Bridges - Elastomeric Bearings
Roller Bearings
Preformed Fabric Pads w/TFE Sliding Surfaces
Steel Girder Bridges - Roller Bearings
Sliding Bearings
Rocker Bearings
Steel Truss Bridges - Rocker Bearings
Occasionally, other devices which act as bearings may be used. These include hinged columns
and bents.
8.4.4 Bridge Railing (Vacant)
8.4.5 Ladders, Stairs, Grates, Etc. (Vacant)
8.4.6 Surface Treatments (Vacant)
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
March 1984
Figure 8.4.7-1
C. System 2 (Latex Modified Concrete Overlay with Epoxy Coated Reinforcing) Note: See System 1
for additional details.
March 1984
Figure 8.4.7-2
D. System 3 (Asphalt Overlay with Waterproof Membrane and Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing) Note: The
class of asphalt is to be determined by the district. See System 1 for additional details.
March 1984
Figure 8.4.7-3
Adoption of thin overlays should be coordinated with the district through the Bridge Planning
and Technology Unit. The bridge Planning and Technology Development Unit must be contacted
early in the planning stage for using this system. This is required to coordinate development of
the project with the district and if necessary the FHWA.
Use of a system other than Systems 2 and 3 (stated previously) is considered as an exception and
will require approval of the Bridge Design Engineer for its use.
The Bridge Planning and Technology Unit should be consulted about the latest information on
the new products available and also about the condition of the existing decks.
5. Deck Replacement: In some cases, deck deterioration will have advanced beyond the point of
cost effective rehabilitation and/or protection. Excessive delamination, high chloride content, re-
active aggregate, and freeze-thaw have been the predominant factors contributing to deck deterio-
ration. When deck replacement or bridge replacement becomes necessary, the replacement
scheduled should be coordinated with the districts.
8-4-7:V:BDM2
8.99 Bibliography
1. E. I. Dupont de Nemours, Inc.
“Design of Neoprene Bridge Bearing Pads.”
2. Bridge Drainage System
NCHRP—Synthesis of Highway Practice No. 67
Transportation Research Board
National Research Council
Washington, D.C. December 1979
3. Bridge Deck Drainage Guidelines
Report No. FHWA/RD-87/014
December 1986
4. Hydraulics Manual
WSDOT M23-03
Olympia, WA 98504
5. Burke, M. P. Jr., “Bridge Deck Joints,” NCHRP 141, TRB, National Research Council, Washington,
D.C., 1989, 66 pp.
6. Puccio, G. S., “Extruded Seals for Bridges and Structures,” Joint Sealing and Bearing systems for
Concrete Structures, Vol. 2, SP-70, American Concrete Institute, 1982, p. 959.
7. Bashore, F. J., Price, A. W., and Branch, D. E., “Determination of Allowable Movement Ratings for
Various Proprietary Bridge Deck Expansion Joint Devices at Various Skew Angles, Second Testing
Series,” Research Report No. R-1245, Michigan Transportation Commission, Lansing, Michigan,
May 1984, 24 pp.
8. Koster, W., “The Principle of Elasticity for Expansion Joints,” Joint Sealing and Bearing Systems for
Concrete Structures, Vol. 2, SP-94, American Concrete Institute, 1986, pp. 675-712.
9. Babaei, K. and Hawkins, N. M., “Development of Durable Anchorage Systems for Bridge Expansion
Joints,” Final Report WA-RD 181.1, Washington State Transportation Center (TRAC), June 1989,
56 pp.
10. Fatigue Design of Modular Bridge Expansion Joints
NCHRP-Report 402
Transportation Research Board
National Research Council
Washington, D.C. — 1997
11. Handbook of Bridge Engineering
Chen, W. F. and Lian Duan, editors
Chapter 25: Expansion Joints
CRC Press — 1988
12. Steel Bridge Bearing Selection and Design Guide
National Steel Bridge Alliance
American Iron and Steel Institute, 1996
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
8-2-A1:VP:BDM8
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A4 (double-faced barrier foundation, Type 1, 2,
and 3, for truss sign bridge).
1. Indicate type of foundation to be used (Type 1, 2, or 3).
2. Determine conduit needs. If none exist, delete all references to conduit. If it is needed, verify with district as to
size and quantity needed.
3. Show sign bridge base elevation, number, “D” dimension and station.
4. Modify details if other than a 3-inch curb is required.
5. Transition section can be 10 feet 0 inches or 12 feet 6 inches.
6. Note vertical shaft and tie steel No. 1 and No. 2.
7. Quantities for the barrier as shown:
Class 4000 concrete .185 CY/LF above foundation cap
.269 CY/LF outside foundation cap
Class 3000 or 3000W Varies with type and depth of
concrete foundation. See Standard Plan
G-2b for dimensions.
Gr. 60 Rebar Varies, depends upon type of
foundation and “D” dimension.
Mark No. 21 and 22 Constant
Mark No. 24 Maintain 6-inch o.c. spacing
between end posts of truss.
Mark No. 26 Varies with span length and “D”
dimension
8. Example contracts: 3345 SR 5 Southbound Add Lane
3393 Interstate VMS Signing
8-2-A3:V:BDM8
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A6 (double-faced barrier foundation, Type 1, 2,
or 3, for Monotube Sign Bridge).
1. Indicate type of foundation to be used (Type 1, 2, or 3).
2. Determine conduit needs. If none, delete. If needed, contact district for number and size.
3. Determine sections needed to “build” foundation, transition sections can be 10 feet 0 inches or 12 feet 6 inches.
4. Show sign bridge : 1. Base elevation
2. Station
3. Number
5. Modify details if other than 3-inch curb is required.
Approximate quantities for foundation as shown:
Class 4000 .289 CY/LF over shaft foundation.
Class 3000 or 3000W Varies – see typical foundation sheet.
Steel Reinforcing 372 pounds
Gr. 60
Steel AASHOT M222 or M223 GR. 50
60 feet & under = 1,002 pounds
60 feet to 90 feet = 1,401 pounds
90 feet to 120 feet = 1,503 pounds
120 feet to 150 feet N/A
6. Example contract 3283 Eastside to Plum
8-2-A5:V:BDM8
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A8 through A-13 (Monotube Sign Structures).
1. Note if view is looking ahead or back on stationing.
2. Note the bridge sheets on which the structure details are contained.
3. If not Type 1, 2, or 3, note the average lateral bearing pressure for each foundation.
4. If some span lengths are not used on a particular project, delete these from lower table to free up room.
5. Note size and quantity (if any) of conduit to be installed.
6. If no cantilevers are included, delete detail.
List of contracts with special designs
C-3199 First Hill Lid
C-3334 Third Lake Paving and Systems
C-3502 Seattle Transit Access Phase 1
8-2-A7:V:BDM8
1. Bridge Railing Type BP, Appendix 8.3-A3, is to be used when clear anodic coating is desired.
2. Bridge Railing Type BP-B, Appendix 8.3-A4, is to be used when bronze anodic coating is desired.
3. To determine height of railing, use 4′-6″ measured from the top of the railing to the reference surface (as
defined by AASHTO).
4. On the final plan sheet, show only one dimension for the height of the metal railing in two different places.
8-3-A5:V:BDM8
8-3-A5:V:BDM8
8-B1:V:BDM8
May 1993 8 - B1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design Spherical Bearing
8-B2:V:BDM8
8 - B2 May 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design General
General Notes
(These notes change constantly. For the latest information, check the Bridge Section’s “Book of Knowledge”
(BOK) which is available through your supervisor.)
1. All material and workmanship shall be in accordance with the requirements of the state of Washington,
Department of Transportation, Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge and Municipal Construction dated
________.
2. A. This structure has been designed in accordance with the requirements of the ________ AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
All prestressed concrete elements have been designed for service load stresses and checked for the
requirements of load factor design.
All other structural elements are designed in accordance with the requirements for load factor design.
B. This structure has been designed in accordance with the requirements of the _______ AASHTO
Specifications for Highway Bridges.
All structural elements have been designed in accordance with load factor design.
3. Seismic design of this structure conforms with the provisions of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, dated 1983 and interims through __________. An acceleration
coefficient of __________ has been used.
4. Footing elevations and substructure details are subject to change depending upon foundation material
encountered. Reinforcing steel for footings, abutment walls, and columns shall not be cut until final elevations
have been determined and substructure details have been modified, if necessary.
5. The concrete in the seals and shafts shall be Class _______. The concrete in the superstructure, including
roadway deck and crossbeams, as well as bridge columns, shall be Class _______. All other cast-in-place
concrete shall be Class _______.
6. The concrete seals at piers __________ are designed for a water surface elevation of _________. After seals
are poured, cofferdams shall not be dewatered when the water is above elevation _________. Provision shall
be made to flood the cofferdam in the event that water surface is above the design elevation.
7. The maximum design soil pressure per square foot is _____ tons for piers _____, the maximum design load
for the piles for piers _____ is _____ tons. The maximum design load for the shafts is _____ tons.
8. Falsework shall be carefully released to prevent impact or undue stress in structure. The traffic barrier and
sidewalk shall not be poured until the falsework has been released.
9. All steel shall be AASHTO M183 and galvanized after fabrication according to AASHTO M111, unless
noted otherwise.
10. All bolts except as noted shall be ASTM A307 and shall have standard nuts and washers and galvanized
according to AASHTO M232.
All screws and miscellaneous fasteners shall be ASTM A 307 and galvanized according to AASHTO M232.
11. All bolt hole sizes shall be 1/16-inch diameter larger than bolt diameter. Bolt lengths not shown shall be as
required to fit.
12. All dimensions and elevations shall be verified in the field by the contractor.
May 1993 8 - B3 - 1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design General
13. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, clear concrete cover from top of roadway slab to any reinforcement bar
shall be 21/2 inches, 1 inch from the bottom of the roadway slab, 3 inches from the bottom of footing, and
11/2 inches from all other concrete surfaces.
Reminders:
Normally used concrete mixes in Item #5 above are 4000W, 4000, and 4000 respectively.
Items #9, #10, and #11 may be omitted on steel superstructure bridge designs as they may conflict with
Structural Steel Notes.
Item #12 is normally appropriate for rehabilitation and widening projects.
8-B3:V:BDM8
8 - B3 - 2 May 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design Post-Tensioning
Post-Tensioning Notes
(These notes change constantly. For the latest information, check the Bridge Section’s “Book of Knowledge”
(BOK) which is available through your supervisor.)
1. The concrete in superstructure shall be Class 5000 mix, fc′ = 5000 psi. The minimum compressive strength of
the cast-in-place concrete at the time of post-tensioning shall be _____ psi.
2. Design is based on a friction curvature coefficient, µ = 0.2 and a friction wobble coefficient, K = 0.0002. The
loss of stress in post-tensioned prestressing strands due to steel relaxation, elastic shortening, creep and
shrinkage of concrete is estimated to be 32 ksi.
3. Design is based on _____ 1/2-inch diameter low relaxation strands with an anchor set of 3/8 inch. The actual
anchor set will depend on the jacking equipment used by the contractor and shall be specified in the shop
plans. Each web shall be stressed to a load of _____ kips at jacked end after seating.
4. The contractor shall submit the stressing sequence, elongation calculations, and force after anchor set to the
engineer for approval. The stressing sequence shall meet the following criteria:
A. Unless otherwise noted, the prestressing force, P-jack shall be distributed with an approximately equal
amount in each web and shall be placed symmetrically about the center line of bridge.
B. Whenever possible, no more than one-half of the prestressing force in any web may be stressed before an
equal force is stressed in the adjacent webs. At no time during stressing operations will more than
one-six of the total prestressing force be applied eccentrically about the center line of the bridge.
5. The maximum outer diameter of the duct shall be ____ inches. The area of the duct shall be at least twice
the net area of the prestressing steel in the duct.
6. All tendons shall be stressed _____________________________ (either one end or both ends).
7. The maximum number of strands permitted in a duct is limited to 34 numbers. Contractor shall obtain
approval of the Engineer for any deviation to the number of strands in a duct as shown on the plans. Any
changes associated to the thickness of the web shall be at contractor’s expense.
Reminders:
1. Commonly used stress levels in note number 1 are 3000 psi and 3500 psi.
2. For tendons made of 19 or less strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 101/2 inches.
3. For tendons made of 20 to 31 strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 111/2 inches.
4 For tendons made of 34 strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 12 inches.
5. Do not use any tendon made of 1/2-inch strand greater than 34 strands.
6. All longitudinal bars will be placed between vertical stirrups.
8-B4:V:BDM8
May 1993 8 - B4
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design Structural Steel (Box Girder)
May 1993 8 - B5 - 1
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design Structural Steel (Box Girder)
Butt splice locations are the contractor’s option, except, no splice will be permitted within 20 feet of the
centerline of a pier or within 6 inches of an intermediate cross frame stiffener.
Intermediate transverse web stiffeners shall be located a minimum of 6 inches from a welded web or
flange splice.
8-B5:V:BDM8
8 - B5 - 2 May 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design Structural Steel (Plate Girder)
8-B6:V:BDM8
May 1993 8 - B6
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design Strip Seal Expansion Joint
8-B7:V:BDM8
8 - B7 May 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design Modular Expansion Joint
8-B8:V:BDM8
May 1993 8 - B8
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Miscellaneous Design Rail Rehabilitation
8-B9:V:BDM8
8 - B9 May 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Appendix B
Reinforced concrete box girder bridge with an overall length of 248 feet out to out of pavement seats. End
abutments are “L” abutments with one foot thick backwalls. Note: Joints at the end piers for this bridge could be
eliminated by using monolithic or integral end abutments.
Skew angle = 28° < 45°
Temperature range = 0° to 100°F
1. Determine Compression Seal Width Required
Determine total movement of joint, Mt: L = (248′/2) - 1′ = 123′
Temperature: 12(123)(0.000006)(100°F) = 0.89"
Shrinkage: 12(123)(0.0002)(0.8) = 0.24“
Mt = 1.13"
Total movement parallel to the joint: Mp = 1.13(Sin 28°) = 0.53"
Total movement normal to the joint: Mn = 1.13(Cos 28°) = 1.00"
Determine seal width required:
From Eq. (8) W = 0.53/0.22 = 2.41"
From Eq. (9) W = 1.00/0.45 = 2.22"
From Eq. (11) W = 4(Cos 28°)[0.64(0.89) + 0.24] = 2.86" <= Controls
Use a 3" wide seal (W = 3").
2. Determine Width of Joint at Time of Construction: Use Eq. (12)
Construction Width at Tc = 40°F:
A const = 0.6(3.0) + Cos 28°(12)(123)(0.000006)(64-40) = 1.99" Use 2"
Construction Width at Tc = 64°F:
A const = 0.6(3.0) = 1.80" Use 13/4"
Construction Width at Tc = 80°F:
A const = 0.6(3.0) + Cos 28°(12)(123)(0.000006)(64-80) = 1.68" Use 15/8"
8-4-B1:V:BDM8
Cast-in-place concrete bridge with an overall length of 400 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 200 feet (at
64°F) between point of zero movement and the end pier joints.
Skew = 30°, use movement along bridge centerline
Temperature range = 0° to 100°F
1. Determine Size of Strip Seal Required
Total opening movement of joint:
Temperature: 64° to 0°F (12)(200)(0.000006)(64) = 0.92"
Shrinkage: (12)(200)(0.0002)(0.8) = 0.38“
= 1.30"
Total closing movement of joint:
Temperature: 64° to 100°F (12)(200)(0.000006)(36) = 0.52"
Set minimum installation width at 64°F:
Min. at installation, Group 1: (1.5-0.5)/Cos 30° = 1.15" > 0.52"
(Group 1 joints have a 1/2" gap at full closure)
Min. at installation, Group 2: (1.5-0.0)/Cos 30° = 1.73" > 0.52"
(Group 2 joints have no gap at full closure)
Determine size of joint required using the larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing
movement:
Group 1: Add opening and closing 1.30 + 1.15 = 2.45" Use 3"
Group 2: Add opening and closing 1.30 + 1.73 = 3.03" Use 3"
2. Determine Width Calculations for Various Temperatures
Construction Width at 64°F for both Group 1 and 2 Strip Seals:
G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64°F Use 11/2"
Construction Width at 40°F:
G = 1.50 + Cos 30°(12)(200)(0.000006)(64-40) = 1.80" Use 17/8"
Construction Width at 80°F:
G = 1.50 + Cos 30°(12)(200)(0.000006)(64-80) = 1.30" Use 13/8"
Note: In this case, the minimum seal installation width at 64°F is the same for both Group 1 and 2 strip seals,
because the minimum installation width at 64°F exceeded the total calculated closing movement of the joint.
This may not be true in all cases as shown in Appendix 8.4-B4.
8-4-B2:V:BDM8
Cast-in-place concrete bridge with an overall length of 900 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 450 feet (at
64°F) between point of zero movement and the end pier joints.
Skew = 40° > 30° degrees, see Joint Specialist
Temperature range = 0° to 100°F
1. Determine Size of Strip Seal Required
Total opening movement of joint:
Temperature: 64° to 0°F (12)(450)(0.000006)(64) = 2.07"
Shrinkage: (12)(450)(0.0002)(0.8) = 0.87“
= 2.94"
Total closing movement of joint:
Temperature: 64° to 100°F (12)(450)(0.000006)(36) = 1.17"
Set minimum installation width at 64°F:
Min. at installation, Group 1: 1.0/Cos 40° = 1.31" > 1.17"
Min. at installation, Group 2: 1.5/Cos 40° = 1.96" > 1.17"
Determine size of joint required using the larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing
movement:
Group 1: Add opening and closing 2.94 + 1.31 = 4.25" Use 5"
Group 2: Add opening and closing 2.94 + 1.96 = 4.90" Use 5"
Watson Bowman ACME (Group 2) has a 2" minimum opening for a 5" seal:
Minimum at installation, Watson Bowman Acme: 2.0/Cos 40° = 2.61"
Add opening and closing for Watson Bowman ACME
2.94 + 2.61 = 5.55" > 5" Cannot use Watsom Bowman ACME 5" Seal
After consulting with the Joint Specialist on the skew and size of strip seal required, the 5-inch seal cannot
close without possibly buckling and inverting above the roadway surface. Therefore, a modular joint should
be used.
8-4-B3:V:BDM8
Steel bridge with an overall length of 600 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 300 feet (at 64°F) between
point of zero movement and the end pier joints.
Skew = 20°
Temperature range = -30° to 120°F (Eastern Washngton)
1. Determine Size of Strip Seal Required
Total opening movement of joint:
Temperature: 64° to -30°F 12(300)(0.0000065)(94) = 2.20"
Total closing movement of joint:
Temperature: 64° to 120°F 12(300)(0.0000065)(56) = 1.31"
Set minimum installation width at 64°F:
Min. at installation, Group 1: 1.0/Cos 20° = 1.07" < 1.31"
Min. at installation, Group 2: 1.5/Cos 20° = 1.60" > 1.31"
Determine size of joint required using larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing
movement:
Group 1: Add opening and closing 2.20 + 1.31 = 3.51" Use 4"
Group 2: Add opening and closing 2.20 + 1.60 = 3.80" Use 4"
2. Construction Width Calculations for Various Temperatures
Group 1 Strip Seals:
Construction Width at 64°F:
Use the larger of the manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64°F or the total closing movement of
the joint.
G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64°F = 11/2"
Total closing movement of the joint:
Cos 20°(1.31) + 0.50 = 1.73" > 1.50" Use 13/4"
(Group 1 joints have a 1/2" gap at full closure.)
Construction Width at 40°F:
G = 1.75 + Cos 20°(12)(300)(0.0000065)(64-40) = 2.28" Use 21/4"
Construction Width at 80°F:
G = 1.75 + Cos 30°(12)(300)(0.0000065)(64-80) = 1.40" Use 13/8"
Group 2 Strip Seals:
Construction Width at 40°F:
G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64°F = 11/2"
8-4-B4:V:BDM8
8-4-B5:V:BDM8
Steel bridge with 600 ft (at 64°F) between the point of zero movement and the end pier joint.
Skew = 20° < 30°
Temperature range = -30° to 120°F (Eastern Washngton)
1. Determine Size of Joint Required
Total opening movement of joint:
Temperature: 64° to -30°F (12)(600)(0.0000065)(94) = 4.40"
Total closing movement of joint:
Temperature: 64° to 120°F (12)(600)(0.0000065)(56) = 2.62"
Design movement along bridge centerline:
Add opening and closing (4.40 + 2.62) = 7.02"
Design movement normal to joint + 15 percent:
Cos 20°(7.02)(1.15) = 7.59"
Need a modular joint with a 5" movement rating (MR).
2. Construction Width Calculations for Various Temperatures
a. D. S. Brown Co., Type D-241, MR = 9"
Gmin = 6" (See Appendix 8.4-B5 for Gmin and Gmax.)
Gmax = 15"
Construction Width at 64°F:
Set the joint opening (normal to the joint) at 64°F and allow a 15 percent safety factor:
G at 64°F = Gmin + total closing movement of joint
= 6.0 + Cos 20°(2.62)(1.15) = 8.83"
Any setting greater than 8.83" would be adequate. Choose a setting so that the extra capacity is shared
equally between closing and opening of the joint.
Extra capacity = MR - Design Movement = 9 - 7.59 = 1.41"
-30° to 64°F: (94°F/150°F)(1.41) = 0.88"
Therefore, set G at 64°F = 8.83 + 0.88 = 9.71" Use 93/4"
Construction Width at 40°F:
G = 9.75 + Cos 20°(12)(600)(0.0000065)(64-40) = 10.81" Use 107/8"
Construction Width at 80°F:
G = 9.75" + Cos 20°(12)(600)(0.0000065)(64-80) = 9.05" Use 9"
Check spacing between centerbeams at 64°F for seal replacement:
Spacing = [9.75 - 2(2.213)]/3 seals = 1.77" > 1.50" ok
8-4-B6:V:BDM8
8-4-B7:V:BDM8
Two C.I.P. Post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges meet at a hinge adjacent to a pier.
Skew = 0°
The following calculated movements due to temperature, shrinkage, elastic shortening, and creep were obtained:
Bridge A Bridge B
Temp Fall 64° to 0°F 3.0" 1.2"
Shrinkage 1.3" 0.6"
Elastic Shortening 1.2" 0.5"
Creep, (Ct)(ES) = (1.5)(1.2") = 1.8" 0.75"
Temp. Rise 64°F to 100°F 1.7" 0.7"
1. Determine Size of Joint Required
Determine joint opening 60 days after post-tensioning when the joint will be installed. Assume the elastic
shortening and half of the shirnkage has occurred; assume a long-term creep factor, Ct = 1.5. Remember that
the two bridges move opposite to one another.
Total opening movement of the joint due to Bridge A:
3.0 + (0.5)(1.3) + 1.8 = 5.45"
Total opening movement of the joint due to Bridge B:
1.2 + (0.5)(0.6) + 0.75 = 2.25"
Total opening movement due to Bridge A and B = 5.45 + 2.25 = 7.7"
Total closing movement due to Bridge A and B = 1.7 + 0.7 = 2.4"
Determine size of Modular Joint: Include 15 percent safety factor
Add total opening and closing movements = (7.7 + 2.4)(1.15) = 11.6"
Need a Modular Joint with a 12" Movement Rating (MR)
2. Construction Width Calculations for Various Temperatures
a. Watson Bowman ACME, WABO D-1200, MR = 12"
Gmin = 7.5"
Gmax = 19.5"
Construction Width at 64°F:
G at 64°F = Gmin + Closing Movement due to Temperature Rise
= 7.50 + (2.40)(1.15) = 10.26" Use 103/8"
The total temperature movement for 100°F
= 3.0 + 1.7 + 1.2 + 0.7 = 6.6"/100°F
Construction Width at 40°F:
G = 10.375 + (24°F/100°F)(6.6) = 11.96" Use 12"
Construction Width at 80°F:
G = 10.375 - (16°F/100°F)(6.6) = 9.32" Use 93/8"
8-4-B8:V:BDM8
Standard WSDOT W74G simple span prestressed concrete girder bridge. Span length is 130 feet. Bottom flange
width of the girder is 25 inches. Use a temperature range of 0°F to 100°F for concrete bridges with
a normal construction temperature of 64°F. Use AASHTO Standard Specifications Section 14.4.1 Design
Method A. Bearings shall be installed so that they are horizontal (level) under dead load.
Loading:
Dead Load reaction per bearing:
PDL, Girder = 108 kips
PDL, Slab+Traffic Barrier = 112 kips
Live Load reaction per bearing (excluding impact):
PLL,HS25 = 60 kips
Live Load rotation (calculated from analysis)
θLL,x = Live load rotation (excluding impact)
= 0.003 radians (from structural analysis)
Constants:
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete = 0.000006/°F
β = Shrinkage coefficient for reinforced concrete = 0.0002 in/in
µ = Shrinkage factor = 0.5
BDM Section 8.4.1A.1.b.(1)
Elastomer Design Parameters:
Durometer Hardness = 60
From AASHTO Table 14.3.1, for a 60 durometer hardness elastomer, the shear modulus varies between
0.130 ksi and 0.200 ksi. Use a value corresponding to the most conservative design.
Internal Steel Reinforcement:
14 gauge plate (thickness = 0.075")
Fy = 36 ksi
Fsr = 20 ksi
The bearing design shall conform to the following additional WSDOT standard requirements:
(a) Design for a 60-durometer elastomer.
(b) Unreinforced (plain) pads shall not be used.
(c) Internal elastomer layers shall be 1/2 inches thick; external elastomer layers shall be 1/4 inches
thick.
(d) Minimum number of internal elastomer layers shall be two.
(e) Maximum overall height of the bearing shall not exceed 5 inches.
(f) Tapered elastomer layers shall not be used.
(g) The shape factor of each layer of any reinforced bearing shall be equal to or greater than 5.0.
(h) The average compressive stress from dead load and uplift, if any, shall not be less than 200 psi to
avoid “walking” of the bearings.
(i) Design loading shall take into account the effect of skew and curvature.
(j) The bearing design movement shall be based upon 75 percent of the total calculated temperature
rise and fall using an assumed normal temperature of 64°F plus any other anticipated movements
or translations.
(k) Girders are placed on the elastomeric bearing pads 30 days following casting. The remaining
creep of the girders tributary to each bearing has been calculated to be 0.20".
(l) The design details shall provide access for inspection, maintenance, and future replacement of
each bearing.
(m) For thick bearings, calculate the grout pad elevations using the compressed height of the bearing.
1. Determine preliminary bearing size
Temperature fall (64° → 0°F): (0.000006)(64) (65)(12) = 0.30″
Temperature rise (64° → 100°F): (0.000006)(36)(65)(12) = 0.17″
Shrinkage: (0.5)(0.0002)(65)(12) = 0.08″
Creep (calculated from girder age of 30 days to infinity): = 0.20″
∆s = 0.75 (Dfall + Drise)+ Dshrink +Dcreep
= 0.75(0.30 + 0.17) + 0.08 + 0.20 = 0.63″
Determine bearing thickness:
Minimum total elastomer thickness ≥ 2∆s (AASHTO Section 14.4.1.3)
hrt ≥ (2)(0.63″) = 1.26″ Minimum total elastomer thickness required
Use (2) - 1/2″ thick interior layers of elastomer and 1/4″ thick cover layers.
2 interior layers at 1/2″ = 1.0″
2 cover layers at 1/4″ = 0.5″
Total elastomer thickness, hrt = 1.5″ > 1.26″ ok
Use (3) - 14 gage steel shims. Sum of shim thicknesses = (3)(0.075″) = 0.225″
Total bearing thickness = T = 1.50″ + 0.225″ = 1.725″ < 5″ maximum ok
Determine bearing width, W:
Use a width equal to the width of the prestressed concrete girder bottom flange less two 1″ chamfers
less an additional 1/2″ on each side.
W = 25 in - 2(1″) - 2(0.5″) = 22″ Use W = 22″
Determine bearing length, L:
σc,TL ≤ 1.000 ksi for steel reinforced bearings (AASHTO 14.4.1.1)
(220 kips + 60 kips) ∏ [(L)(22)] £ 1.000 ksi
L ≥ 12.73″ Use L = 13″
Preliminary bearing size: 13″ wide ξ 22″ long × 1.725″ thick
Summary:
Size: Length = 13″ Width = 22″ Overall total thickness = 1.725″
Elastomer layers: 2 interior layers at 1/2″ thick
2 cover layers at 1/4″ thick
Total Thickness = 1.725"
Steel reinforcement: 3 steel shims, 14 gage (0.075 inch thickness)
Provide 1/8″ minimum side clearance for the steel shims
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
Page
9. Substructure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1-1
9.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
9.1.1 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
E. Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
F. Prestressing Effects from Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
9.1.2 Concrete Design for Substructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
9.1.3 Application of Loads to Substructure Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
9.2 Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2-1
9.2.1 Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Spacing of Piers and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Section Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Column Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. Column Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
9.2.2 Column Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
B. Slenderness Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
C. The Moment Magnification Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
D. Second-Order Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
E. Resisting Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
F. Service Load Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
G. Seismic Design of Multicolumn Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9.3 Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-1
9.3.1 Size and Construction Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Representative Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Bearing Seats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Bearing Restraints and Girder Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Face Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
E. Sizing Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
F. Class of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
G. Abutment and Retaining Wall Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
H. Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I. Drainage and Backfilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
J. Embankment at Bridge Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
9.3.2 Abutment Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
A. Applicable Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
B. Usual Governing Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
C. Special Handling of Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
D. Loads on Girder Stop Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
E. Loads on Girder Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
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9.3.3 General Design Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3-19
A. Design for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B. Earth Pressure at Front Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
C. Design for Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
D. Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9.3.4 Load and Reinforcement Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
A. Requirements for Pile Cap Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
B. Requirements for Pile Stub Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
C. Requirements for Cantilever Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
D. Requirements for Spill-Through Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
E. Requirements for Rigid Frame Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9.4 Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4-1
9.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
9.4.2 Common Types of Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Cantilevered Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Counterfort Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Gravity Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Cribbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
E. Cylinder Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
F. Tieback Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
G. Proprietary Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
H. Slurry Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I. Rock Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
J. Soil Nailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
K. Wingwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
L. Noise Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
9.4.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Cantilever Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
C. Diaphragm Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
E. Tieback Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9.4.4 Miscellaneous Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
A. Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
B. Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
C. Architectural Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
D. Concrete Fill for Soldier Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
E. Detailing of Standard Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
9.5 Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5-1
9.5.1 Spread Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Load Distribution Under Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
C. Pedestals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
D. Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
9.5.2 Pile Supported Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A. General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
B. Pile Spacings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
C. Horizontal Forces on Pile Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
D. Uplift Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Page
9.6 Piles and Piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6-1
9.6.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Selection of Pile Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Friction vs. Point Bearing Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Pile Loads and Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
9.6.2 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Column Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
C. Lateral Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
D. Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
9.6.3 Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
A. Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
B. Concrete Pile Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
9.6.4 Steel Piling (H Piles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
9.6.5 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
9.6.6 Sheet Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
9.6.7 Cylinder Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
9.7 Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7-1
9.7.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
9.7.2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Normal High Water Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Seal Vent Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C. Scour Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Recommended Foundation Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
9.7.3 Spread Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Seal Positively Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Seal May Not Be Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
9.7.4 Pile Supported Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
9.8 Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-1
9.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
9.8.2 Types of Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Classification by Load Transfer to the Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Classification by Type of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
9.8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
9.8.4 Preliminary Soils Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. Surface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Subsurface Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
C. Methods of Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
D. Subsurface Conditions Affecting Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Page
9.8.5 Design of Drilled Shafts for Axial Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. Ultimate Failure vs. Excessive Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Factor of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
C. Spacing, Depth, Diameter Reinforcing, and Concrete Strength of Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . 5
9.8.6 Design of Drilled Shafts Subject to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8-6
A. General Modeling Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
B. P-Y Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
C. Analysis by Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
D. Shaft Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.8.7 Construction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A. Dry Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
B. Casing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
C. Slurry Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9.9 Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9-1
9.9.1 Overall Design Process, Roles, and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
9.9.2 Definitions and Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
9.9.3 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
9.9.4 LRFD Load Combinations, Basic Equation, and Characteristic Soil/Rock Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A. LRFD Basic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
B. Characteristic Soil/Rock Properties and Their Use in LRFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
9.9.5 Spread Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A. Loads and Load Factor Application to Spread Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
B. Footing Bearing Stress and Capacity — Strength and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . 13
C. Sliding Stability for Footings — Strength and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
D. Overturning Stability for Footings — Strength and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . 15
E. Overall Stability for Footings — Service and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
F. Resistance Factors for Footing Design — Strength Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
G. Design of Footings at the Service Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
H. What the Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to the Bridge Office for LRFD Footing Design 17
9.9.6 Loads and Load Factor Application to Deep Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9.9.7 Drilled Shaft Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
A. Drilled Shaft Capacity — Strength and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
B. Uplift for Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
C. Lateral Load Analysis for Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
D. Group Effects for Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
E. Group Effects for Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
F. Group Effects for Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
G. Service Limit State Design for Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
H. What Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to Bridge Office for LRFD Shaft Design . . . . . . . . 28
9.9.8 Pile Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
A. Pile Type, Pile Size, Bearing Capacity, and Estimated Tip Elevation — Strength and
Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
B. Determination of Minimum Pile Tip Elevations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
C. Resistance Factors for Pile Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
D. Determination of Pile Driveability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
E. What Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to Bridge Office for LRFD Pile Design . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.99 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.99-1
P65:DP/BDM9
9.1 - 2
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
D. Wind Loads
Wind forces shall be applied to the substructure units in accordance with the loadings specified in
AASHTO Article “Wind Loads.” Transverse stiffness of the superstructure may be considered, as
necessary to properly distribute loads to the substructure, provided that the superstructure is capable
of sustaining such loads. Uplift wind, per AASHTO Article “Overturning Forces,” shall be included in
the design where appropriate, for example, on single column piers. Wind loads shall be applied
through shear keys or other positive means from the superstructure to the substructure. Wind loads
shall be distributed to the piers and abutments in accordance with the laws of statics. Transverse wind
can be applied to the piers assuming the superstructure to act as a rigid beam. For large structures, a
more appropriate result might be obtained by considering the superstructure to act as a flexible beam
on elastic supports.
E. Earthquake Loads
Earthquake loads on elements of the substructure are describe in the Guide Specifications for
Seismic Design of Highway Bridges. The resulting loads shall be taken in any horizontal direction to
give maximum design load for the substructure element. Final design acceleration coefficient and site
coefficient will be given in the Foundation Report.
Earthquake uplift forces shall be designed per Guide Specifications “Hold-Down Devices.” As a mini-
mum, earthquake forces shall be considered to cause a temporary uplift on the substructure equal to
10 percent of the dead load reaction of the superstructure. Where such forces can be developed, the
crossbeam, column and footing shall be designed to carry these temporary loads. For concrete super-
structures built integrally with the substructure, the substructure elements shall be designed to carry
their dead load plus all the elements below them including soil overburden as though they were
suspended from the superstructure. (Seal not included). For this condition, the ultimate downward
force shall be 1.0 (EQ + Uplift). For structures carried on elastomeric pads or where there is no
positive vertical connection, the uplift force from the superstructure shall be neglected.
F. Prestressing Effects from Superstructure
When cast-in-place, post-tensioned superstructures are constructed monolithic with the piers, the
substructure design should take into account frame moments and shears caused by elastic shortening
and creep of the superstructure upon application of the axial post-tensioning force at the bridge ends.
Frame moments and shears thus obtained should be added algebraically to the values obtained from
the primary and secondary Pe moment diagrams applied to the superstructure. If the equivalent
uniform vertical load method presented in T. Y. Lin’s text, Reference 6.99-1, is coded into the
computer program GTSTRUDL along with axial forces (and moments at bridge ends if they exist),
then the output results will represent all of the above mentioned effects.
When cast-in-place, post-tensioned superstructures are supported on sliding bearings at some of the
piers, the design of those piers should include the longitudinal force from friction on the bearings
generated as the superstructure shortens during jacking. When post-tensioning is complete, the full
permanent reaction from this effect should be included in the governing AASHTO load combinations
for the pier under design.
9-1:V:BDM9
9.2 Piers
9.2.1 Columns
A. Spacing of Piers and Columns
1. Pier Spacing
Piers normally are spaced to meet the geometric and aesthetic requirements of the site and to
give maximum economy for the total structure. Tall piers will generally justify greater spacing
(longer spans) than short piers. Difficult and expensive foundation conditions will also justify
long spans. Good judgment must be used in determining pier locations on each job.
2. Multicolumn Spacing
Columns shall be spaced to give maximum structural benefit except where aesthetic considera-
tions dictate a modification. The spacing should be selected so that column moments are mini-
mized for dead load. Multiple columns should be considered if earthquake loads control the
column design.
3. Changing Spacing
Column and pier spacing is usually set at the preliminary plan stage based on preliminary
analysis.
The designer may, for structural reasons, after column spacing in a multicolumn pier or change
from a single-column pier to a multicolumn pier. Multicolumn piers are generally better suited
for handling lateral loads due to wind and/or earthquake. These changes must be reviewed by the
supervisor, who will determine if the changes need to be reviewed by the Bridge Planning
Engineer or the Bridge Architect.
Pier spacing is usually not changed after the preliminary plan stage. However, if substantial
structural improvement and/or cost savings can be realized, changes can still be made. The
designer should discuss the possibilities of changing the pier spacing or skew with his/her super-
visor at the earliest possible time. Changes in pier spacing could affect the Materials Lab’s soils
investigation.
B. Section Shape
Column section shape shall be selected for strength and aesthetics and shall give proper dimensions
for long column action. Columns should be designed so that construction is as simple and repetitious
as possible. The diameter of circular columns should be a multiple of one foot. Rectangular sections
should have lengths and widths that are multiples of 3 inches. Long rectangular columns are often
tapered to reduce the amount of column reinforcement required for strength. Tapers should be kept to
one plane for ease of construction.
The column shape is determined at the preliminary plan stage. Changes to column size and shape
may be made by the designer. Any changes must be reviewed by the supervisor, who will determine
if the change needs to be reviewed by the Bridge Planning Engineer or the Bridge Architect.
C. Construction Joints
Construction joints in columns are normally placed at the top of the footing or pedestal and the
bottom of the crossbeam. Optional construction joints with roughened surfaces should be provided at
approximately 30-foot vertical spacing.
D. Column Reinforcement
1. Longitudinal Reinforcement
The maximum reinforcement ratio (ratio of the steel area to the gross area of the section - As/Ag)
shall be 0.06. The minimum reinforcement ratio shall be 0.01. The reinforcement ratio may be
reduced to 0.005 provided that all loads can be carried on a reduced section of similar shape such that
the selected reinforcement ratio is equal to .01. All dimensions of the section shall be reduced by the
same ratio to obtain the reduced section. The properties of the reduced section should not be used to
compute K1/r ratios for long columns.
Longitudinal reinforcement should extend into the footing and rest on the bottom mat of footing
reinforcement with standard 90° hooks. Embedment must be at least 1.25 1dh (1dh is development
length of a standard hook). Longitudinal reinforcement should extend into the crossbeam at least
1.25 1d. Hooks should be avoided in the crossbeam. If the crossbeam is not deep enough to
develop the bars, 180° hooks generally provide less congestion. A detailed clearance check is
essential at the column/crossbeam connection.
2. Splicing of Longitudinal Reinforcement
Column reinforcement shall not be spliced at points of maximum moment, plastic hinge loca-
tions, and in columns less than 30 feet long between the top of footing and the bottom of cross-
beam. Splices of No. 11 and smaller bars shall be made by lapping the bars. When space is
limited, No. 11 and smaller bars can be spliced by welds, an approved mechanical butt splice, or
the top bar can be bent inward (deformed by double bending) to lie inside and parallel to the bars
below. When the bar size exceeds No. 11, welded splices or an approved mechanical butt splice
shall be used. The smaller of the bars being spliced determines the type of splice required. The
appropriate weld details shall be shown on the plans and approved mechanical splices are cov-
ered in the Standard Specifications. All splices of No. 7 and larger bars shall be staggered. For
usual practice in splicing, see Figure 9.2.1-1.
Show splice locations on the plans. Where a column is to have an intermediate construction joint,
the shortest bar shall project above the joint 60 bar diameters in the case of lap splicing, or
20 bar diameters in the case of welded splices. If the splice is indicated on the plans as
“optional,” the method of payment for splice steel shall be defined in the Special Provisions.
The Guide Specifications require that splices fall within the middle one-half of the column. For
extremely tall columns (where a 60-foot bar length cannot reach the middle half), splices should
not be closer than 30 feet from the columns ends.
3. Ties and Spirals
Ties or spirals are required in all columns to resist shear forces and to maintain the column’s
structural integrity after catastrophic forces have severely cracked the outer shell. Two section
views of transverse reinforcing differentiating the column ends and the typical middle sections
should be shown.
The column end section will only be used for the confinement zones, where it must both provide
confinement and resist shear. Hoops and ties in the confinement zones are normally No. 6 bars.
No. 7 bars can be used for hoops and ties, but the concrete cover (1 inch to the tie) must be
maintained using the standard radius for a No. 7 bar. Hoops can be made up of several reinforc-
ing elements with 135° hooks extending into the core a minimum of 10 diameters or 6 inches.
Ties can have a 180° hook on one end and a 90° hook on the other end. The 180° hook is to be
alternated both horizontally and vertically with the 90° hook. The tie is to engage the peripheral
hoop and be tied to the longitudinal reinforcement. The designer should check that the 180° hook
can fit between adjacent hoops and longitudinal bars.
Where confinement is not required, the transverse reinforcing needs to resist the column shear. Cross-
ties outside the confinement zones are usually No. 4 or No. 5 bars. Cross-ties should be spaced so as
to leave horizontal openings of 18 inches to 21 inches to allow for placing and consolidating concrete.
The area of the transverse reinforcement required to resist the column shear is defined in Article
“Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement” of the Guide Specifications and AASHTO
Article “Shear.” The area of transverse reinforcement required for confinement is determined
from Guide Specifications Article “Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement” for
spirals and ties. The area of transverse reinforcing in the confinement zones is the larger of the
two requirements. Transverse reinforcement may be provided by spirals, hoops, or cross-ties. See
Design Example 9.2B-1 through -5.
The general arrangement for column spirals in circular columns is shown in Figures 9.2.1-1 and
2. Note that spirals are to be used for all circular columns including and less than 8 feet diameter.
Standard sizes for column spiral use are No. 4 or No. 5 deformed bar, 1/2-inch diameter or
5
/8-inch diameter plain steel bar, or W20 or W31 cold drawn wire. Label these spirals with all
three options (for example: No. 4, 1/2-inch diameter or W20 spiral). The pitch shall allow for
1 inch or 11/3 times the maximum coarse aggregate size clearance to allow aggregate to flow
through. Anchor spirals at the top and the bottom with a hook that extends into the core a
distance of 10 inches past the bend. Twelve feet zero inches is the maximum height normally
fabricated. Show full height of the spiral in the bar list; the fabricator will provide required
splices. For diameters larger than 8 feet 0 inches, hoops are to be used.
Constant dimension rectangular columns shall be detailed as shown in Figure 9.2.1-4 with the use
of spirals. The same provisions as a spirally-reinforced circular column apply.
The general arrangement for ties in tapered rectangular columns is shown in Figures 9.2.1-5
through 5. The maximum vertical spacing for hoops and ties in the confinement zones and over
the length of lap splices is 4 inches for Seismic Performance Categories C and D and 6 inches for
Seismic Performance Categories A and B. The vertical opening between layers of confinement
reinforcement should be at least 21/2 inches to allow aggregate to flow through. The spacing at lap
splices should be shown on the splice detail and tied to the splice location.
4. Location of Confinement Zones
The typical locations of confinement zones for circular columns are shown in Figure 9.2.1-2 and
for tapered rectangular columns in Figure 9.2.1-3. The locations of confinement zones are the
same for columns of any shape.
Column ends that are framed into footings, multicolumn crossbeams, or longitudinal frames must
have confinement reinforcing over the maximum of:
a. The lesser of:
(1) 1/6 the clear column height, or
(2) The maximum column dimension. For wall type piers where plastic hinging occurs only
along the weak axis, use the short dimension.
b. 18 inches.
Confinement reinforcing is required to extend into these framed footings, multicolumn cross-
beams, etc., the larger of one-half the maximum column dimension and 15 inches, but not more
than three-quarters the depth of the crossbeam or footing. Crossbeam and footing steel can be
counted as confinement steel as long as it is fully developed at the extended planes of the side
of the column.
5. Column Hinges
The area of the hinge bars in square inches is as follows:
As =
(Pu)
2
+ [ Pu2
4
+ Vu2 ]
1/
2
0.85 Fy Cos θ
Where:
Pu is the factored axial load
Vu is the factored shear load
Fy is the reinforcing yield strength (60 ksi)
θ is the angle of the hinge bar to the vertical
The development length required for the hinge bars is 1.25 times that described in AASHTO
Article “Development of Flexural Reinforcement.” Figure 9.2.1-6 shows some typical hinge
details. Space the ties and spirals to satisfy Article “Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for
Confinement” of the Guide Specifications, AASHTO Article “Shear,” or a maximum of
12 inches (6 inches if longitudinal bars are bundled). Premolded joint filler should be used to
assure the required rotational capacity. There should also be a shear key at the hinge bar location.
When the hinge reinforcement is bent, additional confinement reinforcing may be necessary to
take the horizontal component from the bent hinge bars. The maximum spacing of confinement
reinforcing for the hinge is the smaller of that required above and the following:
Av Fy
Pu Tan θ
Smax =
[ 0.85 lh
V
+ s
d ]
Where:
Av, Vs, and d are as defined in AASHTO Article “Notations” and 1h is the distance from the
hinge to where the bend begins.
Continue this spacing one-quarter of the column width (in the plane perpendicular to the hinge)
past the bend in the hinge bars.
E. Column Loads
Loads applied to the columns consist of reactions from loads applied to the superstructure and loads
applied directly to the columns. The load combinations are described in AASHTO Article “Combina-
tion of Loads” and in Chapter 4 of this manual. The Earthquake Load Combination is described in the
Guide Specifications, Article “Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections.” For long
columns, it may be advantageous to reduce the amount of reinforcement as the applied loads decrease
along the column. In these cases, load combinations need to be generated at the locations where the
reinforcement is reduced. Computer programs such as YIELD, GROUPLDS, and GPLOAD can be
used to combine the loads.
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When compatible assumptions are made, Method 1 is generally more conservative and is easier to
apply. For certain structures, however, use of Method 2 can lead to significant economy in the final
structure.
Determination of (kLu/r) requires an estimate of the value of the effective length factor, k. For
unbraced columns, k ≥ 1.2; for braced columns, k ≤ 1.0.
1. Braced or Unbraced Columns
The AASHTO Specifications use the expression “compression members braced against side-
sway” in order to establish an effective column length. In a braced member with loads applied at
the joints, any tendency toward sidesway is resisted by other members.
In building design, bracing is commonly provided by diagonal bracing, shear walls, or similar
elements. Bracing for some columns is provided by other columns within a story. Design proce-
dures developed for these situations are not readily adaptable to bridge design since typical
bridge columns tend to be dominated by lateral loading while building columns are usually
dominated by axial loading.
In the transverse direction, sidesway, due to axial loads may be resisted by lateral flexure of the
superstructure as a result of the connections at the end piers. The usual practice is to consider the
piers as unbraced in the transverse direction.
Normal bridge practices is to provide expansion bearings at the end piers. Thus, the columns must
resist the longitudinal lateral loading and therefore are considered unbraced. The only time a
column can be considered as braced in the longitudinal direction is when it is framed to a bracing
member that does not let the column displace more than L/1500, where L is the total column
length. In this case, the bracing member must be designed to take all of the horizontal forces.
2. Effective Length Factor, k
The computation of the effective length factor for columns can be readily accomplished by using
the charts shown on Design Aid Sheet 9.2-A7. The effective length factor (k) should be
computed for both axes of the column. These charts are appropriate only for prismatic members.
For nonprismatic columns, k is not used in the column design, a second order analysis is more
appropriate.
G on these charts is the ratio of the sum of the flexural stiffnesses of the columns to the sum of
the flexural stiffnesses of the restraining members.
a. Gtop
(1) Transverse Direction
When the connection between a single column pier and the superstructure is moment
resisting, the torsional rigidity of the superstructure may be accounted for in the compu-
tation of the restraining stiffness. In this case, Gtop can be computed as follows:
4Ec(1.2Ic)/Lc
Gtop =
9.5EsRs/2(1+µs)Ls
where:
Ec is the modulus of elasticity of the column
Ic is the column moment of inertia computed for the gross section
Lc is the column length
Es is the modulus of elasticity of the superstructure
Ls is the average length of the adjacent connecting spans
Rs is the torsional rigidity of the superstructure (the I11 value computed for
the computer program SEISAB)
µs is Poisson’s ratio for the superstructure
(2) Longitudinal Direction
When the connection between the pier and the superstructure is moment resisting, Gtop
can be computed as follows:
4Ec(1.2Ic)/Lc
Gtop =
ΣnEs(0.5Is)/Ls
where:
Ec, Ic, and Lc are as defined above for the column
Es and Ls are for the connecting spans
n = 3 for an end span; n = 4 for an intermediate span with fixity at both ends
Is can be taken as the I33 value computed for the computer program SEISAB
AASHTO Article “Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects” requires that the
effect of cracking and reinforcement on the relative stiffnesses must be considered when
determining k. The use of 1.2Ic for the column stiffness approximates the effect of the
column reinforcement. The use of 0.5Is and 0.5Rs for the superstructure accounts for the
effects of cracking. More rational approaches may be considered in some cases.
b. Gbot
By definition, Gbot = Kcol/KR, where:
Kcol = flexural stiffness of the column
Kcol = 4Ec(1.2Ig)Lu for a prismatic column
KR = rotational stiffness constant describing the restraint of the foundation
The rotational stiffness constant, KR, is related to the base fixity, γ, as follows:
KR
Given KR, γ =
KR + Kcol
Figure 9.2.2-2 Approximate relationship between allowable soil bearing value and subgrade
modulus, k.
d. Compute the magnified factored moments, Mc, as specified in AASHTO Equation 8-40. M2b
is defined by the specifications as the bending moment due to gravity loads which result in
no appreciable sidesway (∆ < Lu/1500). Since creep, shrinkage, post-tensioning effects, and
thermal deformations do not result in sidesway of the entire frame, it is considered appropri-
ate to include those moments in the definition of M2b. This provision applies only to those
columns framed together by the superstructure and/or a crossbeam. Note that the use of
Equation 8-40 will generally require that Pc be computed for both the unbraced and the
braced conditions.
PHI Factor
Figure 9.2.2-1
2. Critical Load, Pc
The critical load, Pc, can be readily computed for a prismatic column. For a nonprismatic
column, however, the computation becomes more difficult. Numerical methods are available for
solving this problem accurately; the computer program COLUMN can be used if an estimate of
the effective length factor (k) is made. Other numerical methods require that the rotational
restraint at the column ends be input directly (the effective length is not required).
3. Biaxial Bending
When using the AASHTO specifications regarding bending about both principal axes, the appro-
priate values of Pc and moment magnifiers must be computed for each axis separately.
4. Yield Program
Economy in design time can be achieved by using the program YIELD. The program groups the
AASHTO loads, magnifies the moments, and checks or designs the column steel. Under the
check mode, it will determine the Plastic Hinging Moment Envelope to determine foundation
loads. The moments are all assumed to be acting on an unbraced column; therefore, the results
will be conservative. If magnification factors controlling the column design exceed 1.4, the
designer should use either the more correct method described above or a second-order analysis
described in the following section.
D. Second-Order Analysis
1. General
A second-order analysis which includes the influence of axial loads on the deflected structure is
required under certain circumstances and may be advisable in others. It can lead to substantial
economy in the final design of many structures.
Performing a second-order analysis can be difficult and time consuming. The designer should
consider all of the options carefully and should discuss the situation with the supervisor before
proceeding with the analysis.
The ACI Building Code Commentary (ACI 318 R-83) discusses some general aspects of carrying
out a second-order analysis. Some additional aspects which should be considered are given here.
Previous practice has been to analyze columns separately. This is appropriate only for those
columns that are isolated structurally from the frame as a whole (with sliding bearings in the
direction of interest).
For columns framed together, the entire frame should be analyzed as a unit. Analyzing individual
columns results in overly conservative results for some columns and nonconservative results for
others. This is a result of redistribution of the lateral loads in response to the reduced stiffnesses
of the compression members. For example, in a bridge with long, flexible columns and with
short, stiff columns both integrally connected to a continuous superstructure, the stiff columns
will tend to take a larger proportion of the lateral loading as additional sidesway under axial
loads occurs.
For a second-order analysis, loads are applied to the structure and the analysis results in member
forces and deflections. It must be recognized that a second-order analysis is non-linear; thus, the
commonly used principle of superposition may not be applicable. The loads applied to the struc-
ture should be the entire set of factored loads for the load group under consideration. The analy-
sis must be repeated for each group load of interest. The problem is complicated by the fact that
it is often difficult to predict in advance which load groups will govern.
As with a conventional linear elastic frame analysis, various assumptions and simplifications
must be made in regard to member stiffness, connectivity, and foundation restraint. Care must be
taken to use conservative values for the slenderness analysis. For compression members, use of
the equations for EI stated in AASHTO Article “Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects”
will give an adequately conservative value. For concrete beams, use EI = 0.5EcIg. This is inexact
in that reinforcement, cracking, load duration, and their variation along the members are not
explicitly taken into account. More precise methods may be used. Foundation restraint will often
be modeled as rotational springs (lateral and vertical springs may also be incorporated). A stiff-
ness matrix may be computed to represent the soil-foundation interaction. Procedures to compute
these values will be discussed in Chapter 4, “Modeling Foundations.”
For certain loadings, column moments are sensitive to the stiffness assumptions used in the
analysis. For example, loads developed as a result of thermal deformations within a structure may
change significantly with changes in column, beam, and foundation stiffnesses. Accordingly,
upper and lower bounds on these stiffnesses should be determined and the analysis repeated
using both sets to verify that the governing load has been found.
The specifications include the strength reduction factor, φ, in the computation of the moment
magnifiers. No guidance is given with respect to the use of φ in a second-order analysis scheme.
The following procedure is adopted:
• For the lower-bound analysis, use the reduced member stiffnesses discussed earlier and the
lower-bound foundation restraint stiffness values. Multiply the member stiffnesses by the
appropriate reduction factor: φ = 0.9 for beams, and φ varies for columns.
• For the upper-bound analysis, use stiffness assumptions normally employed for elastic analy-
sis; IB = Ig, IC = 1.2Ig, and the upper-bound foundation restraint stiffnesses. The stiffnesses
for the upper-bound analysis should not be reduced (φ = 1.0). E for concrete varies with
loading type; thus, some superposition of results may be required in spite of the non-linearity
of the analysis. In most cases, the non-linear effects will be small for the relatively stiff
upper-bound analysis. Judgment is required.
Note: Computations of effective length factors, k, and buckling loads, Pc, are not required for a
second-order analysis, though they may be helpful in establishing the need for such an analysis.
In general, if magnification factors computed using the AASHTO Specifications are found to
exceed about 1.4, then a second-order analysis may yield substantial benefits.
Methods for satisfying the requirements of a second-order analysis are given as follows:
a. The preferred method for performing a second-order analysis of an entire frame or on
isolated single columns is to use the program GTSTRUDL with appropriate stiffness and
restraint assumptions. The columns are divided into a number of individual segments
(10 gave good results in tests). The factored group loads (including the self-weight of the
columns) are applied to the frame. The model is then analyzed using the nonlinear option
available in GTSTRUDL. The final design moments are obtained directly from the analysis.
Care must be taken in modeling complex structures as the cost of a nonlinear analysis can be
high.
b. For isolated single columns, the program COLUMN gives the magnified moments directly
(P-∆ moments are added to the applied moments using an iterative process until stability is
reached).
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c. For isolated single columns, the program LPILE1 can be manipulated to also give the magni-
fied moments directly.
Note: Neither of these programs, COLUMN nor LPILE1, includes the effect of the column
weight; therefore, the axial load must be adjusted as follows: Pu* = Pu + 1/3 * factored
column weight. Care and judgment must be used as they have limitations on the boundary
conditions and configurations that may be analyzed.
d. For isolated single columns, the iterative hand method is sometimes economical. Loads
affected by column stiffness (temperature, shrinkage, and post tensioning) cannot be
analyzed this way.
The factored load is applied to the column and the deflections are computed along the length
of the member taking into account restraints top and bottom and the effect of variations in
moment and I along the length of the column. The load is adjusted for the P-∆ moment. The
adjusted loads are applied to the column and the deflections are computed again. The deflec-
tions usually converge in about five iterations (deflections from last cycle are within 5 per-
cent of the total deflections). If not, the column is too flexible and is unstable for that load.
The program LOTUS can be used to do the repetitious hand calculations. Column EI must
be adjusted according to AASHTO Article “Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness
Effects.” Pu* including one-third the factored column weight must not exceed .7Pc.
*At service load level.
2. Special Provisions for Seismic Loading
The following applies to those structures designed according to the AASHTO Guide Specifica-
tions for Seismic Design.
The seismic analysis program SEISAB does not include the secondary effects of the axial loads.
Therefore, a modified approach is necessary to perform a second-order analysis for this loading.
The moment magnifier method magnifies the Group VII loads as follows:
Mu = δbMDL + δs(MEQ/R)
where MEQ is the elastic seismic moment obtained from SEISAB and R is the response modifica-
tion factor defined in the Guide Specifications.
The design philosophy of the Guide Specifications may be summarized as follows:
The columns are designed to hinge (fail in flexure) at a specified percentage of the computed
fully elastic seismic moment. This will occur at a deflection and shear force corresponding to
δsMEQ/R. At this point, inelastic deflection will continue to some unknown maximum, but
bending moments and shear forces in the columns will theoretically not increase.
Therefore, the problem is to come up with an approach to compute the additional design moment
due to slenderness effects, M, such that:
MEQ/R + M = δsMEQ/R.
A suggested second-order analysis is given as follows:
Estimate the maximum primary elastic deflection of the frame:
∆PR = ∆EQ/R
where ∆EQ is the CQC elastic deflection computed from SEISAB.
Apply ∆PR to a GTSTRUDL model of the frame. This will yield a set of primary deflections
and forces, MPR and VPR, corresponding to ∆PR. (Note that for some structures, these forces
may not agree exactly with the SEISAB results.)
Apply the external gravity loadings and the primary lateral force determined above to the
original model. Use the nonlinear option of GTSTRUDL to analyze the structure. The final
moments (MF) obtained are then equal to the sum of the primary moments (MPR) and the
additional moments due to slenderness effects (M).
Thus, the design moments for the columns are given by:
Mu = MDL + MEQ/R + M
where:
M = MF - MPR obtained from the GTSTRUDL analysis.
Note: The response modification factor, R, used for footing or pile design is generally less than
the value used for the columns. Thus, a separate analysis may be required to obtain the footing
design moments.
E. Resisting Capacities
Once magnified moments have been established, the resisting capacity of the column section must be
made adequate to carry this magnified moment. The appropriate capacity reduction factor (φ) must be
used in the computation of this resisting capacity. In addition, the superstructure and the foundation
must also be designed to resist this magnified moment.
1. Reduction Factor (φ)
According to AASHTO Article “Design Strength,” the reduction factor (φ) may be increased
linearly from the value for compression members to the value for flexure as the design axial load
strength, φPn, decreases from .10fc′Ag or the balanced load strength φPb, whichever is smaller, to
zero. Since moment capacities are based on the factored axial load, Pu, this axial load is equal to
the design axial load strength, or Pu = φPn. The balanced load strength can be less than .10fc′Ag
when the area of reinforcement in tension of the column exceeds .02Ag. This is rarely the case in
column design but can be the case in pile design.
According to the Guide Specifications Article “Flexural Strength,” for Seismic Performance
Categories C and D, the value of φ for Group VII Loading may be increased linearly from .50 to
the value for flexure when the stress due to the maximum axial load decreases from .20fc′Ag to
zero.
Figure 9.2.2-1 shows a graph of φPn versus φ. This graph is appropriate unless φPb is less than
.10fc′Ag. Computer program YIELD computes φ according to this graph.
2. Moment Capacity
Computer programs such as YIELD and ULT2AX can be used to compute the moment strength,
φMn. The program YIELD computes the moment strength in the direction of the resultant Mx
and My. The program ULT2AX computes the moment strength in the direction given in the
input; therefore, the φMn curve must be plotted for the axial load strength, Pn. The resultant of
Mux and Muy must fall within the curve.
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9.3 Abutments
9.3.1 Size and Construction Details
A. Representative Types
Several representative types of abutments that have been used by the Bridge and Structures Division
are shown in Figure 9.3.1-1. The types shown are intended for guidance only and may be varied to
suit the type of bridge being designed.
B. Bearing Seats
The bearing seats shall be wide enough to accommodate the size of the bearings used with a mini-
mum edge dimension of 3 in. and satisfy the requirements of the Guide Specification for Seismic
Design of Highway Bridges, Article “Design Displacements.” On L-abutments, the bearing seat
should be sloped away from the bearings to prevent a build up or pocket of water at the bearings. The
superelevation and profile grade of the structure should be considered for drainage protection.
Normally, a 1/4 in. drop across the width of the bearing seat is sufficient.
C. Bearing Restraints and Girder Stops
All structures shall be provided with some means of restraint against lateral displacement at the
abutments due to earthquake, temperature and shrinkage, wind, earth pressure, etc. Such restraints
may be in the form of concrete hinges, concrete girder stops with or without vertical elastomeric
pads, or pintles in metal bearings. Other solutions are possible. Article “Connection Design Forces” of the
Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges describe longitudinal linkage force
and hold-down devices required.
To eliminate alignment conflicts between prestressed girders and girder stops, prestressed girders
should be placed in final position before girder stops are cast. Allow 1/8 in. clearance between the
prestressed girder flange and the girder stop to prevent binding. Incorporate details of Figure 9.3.1-2
in bridge plans.
D. Face Slope
A vertical abutment wall or a 1:4 slope is used on the front face of the abutment as shown on Design
Aid Sheets 9.3-A2 through 9.3-A6. On very high abutments, where a 1:4 slope would create an
excessively wide bearing seat, the slope should be adjusted or using the slope only at the exposed
leading edge of the abutment and wing wall while leaving the remaining abutment wall surface verti-
cal. On abutments with fractured fin surface, the front face should be vertical to match the fractured
fins.
E. Sizing Abutments
Other portions of the abutment shall be sized for stress. As indicated in Figure 9.3.1-1, additional
stem width, where required, may be obtained by sloping the back face of the wall.
On extremely high walls (30 feet and above) subjected to large earth pressures, consideration should
be given to using counterfort construction. See Section 9.4.2 B of this manual, Counterfort Retaining
Walls.
F. Class of Concrete
The class of concrete used in abutments and standard wingwalls shall be Class 4000.
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Underdrain pipe and gravel backfill for drains are not necessary behind cantilever wing walls. Three-
foot (3 ft.) thickness of gravel backfill for walls behind the cantilever wing walls shall be shown in
the plans.
The backfill for walls, underdrain pipe and gravel backfill for drains are not included in bridge quan-
tities, the size of the underdrain pipe should not be shown on the plans. Figure 9.3.1-4 illustrates
backfill details.
J. Embankment at Bridge Ends
The minimum clearances for the embankment at the front face of abutments shall be as indicated on
Standard Plan Sheet H-9. At the ends of the abutment, the fill may be contained with wing walls or in
the case of concrete structures, placed against the exterior girders. On stub abutments with the end
diaphragm cast on the superstructure, the open expansion joint must be protected from the fill.
Normally, 1/8 in. butyl rubber is used to seal the opening. Figure 9.3.1-5 and Figure 9.3.1-6 show
typical details using butyl rubber. The bearings must also be protected from the fill. Figure 9.3.1-7
and Figure 9.3.1-8 show typical details to protect the bearings. There are many other different ways to
protect the open expansion joints and bearings than shown in Figures 9.3.1-5 through 8. The method
used should be well detailed in the plans. The Special Provision and Estimates unit can advise as to
what types of materials would or would not require special provisions.
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1. Metal Cribbing
There are two types of metal cribbing approved for use in the state of Washington. The details
are shown in the Standard Plans.
2. Reinforced Concrete Cribbing
Concrete cribbing is similar to metal and can be used as an alternate. It is recommended to use
this type in marine areas for its ability to withstand corrosion.
3. Log Cribbing
Log cribbing has a rustic aesthetic value which makes it popular for use in locations having a
natural environment, such as parks, national forests, or primitive areas. It is well suited for use on
detours or temporary walls used for stage construction.
E. Cylinder Pile Walls
This wall utilizes a large diameter, 4 to 10 feet, drilled shaft filled with Class 4000 concrete. The
shaft is reinforced with steel beams or steel reinforcing bars. Wall heights, up to 50 feet, have been
built to retain fills. Wall panels made of cast-in-place concrete, precast concrete or timber are
connected to cylinder piles.
F. Tieback Walls
Tieback walls use vertical main load carrying members, such as soldier piles, cylinder piles, sheet
piles, or slurry walls, to resist horizontal forces. The main members are connected to high strength
steel bars or strand anchors, which are fixed into soil or rock with high strength grout and stressed to
counteract the horizontal earth pressure loads. These walls can be built to heights exceeding 50 feet.
The anchors can be incorporated into a permanent wall by the use of a double corrosion protection
system or can be used in a temporary condition for shoring and cribbing. The greatest advantage in
using tiebacks is that it causes minimal disturbance to the soil behind the wall and any structures
resting on this soil. Nonstressed anchors, called deadman anchors, rely on passive pressure of the soil
in front of the deadman panel to resist horizontal forces.
G. Proprietary Walls
A wall specified to be supplied from a single source (patented, trademark, or copyright) is a propri-
etary wall. These walls can range in heights from 15 to 50 feet. The following is a description of the
most common types of proprietary walls:
1. Structural Earth Walls
A structural earth wall is a flexible system consisting of concrete face panels that are held rigidly
into place with thin galvanized steel or aluminum strips extending into a select backfill mass.
These walls will allow for some settlement and are best used for fill sections. The walls have
three principal elements:
• The backfill or wall mass: a grandular soil with good internal friction (gravel borrow).
• The reinforcing metal strips, steel mesh, welded wire, or geotextiles.
• The facing: precast concrete panels, welded wire with vegetation, geotextiles, or shotcrete.
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There are several important factors when selecting a structural earth wall. These are as follows:
a. Height
In fills more than 10 feet high, structural earth walls are generally less costly than other wall
types in fill locations.
b. Length
Adequate room is needed for earthwork equipment. Short, low walls should be avoided.
c. Backfill
A granular soil meeting the requirements of gravel borrow is required for the wall mass. In
areas where the wall may become saturated, the backfill shall be free-draining. The Materials
Lab will supply the Special Provisions for the wall mass material.
d. Excavation
Structural earth walls are typically more costly than other wall types in excavation areas.
Greater excavation is needed to accommodate the wall mass which has a width of about
70 percent of the wall height.
e. Foundation
These walls perform well in settlement sensitive areas, but are not adaptable to pile support.
f. Aesthetics
Facing is available in a variety of surface textures, shapes and colors. Welded wire wall
surfaces may have vegetation growing on exposed surfaces to match existing terrain. The
backfill used in this case must be suitable to sustain vegetation growth at the face of the
wall.
2. Geotextile Walls
Geotextile walls are structural earth walls that use geotextile fabric for the reinforcement and the
facing. The main use of fabric walls is for temporary walls, which can become permanent walls
with a cast-in-place or shotcrete facing. The Materials Lab is responsible for the design and
review of geotextile walls.
3. Other Proprietary Walls
Other wall systems similar in concept to the standard crib, bin, precast cantilever, or tieback can
offer cost reductions, reduce construction time, and provide special aesthetic features.
A list of preapproved proprietary walls is on file in our office, including height limitations. The
district can select a particular wall type from the list and include it in the contract plans, as an
alternate to a Standard Wall. The Materials Lab and the Preliminary Plans Unit will approve the
concept prior to Ad. The Special Provisions will be written by the Bridge Office with design
criteria, and the Materials Lab will give the soil criteria needed for design and check the soil for
overall stability. Prior to wall construction, the supplier will submit design calculations and shop
drawings for approval. The following is a list of the proprietary wall systems that are
preapproved:
a. Criblock Retaining Walls Northwest Inc. — “Criblock” up to 30 feet.
b. Hilfiker Retaining Walls, a cast-in-place concrete face is not allowed with these wall
systems.
(1) “Reinforced Soil Wall” — up to 30 feet.
(2) “Welded Wire Wall” — up to 20 feet.
c. The Reinforced Earth Co. — “Reinforced Earth” — up to 30 feet.
d. VSL Corporation — “Reinforced Earth” — up to 30 feet.
H. Slurry Walls
Slurry wall construction method enables wall placement to precede wall excavation. This is useful
when restricted by tight right-of-way, staging construction, or where ground water is a problem. A
trench is excavated for the wall and simultaneously filled with a bentonite slurry. The bentonite slurry
restricts the ground water flow and holds the trench sides in place. Reinforcing steel is placed in the
slurry-filled trench and concrete is placed by means of a tremie or a concrete pump while displacing
the slurry. After the concrete has cured, the excavation can be completed. With the addition of
tiebacks, these walls can exceed heights of 50 feet. For an aesthetically pleasing appearance, facing is
used in the form of precast panels, cast-in-place concrete, or shotcrete.
I. Rock Walls
Rock walls are gravity walls made of stacked large rock. They are used primarily in cut sections to
provide erosion protection and limited support. They are generally 15 feet or less in height.
J. Soil Nailing
Soil nailing is a technique used to stabilize moving earth, such as a landslide, or as a means of
temporary shoring. Soil anchors are used along with the strength of the soil to provide stability. The
Materials Lab will design the system of soil nailing to be incorporated in the bridge contract plans.
K. Wingwall
A wingwall retains the fill beyond the bridge end. It acts like a horizontal cantilevered wall with its
main support from the end abutment. The two Office Standards lengths are 15 feet with 1 3/4:1 and
2:1 fill slope and 20 feet with 2:1 fill slope wingwalls. The standards also show different surface
treatments, e.g., fractured fin finish or plain concrete finish. A separate design is required when using
a nonstandard length. See Design Example 9.4 B1-10 for curtain wall rigidly attached to footing and
abutment wall.
L. Noise Walls
Noise walls are primarily used in urban or residential areas to mitigate noise or to obstruct view of
roadway. Precast wall panels supported by precast pilasters, cast-in-place wall and footing, or wood
fencing are the common types. The Architectural Section is responsible for determining wall type.
Design criteria for noise walls is based on AASHTO’s Guide Specifications for Structural Design of
Sound Barriers.
9.4.3 Design
A. General
Refer to AASHTO Specifications and Bridge Design Manual Criteria 9.1.2, 9.3.1F and G, and
9.5.1A2. Service Load Design is used for design of retaining walls and the loading combinations shall
be as described in AASHTO. Service Load Design is used rather than Load Factor Design, because of
its long history of good performance and due to the lack of development of Load Factor Design
criteria for retaining walls.
9.4 - 6
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
9.4 - 8
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
B. Cantilever Walls
In general, concrete for retaining walls shall be Class 3000 Concrete with a 28-day compressive
strength of 3,000 psi. For special retaining wall design, the use of Class 4000 is appropriate.
Earth pressures shall be based on soil weight = 120 lb./cu. ft., the surcharge slope, the coefficient of
internal friction and/or the cohesion of the backfill material. Normally the earth pressure is taken as
30 lb./cu. ft. equivalent fluid pressure when well draining granular backfill material is used. Special
consideration should be given to the design of the “U” shape abutment without expansion joints
between the abutment and retaining walls. At the junction of the abutment and retaining wall an
equivalent fluid pressure of 45 lb./cu. ft. shall be used. This increased loading can normally be
reduced to 30 lb./cu. ft. at a distance from the junction of the abutment and retaining wall equal to the
average height of the wall under design.
The resultant for Group I loadings (except for walls with traffic barriers having a height (H) of
16 feet or less, see table below) shall be kept within the middle one-third of footing. This can be
expressed as a minimum Factor of Safety (FS) of two against overturning about the toe of the footing
for spread footings or the front row of piles for pile footings (see 9.5.1 for additional criteria regard-
ing pile footings). For all other loading combinations, the resultant shall be kept within the middle
one-half of the footing. To maintain adequate safety against sliding, the following should be observed
for spread footings.
(FS)P (P = total horizontal force on wall)
≤ 0.5
W (W= total minimum vertical load)
For walls having a height (H) of 16 feet or less, the controlling load is the 10 kip collision load. This
load occurs occasionally and will have a reduced factor of safety.
For sliding, the passive resistance in the front of the footing may be considered if the earth is more
than 2 feet deep on the top of the footing and does not slope downward away from the wall. The
design soil pressure at the toe of the footing shall not exceed the allowable soil bearing capacity
supplied by the Foundation Engineer.
For retaining walls resting on foundation piles, refer to Bridge Design Manual Sections 9.5.1, 9.5.2,
and 9.6.
Mononobe-Okabe analysis in AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges
shall be used as a check in the design of the wall. AASHTO article “Abutments” gives equations to
calculate the earthquake forces. Reduced factors of safety are shown in the preceding table. The
Mononobe-Okabe equation requires the following assumptions:
• Kv = 0, vertical acceleration coefficient is zero.
• Kh = A/2, A is the acceleration coefficient.
• δ, angle of friction between soil and abutment
i, backfill slope angle
• δ = i, slip is more likely to occur within the backfill than between soil and abutment interface.
The earthquake force will be in the same direction as the slope of the surface of the backfill.
• β = 0, For cantilever walls, the soil fails in a vertical plane through the footing heel. This results
in β = 0 for cantilever walls, regardless of wall batter.
See example in Design Aid 9.4-A1 to determine earthquake load.
C. Diaphragm Walls (Other names: Slurry Wall, Cut-off Wall, or Curtain Wall)
The permanent diaphragm walls include cylinder or tangent pile walls, simple panel slurry walls, and
T-section slurry walls.
1. Advantages of diaphragm walls are:
a. No formwork required;
b. No lowering of the ground water table required;
c. Can form outer wall of structures;
d. Irregular shapes are possible;
e. Relatively impervious in comparison with other types of walls, if dry excavation is
necessary;
f. Construction possible under adverse circumstances, such as unfavorable soils and hydrologic
conditions and where other techniques may have limitations;
g. Can be constructed to considerable depths ahead of the main excavation;
h. Relatively free from vibrations and noise during construction.
2. Disadvantages of diaphragm walls are:
a. Limited local contractor experience which may result in higher bid prices or unforeseen
construction problems;
b. The disposal of used slurries in urban areas may pose special problems.
c. Higher cost.
3. Design Criteria
a. Class 4000 concrete is typically used. Higher strength concrete may be specified for special
cases with approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
b. To compensate for the effects of the concrete being cast in a slurry, the assumed concrete
compressive strength shall be fc = 0.85fc′. Modulus of elasticity shall be calculated from the
reduced concrete strength.
c. Use 80 percent of the allowable bond stress (i.e., increase development length by 25 percent)
for deformed bars due to the thin, slippery film coating on the reinforcing steel from the
slurry.
d. Lap splices shall be 1.5 times normally specified splice length.
e. To allow for proper placement of concrete, use the following minimum spacing:
• Vertical bars at 6 inch spacing, preferably 9 inch spacing.
• Horizontal bars at 12 inch spacing.
f. Concrete cover shall be a minimum of 3 inches;
g. The wall panel shall be a maximum of 48 inches thick for both simple and T-section
diaphragm walls. The maximum panel width is limited to 8 feet for T-section and 24 feet for
simple diaphragm wall. Use the same thickness for the flange and the stem of a T-section if
possible.
h. There are tree common types of analysis:
(1) Factored soil strength parameters of Cm, φm, and δm with full passive coefficient KP
(so-called Duncan’s method):
φm = tan-1 (tanφ)
F
C
Cm = F
2
δm = φ
3 m
By reducing soil strength parameters, the length of embedment required for wall
stability is used in design.
An approximate correlation between depth factor and factor of safety applied to shear
strength is shown as follows:
Depth Corresponding
Soils Factor* Value of F
Good 1.2 1.15 ~ 1.17
Typical 1.3 1.25
Bad 1.4 1.29 ~ 1.36
*Conventional practice is to use a factor of safety which increases the embedded depth
by 20 to 40 percent above the value required for barely stable equilibrium. The choice
of depth factor is based on engineering judgment.
(2) Unfactored soil parameters use KP/1.5, without adding additional length.
(3) Unfactored soil parameters use KP, when providing 20 ~ 40 percent additional length.
i. Soil loading due to earthquake is based on Mononobe-Okabe pseudo-static analysis (refer to
Guide Specification, Commentary “Foundation and Abutment Design Requirements, Free-
Standing Abutments”)
KAE = KA + KAE
where
KAE = the coefficient of total earthquake earth pressure
KAE = KA (Coulomb’s static active coefficient), when θ = 0°
∆KAE = the additional dynamic load
The static loads are triangularly distributed and the additional dynamic loads are uniformly
distributed on the wall.
It is recommended that the horizontal acceleration coefficient Kh for diaphragm walls be the
value of 1.0A, which falls in between the value of 0.5A for yielding walls and 1.5A for
nonyielding walls. (A = acceleration coefficient)
The design seismic passive resistances represent the total resistance during earthquake. The
coefficient of passive resistance can be determined from the Guide Specifications for Seis-
mic Design of Highway Bridges.
Note that if, θ = 0°, then KPE = KP (Coulomb’s static passive coefficient)
For the submerged portion of soils, KAE and KPE shall be calculated by replacing γ with γ′.
( Kh . γ )
= tan-1
1-Kv γ′
where
γ ′ = submerged unit weight of soil
Kv = vertical acceleration coefficient
j. Two different techniques can be used for design of diaphragm walls:
(1) Fixed Earth Support Method — So-called “Conventional Method” (refer to USS Steel
Sheet Piling Design Manual).
(2) Free Earth Support Method — So-called “Simplified Method.” This method uses
active earth pressure on the projecting portions of the wall, and passive pressures on the
front of the wall for the entire embedded length. The required depth of embedment is
determined based on:
(a) Moment equilibrium about the base of the wall;
(b) Overall wall and slope stability using unfactored (or peak) soil strength parameters
and factor of safety ≥ 1.5; and
(c) A minimum wall depth below the excavation level depending on engineering
judgment or criteria from the Materials Laboratory.
Due to its simplicity and accuracy, the “Free Earth Support Method” is
recommended to design diaphragm walls. A computer program name “Wall” is
available.
k. The maximum deflection at the top of the wall at service load levels shall be limited to
H/120 or 4 inches, whichever is less, and to about 2 inches at the base, and to about
11/2 inches at the potential deteriorated plane (or slip plane). The calculation of deflection is
based on a value of n = 16 for determining modulus of elasticity of concrete used.
l. The wall is designed based on “Ultimate Strength Design Method” (or Load Factored Design
Method”). The following procedures should be used.
(1) The minimum reinforcement provided shall be adequate to fulfill the requirements of
AASHTO Article “Minimum Reinforcement.”
(2) Find the amount of reinforcement (on a trial basis).
(3) Check flexural cracking (see AASHTO Article “Distribution of Flexural Reinforce-
ment”).
(4) Calculate moment and shear capacity and check if they are larger than the applied
moment and shear based on AASHTO table “Table of Coefficients γ and β.”
(5) When using the equivalent (or pseudo)-static earthquake loadings and ultimate strength
design methods, the section capacity, U, should be:
U ≥ 1.3 (DL + βE · EP + W)
or
U ≥ 1.0 [DL + βE (EQ + W)]
where
DL = dead load of the structural element;
EP = static earth pressure acting on the element (plus surcharge);
EQ = earthquake earth pressure acting on the element;
W = hydrostatic water pressure
βE = 1.0 when using Duncan’s Method
1.3 when using Conventional Method with full KP
m. For diaphragm wall with tiebacks:
(1) Recommended embedment is a minimum of at least 10 feet below the proposed
excavation level. Actual embedment may be increased to provide adequate kick-out
resistance through development of passive pressure or for vertical load capacity.
(2) Due to soil-structure interaction, a redistribution of lateral stresses is anticipated,
resulting in reduction of pressure near the center of spans between anchors, and a
concentration of pressure at supports. The design of the wall with regard to moment
capacity, estimate the actual moment in the walls as follows:
Mactual = R · Mcalculated
The value of R for clay approaches unity as the compressibility of the soil increases.
The value of R for loose sand is larger than that for dense sand. The typical value of
R for sand is recommended to be 0.8. Also, the values of R for stiff walls are larger than
for flexible walls.
D. Tieback Walls
1. Principles of Anchor Design
Anchor design includes:
• Evaluation of the feasibility of anchors,
• Selection of an anchor system,
• Estimation of anchor capacity,
• Determination of unbonded length, bonded length, and
• Selection of corrosion protection.
The engineer should determine whether anchors can be economically used at a particular site
based on the ability to install the anchors and to develop capacity. The presence of
utilities or other underground facilities may govern whether anchors can be installed.
The tendon may consist of bars, wires, or strands. The choice of appropriate type is usually left
to the contractor but may be specified by the designer if special site conditions exist which
preclude the use of certain tendon types. In general, strands and wires have advantages with
respect to tensile strength, limited work areas, ease of transportation, and storage. Bars are more
easily protected against corrosion, easier to stress and transfer load.
A reliable estimate of the safe anchor capacity is required from the soil’s report recommendations
for each project to determine the feasibility of anchoring. The capacity of each anchor shall be
verified by testing. Testing shall be part of anchor installation and included in the specifications.
Based on previous experience, a range of typical design values is listed as follows:
a. Design loads between 30 and 120 tons.
b. The anchor wall system must be analyzed to ensure long-term stability. The minimum
unbonded length must be specified in the contract document, and is usually 15 feet for soil
and rock anchors (longer free lengths may be required in plastic soils, consult the Geotech-
nical Engineer) in order to avoid unacceptable prestress losses due to creep in the steel, soil,
or rock.
c. Angle of inclination between 10 degrees and 45 degrees. A 15 degree angle is preferred to
simplify grouting and minimize vertical forces imposed on the wall by the anchors. Steeper
angles, up to 45 degrees, are only recommended to reach deep bearing strata or avoid
existing substructures.
The estimated ultimate load transferred from the bond length to different types of soils is listed as
follows:
Corrected Standard Estimated
Penetration No. Ultimate Transfer
Soil Type N Load in Kip/ft
9.4 - 16
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
Typical amount of wall translation (top movement) to develop the active earth pressure.
Amount of
Soil and Condition Translation
Cohesionless (0.1% to 0.2%)H
Dense
Cohesionless (0.2% to 0.5%)H
Loose
Cohesive (1% to 2%)H
Firm
Cohesive (2% to 5%)H
Soft
3. Corrosion Protection
The corrosion protection of anchors can be divided into two categories*:
a. Simple Protection The use of simple protection relies on Portland cement grout to protect
the tendon, bar, or strand in the bond zone. The unbonded lengths are sheaths filled with
anti-corrosion grease, heat shrink sleeves, and secondary grouting after stressing. Except for
secondary grouting, the protection is usually in place prior to inserting the tendon in the
hole.
b. Double Protection Complete encapsulation of the anchor tendon is accomplished by a corru-
gated PVC, high-density polyethlene, or steel tube. The same provisions of protecting the
unbonded length for simple protection are applied to those for double protection.
*Provide simple protection for temporary tieback walls (less than 18 months) and double protec-
tion for permanent tieback walls.
4. Angle of Wall Friction
The wall friction depends on the soil properties, the amount and direction of wall movement, the
wall material, and the surface condition. Values of δ = 0 or δ = φ are generally too low and
high, respectively, for most practical cases. The typical values are between 1 φ/3 and 2 φ/3. It is
conservative if assumed δ = 0.
5. Determination of Tieback Spacing
The preliminary anchor spacing can be determined from Figure 9.4.3-1.
Suggested temporary test loads are between 75 and 80 percent of Guaranteed Ultimate Tensile
Strength (GUTS). Suggested Limits for design loads, T, are between 0.5 and 0.6 of GUTS
(typically 53 percent).
Therefore,
(S1 + S1)S2 = T cos q
2 PE
Typical pile spacings (horizontal) of 6 to 10 feet and anchor spacings (vertical) of 8 to 12 feet are
commonly used. The minimum spacing of 4 feet in both directions is not recommended for
considering the effectiveness and disturbance of anchors due to installation.
9.4 - 18
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
Figure 9.4.3-2
For the submerged portion of soil, KAE and KPE should be calculated by replacing θ with θ′
in Equations (4) and (5) and replacing γ with γ′ for calculating earth pressure.
Note:
(1) Neglect any passive resistance below the base of excavation in D zone where D is the
largest value of 1.5 times shaft diameter, 0.1 times height of the wall, depth of fascia
wall footing, or anticipated future excavation depth within 20 feet of wall.
(2) Active pressure is assumed to act over pile spacing above base of excavation and over
shaft diameter below base of excavation. Passive pressure is assumed to act over two
times over shaft diameter or pile spacing, whichever is smaller.
(3) For permanent tiebacks, tie back DESIGN LOAD, T, Shall be (1) + (2) or [(1) +
(3)]/1.5, whichever is greater. For temporary tiebacks, tie back DESIGN LOAD, T, shall
be (1) + (2).
(4) Lock-off load is 80 percent of (1) + (2) for permanent wall and 70 percent of (1) + (2)
for temporary wall.
(5) Proof test to 1.5T for permanent tiebacks and to 1.3T for temporary tiebacks.
Figure 9.4.3-3
b. Depth of Embedment
For cantilever piles without tieback, the embedment should be determined to satisfy horizon-
tal force equilibrium and moment equilibrium about the bottom of the pile.
For piles with tiebacks, the depth of embedment is determined by moment equilibrium of
lateral force about kpoint 0.
Neglect the moment resistance of soldier pile member at 0.
Depth of embedment, D, must also be sufficient to provide necessary vertical capacity or
adequate kick-out resistance through development of passive pressure.
c. Design of Timber Lagging
Most commonly, the lagging thickness is determined from past construction experience as
related to depth of excavation, soil condition, and soldier pile spacing. In other cases, soil
pressure distribution recommended by geotechnical engineer is used to determine the thick-
ness of lagging.
The soil pressure distribution equal to 50 percent of the lateral earth pressure diagram is
recommended to design lagging which is simply supported. The 50 percent reduction is due
to the soil arching effect behind the wall. However, this procedure leads to unreasonably
thick lagging for deep excavations with relatively larger soldier pile spacings.
d. Design of Fascia Wall
Fascia wall shall be reinforced concrete and shall be designed according to the latest
AASHTO Standard and Interim Specifications for Highway Bridges.* The minimum struc-
tural thickness of fascia wall shall be 9 inches. Architectural treatment of facing shall be
indicated on the drawing.
Concrete strength shall not be less than 3,000 psi at 28 days. The wall is to extend 2 feet
minimum below the ground line adjacent to the wall.
Permanent drainage systems shall be provided to prevent hydrostatic pressures developing
behind the wall. A cut which slopes toward the proposed wall will invariably encounter
natural subsurface drainage.
Vertical chimney drains, prefabricated drains, or porous engineering fabrics can be used for
normal situations to collect and transport drainage to a weep hole or pipe located at the base
of the wall. Concentrated areas of subsurface drainage may be controlled by installing hori-
zontal drains to intercept the flow at a distance well behind the wall.
*Note:
(1) Most possibilities of load cases governing are:
Group I = 1.3(DL + 1.67LL + 1.3E)
Group VII = 1.0(D + E + EQ)
(2) 50 percent of worse load is used for design.
(3) Check for 10 kips impact load.
9.4 - 24
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
Figure 9.4.3-4a
9.4 - 26
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
(2) Base of excavation in or smaller than 10 feet above soft soil layer.
Figure 9.4.3-4b
Note: Stability number n and m are determined based on stability analysis of the project
walls. Consult with Material Laboratory to obtain appropriate values of n and m.
Figures 9.4.3-5
9-4:V:BDM9
9.5 Footings
9.5.1 Spread Footings
A. General
The provisions given in this section pertain to both spread footings and pile supported footings except
as noted in 9.5.2, Pile Supported Footings.
1. Footing Shape and Location
Footings shall normally be rectangular in plan for both square and skewed bridges. Footing depth
will normally be set at the minimum required to assure adequate bearing pressure and cover. On
stream crossings, additional cover depth may be required as protection against scour. The
Hydraulic Section should be consulted on this matter. Unnecessary footing depth results in large
increases in cost. The end slope on the bridge approach fill is usually set at the preliminary plan
stage but affects the depth of footings placed in the fill. Figure 9.5.1-1 illustrates some items to
consider when developing footing positions.
2. Retaining Wall Footings
Retaining wall footings shall be designed using working stress methods for reasons stated in
Subsection 9.4. The resultant of forces shall be kept within the middle one-third of the footing for
Group I loadings and within the middle one-half of the footing for all other service load condi-
tions, including impact collision load for walls under 16 feet. See AASHTO Working Strength
Loading Combinations.
3. Design Loadings for Spread or Pile Footings
Footings will normally be designed by load factor methods. The factored loads shall be in
accordance with Section 4, as modified below. Where the footing is being used to support a long
column, the magnified moments shall be used for footing design. See Section 9.2.1E for guidance
on computing magnified moments. See Figures 9.5.1-2 and 9.5.1-3 for modes of failure for
spread and pile footings.
Allowable soil bearing capacities and pile loads are given in terms of service loads as they are
obtained from the Foundation Engineer or, in the case of piles, specified on the plans. When
factored loads are applied to the footing, the following maximum soil or pile loading shall apply.
This value includes any capacity reduction φ factor.
a. Basic Load Combination
Using Group I Working Stress Design, the soil or pile loading shall not exceed 1.0 times the
allowable, and for spread footings, the resultant shall fall within the middle one-third of the
footing area. In the case of a pile footing:
(1) No uplift shall be used for Group I loading.
(2) Stability requirements shall be met without mobilizing the piles.
(3) Stability check against overturning shall be taken about the front row of piles.
b. Factored Load Combinations
(1) Soil Pressure or Pile Reactions
For any factored load combination, the soil loading shall not exceed twice the allowable.
Maximum pile loading shall be in accordance with the following:
Whenever a pedestal is used, the plans shall note that a construction joint will be permitted between
the pedestal and the footing. This construction joint should be indicated as a construction joint with
roughened surface.
D. Footing Design
1. Footing Thickness and Shear Design
The minimum footing thickness shall be 1 foot 6 inches or, for pile supported footings, 2 feet
0 inches. The minimum plan dimension shall be 4 feet 0 inches. Footing thickness may be gov-
erned by the development length of the column dowels, or by concrete shear requirements, with
or without reinforcement. If concrete shear governs the thickness, it is the Engineer’s judgment,
based on economics, as to whether to use a thick footing unreinforced for shear or a thinner
footing with shear reinforcement. Generally, shear reinforcement should be avoided but not at
excessive cost in concrete, excavation, and shoring requirements. Where stirrups are required,
place the first stirrup at d/2 from the face of the column or pedestal. For large footings, consider
discontinuing the stirrups at the point where vu = vc. For proportions of footings and pedestals
and footings on rock, see Figure 9.5.1-5.
Shear strength requirements are stated in AASHTO Specifications. They are summarized in
Figure 9.5.1-4.
2. Reinforcement
a. Column Dowels
Column dowels shall be anchored into the footing in such a manner as to adequately transfer
loads to the footing. Column dowels shall be hooked in order to facilitate placing, prevent
their insertion into wet concrete, and to minimize footing thickness. Bars in tension shall be
developed using length, 1.25 Lb, as shown in Chapter 5 of this manual. Bars in compression
shall develop a length, 1.25 Ld, prior to the bend, as shown on Sheet 5-164. Where bars are
not fully stressed, lengths may be reduced in proportion, but shall not be less than 3/4 Ld.
The concrete strength used to compute development length of the bar in the footing shall be
the strength of the concrete in the footing. The concrete strength to be used to compute the
section strength at the interface between footing and column concrete shall be that of the
column concrete. This can be allowed because of the confinement effect of the wider
footing.
b. Bottom Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be designed in accordance with AASHTO provisions and current office
practice shown on Figure 9.5.1-4. However, reinforcement shall not be less than #6 bars at
12-inch centers to account for uneven soil conditions and shrinkage stresses.
9.5 - 8
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
c. Top Reinforcement
Top reinforcement shall be used in any case where tension forces in the top of the footing
are developed. Where columns and bearing walls are connected to the superstructure, suffi-
cient reinforcement shall be provided in the tops of footings to carry the weight of the
footing and overburden assuming zero pressure under the footing. This is the uplift earth-
quake condition described under “Superstructure Loads.” This assumes that the strength of
the connection to the superstructure will carry such load. Where the connection to the super-
structure will not support the weight of the substructure and overburden, the strength of the
connection may be used as the limiting value for determining top reinforcement. For these
conditions, the AASHTO requirement for minimum percentage of reinforcement will be
waived. Regardless of whether or not the columns and bearing walls are connected to the
superstructure, a mat of reinforcement shall normally be provided at the tops of footings. On
short stub abutment walls (4 feet from girder seat to top of footing), these bars may be
omitted. In this case, any tension at the top of the footing, due to the weight of the small
overburden, must be taken by the concrete in tension.
Top reinforcement for column or bearing wall footings designed for two-way action shall not
be less than #6 bars at 12-inch centers, in each direction while top reinforcement for bearing
wall footings designed for one-way action shall not be less than #5 bars at 12-inch centers in
each direction.
9.5.2 Pile Supported Footings
A. General Requirements
Design of pile footings shall follow the general requirements set forth in 9.5.1 for spread footings.
Steel H-Pile or timber piles shall be embedded a minimum of 12 inches into the footing where a
moment or tension connection is not required. Cast-in-place concrete piles with reinforcing extending
into footings shall be embedded a minimum of 6 inches. There shall be 11/2 inches of clearance
between the bottom mat of footing reinforcement and the top of pile (see Figure 9.5.2.1). In determin-
ing the proportion of pile load to be used for calculation of shear stress on the footing, any pile with
its center 6 inches or more outside the critical section shall be taken as fully acting on that section.
Any pile with its center 6 inches or more inside the critical section shall be taken as not acting for
that section. For locations between, the pile load acting shall be proportioned between these two
extremes. For calculation of moment on the footing, any pile with its center outside of the section
shall be taken at full load. Any pile with its center inside of the section shall not be assumed to
contribute to that amount. All piles shall have an embedment in the soil sufficient to resist lateral
forces and develop axial loads.
B. Pile Spacings
Generalized pile spacings are shown in Section 9.6 for each type of pile. Be aware that the action of
the pile group for friction piles may be quite different than for point bearing piles, in that the group
can fail as a unit at a lower load than the summation of the individual pile capacities. This effect is
accounted for in Chapter 4, “Modeling Pile Foundation.”
For point bearing piles, the spacing is a minimum of 3 feet, except for timber piles where the
minimum spacing is 3 feet 3 inches. Where the load distribution of the pile is partially point bearing
and partially friction, consider using an intermediate spacing value. Distance from center of pile to
footing edge for all pile types shall be a maximum of 1.5 times the pile diameter or 1 foot 6 inches.
9-5:V:BDM9
Spacingof
Peli Spacingof PointBearing Edge
Capacity* Materail FrictionPiles ‡ Pelis Distance** PileSize
Table 9.6.1B
August 1974
» 10 BP 42 may be used if the pile is point bearing for this capacity.
† 12-inch diameter min. for Concrete Filled Casing.
13-inch diameter min. for Precast or Precast Prestressed.
14-inch diameter min. Butt for Tapered.
10-inch or 12-inch Square Precast Prestressed.
12-inch diameter min. for Hollow Prestressed Spun Piles.
+ 14-inch diameter min. for Concrete Filled Casing.
16-inch diameter min. for Precast or Precast Prestressed.
* Capacity shown is rated Basic (working) load value and includes the effect of any downdrag forces.
‡ The Converse-Labare Formula (AASHTO “Group Pile Loading”) need not be applied to pile values
shown here. This formula reduces the vertical load carry capacity of a pile group. See Foundation
Modeling, Chapter 4, for lateral load capacity reduction for pile groups.
** Center of pile to footing edge.
The above table is a guide to usual practice and is not intended to restrict the use of other capacities
and spacings where needed.
Maximum pile spacings should be limited to about 10 feet. With spacings beyond this, the shear
between the footing and column or wall may become a problem.
9.6.2 Design Considerations
A. Column Action
Consideration shall be given to the pile acting as a column. Piles which extend above the ground
surface shall be analyzed by the appropriate column design procedures. Piles which are driven
through very weak soils should be designed for reduced lateral support, using information from the
Materials Laboratory as appropriate. Piles driven through firm material normally can be considered to
be fully supported for column action (buckling not critical).
B. Uplift Capacity
1. Introduction
The ability of a pile to carry uplift loads is highly dependent upon the strata into which it
is driven. Unless detailed knowledge of that strata is available at the time of design, the pile
should not be relied on to carry uplift loads. In all cases where uplift loads are to be carried, the
connection between the pile and the footing must be carefully detailed. The bond between the
pile and the seal may be considered as contributing to the uplift resistance. This bond value shall
be limited to 10 psi.
2. Computation of Uplift Capacity
Appropriate values of uplift should be those values recommended by the Materials Lab. If the
information is not available, the following will give guidance on uplift capacity. Pile uplift may
be considered to act to assist in carrying factored loads within the limits specified below. When
pile uplift is considered to carry a portion of the factored loads, a check shall be made to ensure
that no tension on the piles is necessary to carry any basic combination (factor of 1.0) of DL, LL,
Wind, or Stream Flow.
Where pile tension is used, it shall be computed as follows:
Ro = B
50
Where B is the average blow count from the test hole log in blows/foot and Ro is the resistance of
the pile surface in Ton/Ft.2, the total resistance of the pile to pull out is then Rp = Ro(1p)P
where 1 is the effective pile length and P is the perimeter of the pile. Consider P to be
2 X (Flange width plus depth) for H Piles. The above computed value for Ro gives essentially an
ultimate pull out value. To give usable values, use a factor of safety of 3 for working stress
design on a “capacity reduction factor” of 2/3 for load factor design. Do not use more than 40 per-
cent of the pile downward load capacity, however. For calculation, use a length of pile 5 feet
shorter than minimum tip elevation.
3. Cautions to be Exercised with Respect to Pile Uplift
a. The pile must be a friction pile and over 10 feet in length. Whenever uplift is to be used in
the design, the Foundation Engineer shall be consulted. Do not use for full point bearing
piles.
b. The tension connection between the pile and the structure must be adequate.
c. The pile must be adequate to carry tension throughout its length. For example, a timber pile
with a splice sleeve could not be used.
d. Preboring, jetting, or spudding must not be used to aid in driving the pile and must be so
noted in the plans or special provisions.
e. The use of pile load tests to verify the uplift capacity of the piling should be considered.
C. Lateral Resistance
Lateral forces applied to piles must be carried either by passive soil resistance and bending or by
battered piles.
1. The capacity of the pile to carry horizontal loads should be investigated using beam on elastic
foundation theory. A computer program (LPILE) is available to assist in this calculation. Soil
modules can be obtained for each soil layer from the Materials Laboratory.
For material such as fill compacted to specification requirements, a soil modulus value of 40 tons
per cubic foot, constant variation, might be used. This means that the elastic modulus of the soil
at one foot depth is 40 T/sq. ft., at 2-foot depth is 80 T/sq. ft., etc. For other types of soil, the
modulus may not vary from top to bottom. The limitation on soil stress is, at the same time,
3.0 tons (working stress) per square foot. Again, some deflection (about of 0.5 inch) will usually
be associated with this resistance and that deflection must be acceptable in the total design.
2. Passive Resistance of Piles
In lieu of the above analysis, a maximum passive resistance of 3 tons (ultimate capacity 6 tons)
may be assumed for each foundation pile provided the footing is built directly on the soil and
that the soil below the footing is capable of carrying this load. This figure is to be used for
12-inch diameter or 12-inch square piles and larger only. For 10-inch square piles, use half of
this amount. For this condition, the bending in the pile is neglected and assumed to be within the
capacity of the pile to resist. It should be noted that a horizontal deflection will be associated
with the development of this resistance.
3. Pile Bents
Piles which support footings or pile caps that are not in contact with the soil below them, must be
treated as columns, subject to bending and axial load. The calculation of lateral resistance must
follow a procedure similar to the one mentioned above.
4. Battered Piles
Where passive pressures will not carry the imposed lateral loads, or where horizontal rigidity is
required, battered piles must be used. The lateral force which can be resisted by a single battered
piles is limited by a function of applied vertical load, and this must not be exceeded. Maximum
batter shall be 41/2:12.
D. Other Considerations
1. Driving stresses are calculated by the Materials Lab. Additional information such as recom-
mended pile type, wall thickness, bearing stresses, etc., can be requested from their office.
2. Elastic Settlement
The effect of elastic settlement should not be used to develop factors for normal frame moment
distribution. It is valuable when evaluating forces developed by deflection of piers where these
forces must be carried by the structure. Actual footing rotation, due to applied loads on a pile
supported footing, may be computed using the elastic shortening of the piles in the group and
using the usual PL/AE equation. The problem then is to establish an appropriate L value. For
fully point bearing piles, this length can be taken to be the full length to the bearing strata. For
fully friction piles, half of the estimated pile length might be appropriate with intermediate
lengths being used for piles which will be partially point bearing.
3. Pile Splices
Pile splices shall be avoided where possible. If splices may be required in timber piling, a splice
shall be detailed on the plans. Splices between treated and untreated timber shall always be
located below the permanent water line. Concrete pile splices shall have the same strength as
unspliced piles.
4. Driving Considerations
The conditions required for driving shall be considered in all designs. Some of the conditions are
as follows:
a. Soil Character
The type of soil governs the pile type and may require the use of points or shoes. Timber
piles cannot ordinarily be driven through hard gravel layers, and such layers may require the
use of concrete or steel piles.
When cobbles, boulders, or rock fills exist at the site, a drilled pile or shaft should be used.
b. Preboring
Preboring is used when an intermediate hard layer must be penetrated in order to reach
bearing layers below, when the amount of driving must be limited to avoid disturbance to
buildings, or when precise placement of the piles is required. Preboring will normally be
carried as a separate bid item. On widenings, driving piles through existing fills often
requires spudding or jetting to assist in pile driving. These are contractor options and are not
pay items. See Standard Specifications for contractor requirements.
c. Clearances
It is the designer’s responsibility to ensure that sufficient room is available for driving piling.
This is a problem when working on widenings adjacent to existing structures and in urban
areas. Normally 20 feet of minimum headroom is necessary. Timber piles can be driven two
feet horizontally from a vertical surface, but additional clearance is desirable. Occasionally,
driving the piling from the existing structure is the only alternative. In such a case, the
ability of the supporting structure to support the pile driver and the dynamic forces must be
analyzed and shall be noted in the Special Provisions.
Access room for the driver to enter the site must be assured.
d. Maximum Batter
The batter on piles shall not exceed 41/2 to 12. Piles with batters in excess of this become
very difficult to drive and the bearing values become difficult to predict.
Ensure that battered piling do not intersect piling from adjacent footings within the maxi-
mum length of the piles.
e. Pile Load Tests
Pile load testing is used when doubt exists as to whether or not the driving formula actually
represents the capacity of the pile. Where such tests are used, they are conducted by the
Materials Laboratory. On large jobs, consideration should be given to pile load tests in the
design stage in order to reduce foundation costs.
9-6WORK:V:BDM3
9.7 Seals
9.7.1 Purpose
A concrete seal is used within the confines of a cofferdam to permit construction of the pier footing and
column in the dry. This type of underwater construction is practical to a water depth of approximately
50 feet.
Seal concrete must be placed underwater. This is usually accomplished with the use of a tremie. A tremie
is a long pipe that extends to the bottom of the excavation and permits a head to be maintained on the
concrete during placement. After the concrete has been placed and has obtained sufficient strength, the
water within the cofferdam is removed. The weight of the seal concrete resists the hydrostatic pressure
exerting force at the base of the seal. In Figure 9.7.1-1, some of the factors that must be considered in
designing a seal are illustrated.
*Usually 1 foot 0 inches for design (use 1 foot 0 inches greater than design seal dimensions for quantity
calculations).
Figure 9.7.1-1
9.7.2 General
A. Normal High Water Elevation
The Normal High Water Elevation is defined as the highest water surface elevation that may normally
be expected to occur during a given time period. This elevation, which appears on the Hydraulics
Data Sheet, is obtained from discussions with local residents or by observance of high water marks at
the site. The normal high water is not related to any flood condition.
3. Unusual Conditions
At times, unusual conditions are encountered such as rock formations or deep foundations that
require special considerations in order to arrive at the most optimum design. When this occurs, it
is advisable to discuss the proposed foundation design with both the Soils Engineer and the
Bridge Hydraulics Section prior to final plan preparation.
B. Seal May Not Be Required
When it is possible but not probable that a seal may be required during construction, the seal and
footing are designed as described in Section 9.7.3A. In addition, a separate design is made for a
footing without a seal. The top of the footing, or pedestal when used, shall be no higher than the
elevation set by cover requirements. The bottom of the footing shall be no higher than the foundation
elevation recommended by the Soils Engineer or the scour elevation set by Headquarters Hydraulics.
This alternate footing without a seal shall be detailed on the plans. If the alternate footing elevation is
different from the footing with seal, it is also necessary to note on the plans the required changes in
length of column bars and increased number of ties. The quantities shall be based on the footing
designed with a seal. Both designs shall be included in the plans.
9.7.4 Pile Support Footings
The top of the footing, or pedestal when used, is set by cover requirements of Section 9.5. The bottom of
seal elevation is based on the stream scour elevation determined by Hydraulics. A preliminary analysis is
made using the estimated footing and seal weight, and the column moments and vertical load at the base
of the footing to determine the number of piles and spacing. Seal size will be 1 foot 0 inches larger than
the footing all around. From Design Aid 9.7-A1, the seal thickness can be obtained based on the vent
elevation.
After preliminary dimensions are determined, the final design is made using the criteria outlined in
Section 9.5. If the seal is omitted during construction, the bottom of footing shall be set at the scour
elevation and an alternate design is made.
9-7:V:BDM9
4. Permanent casing.
5. Underreamed shafts.
6. Underwater concrete placement.
9.8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Drilled Shaft
A. Advantages
1. Construction equipment is normally mobile and construction can proceed rapidly.
2. The excavated material and the drilled hole can often be examined to ascertain whether or not the
soil conditions at the particular site agree with the projected soil profile.
3. Changes in geometry of the drilled shaft may be made during the progress of a job if the
subsurface conditions so dictate. These changes include adjustment in diameter and in penetration
and the addition or exclusion of underreams.
4. The heave and settlement at the ground surface will normally be very small.
5. The personnel, equipment, and materials for construction are usually readily available.
6. The completed excavation can often be carefully inspected prior to construction if casing or
slurry is not required. For end-bearing situations, the soil beneath the tip of the drilled shaft can
be probed for cavities or for weak soil.
7. The noise level from the equipment is less than for some other methods of construction.
8. The drilled shaft is applicable to a wide variety of soil conditions For example, it is possible to
drill through a layer of cobbles, many feet into sound rock, and through frozen ground.
9. Very large loads can be carried by a single drilled shaft.
10. Designs of drilled shafts can be made considering load transfer both in end bearing and in side
resistance.
11. The behavior of a drilled shaft at a site can be monitored by available methods of instrumentation
and analytical techniques.
12. Use in constricted areas. The shaft occupies less area than a footing and thus can be built closer
to railroads and existing structures.
13. When drilling inside a steel casing, pollution of lake or river water is minimized.
14. Drilled shafts may be more economical than spread footing construction, especially when the
foundation is deep.
B. Disadvantages
1. Construction procedures are critical to the quality of the drilled shaft, and very careful inspection
is required.
2. Construction techniques are sometimes very sensitive to subsurface soil and rock conditions.
Boulders can be a serious problem, especially in smaller diameter shafts.
3. The proper performance and interpretation of load tests on drilled shafts requires expert
knowledge and experience.
4. Lack of general knowledge of construction problems and design methods has restricted the use of
drilled shafts.
9.8 - 2
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
3. Any artesian water conditions must be clearly identified in the contract documents. Artesian
water flowing into a pour could spoil the concrete or cause collapse or heaving of the soil at the
excavation.
4. The presence of cobbles or boulders can cause difficulties in drilling. Drilling with core barrel
bits or blasting can remove obstructions.
5. The presence of existing foundations or structures.
6. Presence of landfill that could contain hazardous or dangerous material that cannot be easily
excavated.
7. Presence of rock may require more sophisticated drilling methods or shooting with explosives.
8. Presence of a weak stratum below the base of the drilled shaft. For this situation, drilling may
have to be extended below the weak stratum.
9.8.5 Design of Drilled Shafts for Axial Load
The total axial capacity of the drilled shaft is composed of two factors: the base capacity and the side
capacity. The general formula is:
QT = QB + QS
QT = total axial capacity of the foundation
QB = the base capacity
QS = the side capacity
QB and QS are treated as independent quantities although research has shown that the base resistance and
side resistance have some independence. The degree of reliability of the above formula is compatible
with the soils information obtained from a routine investigation. Ultimate unit base resistance and side
resistance will be obtained from the Foundation Engineer. Unit side resistance may vary with depth, but
normally one value is given for the entire depth of the shaft. Ultimate base and side resistances are
furnished by the Foundation Engineer along with a factor of safety.
A. Ultimate Failure vs. Excessive Settlement
There are basically two criteria by which recommendations for unit base and shaft resistances are
arrived at by the Foundation Engineer. First, the ultimate soil resistance is determined using limit
state criteria. Second, an estimate of the settlement of the shaft is made using anticipated loads. If it is
felt that settlements are excessive, then the settlement criteria will control the design of the shaft. The
designer should indicate to the Foundation Engineer what settlements would be acceptable in the
design. Normally 1 inch is adequate. It must be cautioned, however, that in deep shafts, it is some-
times necessary to have vertical deflections on the order of 2 percent of the shaft diameter in order to
develop the base resistance.
B. Factor of Safety
For the design of drilled shafts, the Foundation Engineer should be consulted on ultimate base and
shear resistances along with a factor of safety. Drilled shafts are designed by load factor methods. For
factored load combinations, see Section 9.5.1(3b) for Maximum Pile Load. Group I Basic Service
Loads are checked against allowable axial bearing and side friction supplied from the Materials Lab.
9.8 - 4
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
9.8 - 6
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
B. P-Y Curves
Horizontal deflection of the soil due to load is normally represented by “P-Y” curves. P stands for a
force per unit length of the shaft such as kips per foot. Y is the horizontal deflection of the shaft in
units such as feet. The P-Y relationship usually will vary with depth of the shaft. A reduction for
group action will be required if the shafts are spaced less than three diameters normal to the direction
of loading and less than six to eight diameters parallel to the direction of loading. The Foundation
Engineer will provide the design engineer with P-Y curves for the design of the drilled shafts.
A set of P-Y curves must be derived for computer analysis of a drilled shaft.
Another concept in soil mechanics is that of the Soil Modulus “ES” which is defined as -P/Y. This term will
have units such as kips per square foot.
9.8 - 8
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
Criteria
D. Shaft Design
1. Stability
Normally, the soil surrounding a foundation element provides bracing against a buckling failure.
For this reason, the drilled shaft can be designed as a short column when the shaft is entirely
below the groundline. When the shaft extends above the ground a check for stability should be
made. See Section 9.2.1E of the Bridge Design Manual Criteria. The effects of scour must be
considered in the analysis.
2. Axial Load, Bending Moment, and Shear
The axial load along the shaft varies due to the side friction. It is considered conservative,
however, to design the shaft for the full axial load plus the maximum moment. The entire shaft
normally is then reinforced for this axial load and moment, Longitudinal reinforcing should not
be less than 0.5 percent of the area of concrete.
Design shaft for axial load bending movement and shear similar to the design of a column.
9.8.7 Construction Methods
A. Dry Method
The dry method is applicable to soils above the water table that will not cave or slump when the hole
is drilled to its full depth. A soil that meets this specification is a homogenous stiff clay. The dry
method can be employed with sands above the water table if the sands have some cohesion.
The dry method can be used for soils below the water table if the soils are low in permeability so that only
a small amount of water will seep into the hole during the time the excavation is open.
The dry method consists of drilling a hole, without casing, placing a rebar cage, and then filling the
hole with concrete.
B. Casing Method
The casing method is applicable to sites where soil conditions are such that caving or excessive
deformation will occur when a hole is excavated. An example of such a site is a clean sand below the
water table.
This method employs a cylindrical (usually steel) casing inside the hole to hold back the caving soil.
The casing is removed from the hole during concrete placement.
C. Slurry Displacement Method
A Bentonite Slurry is introduced into the excavated hole to prevent caving or deformation of loose or
permeable soils. Drilling continues through the slurry. When the desired depth is reached, the rebar
cage is lowered into the hole and the slurry. Concrete is then tremie poured into the hole. Slurry is
displaced by the heavier concrete and collected at the surface in a sump. The slurry may be used
again in another hole.
9-8WORK:V:BDM9
depths needed, P-Y curve data and soil spring data for seismic modeling, seismic site characterization
and estimated ground acceleration, and recommendations to address known constructability issues.
A description of subsurface conditions and a preliminary subsurface profile would also be provided at
this stage, but detailed boring logs and laboratory test data would usually not be provided.
Structural Analysis and Modeling — In this phase, the Bridge and Structures Office uses the preliminary
foundation design recommendations provided by the Geotechnical Branch to perform the structural
modeling of the foundation system and superstructure. Through this modeling, the Bridge and Structures
Office determines and distributes the loads within the structure for all appropriate load cases, factors the
loads as appropriate, and sizes the foundations using the foundation nominal resistances and resistance
factors provided by the Geotechnical Branch. Constructability and construction staging needs would
continue to be investigated during this phase. The Bridge and Structures Office would also provide the
following feedback to the Geotechnical Branch to allow them to check their preliminary foundation
design and produce the Final Geotechnical Report for the structure:
• Anticipated foundation loads (including load factors and load groups used).
• Foundation size/diameter and depth required to meet structural needs.
• Foundation details which could affect the geotechnical design of the foundations.
• Size and configuration of deep foundation groups.
Final Foundation Design — This design step results in a formal geotechnical report produced by the
Geotechnical Branch which provides final geotechnical recommendations for the subject structure.
This report includes all geotechnical data obtained at the site, including final boring logs, subsurface
profiles, and laboratory test data, all final foundation recommendations, and final constructability
recommendations for the structure. At this time, the Geotechnical Branch will check their preliminary
foundation design in consideration of the structural foundation design results determined by the Bridge
and Structures Office, and make modifications to the preliminary foundation design as needed to accom-
modate the structural design needs provided by the Bridge and Structures Office. It is possible that much
of what was included in the preliminary foundation design memorandum may be copied into the final
geotechnical report, if no design changes are needed. This report will also be used for publication and
distribution to potential bidders.
Final Structural Modeling and PS&E Development — In this phase, the Bridge and Structures Office
makes any adjustments needed to their structural model to accommodate any changes made to the
geotechnical foundation recommendations as transmitted in the final geotechnical report. From this,
the bridge design and final PS&E would be completed.
GB provides conceptual
foundation recommendations
to BO
foundation design
preliminary bridge plan,
recommendations
and provides initial foundation
needs input to GB
▼
Load Combinations and Load Factors (from AASHTO LRFD Specifications Table 3.4.1-1)
Table 9.2.3-1
Strength-IV
EH, EV, ES, DW γp – 1.00 – – 1.00 0.50/1.20 – – – – – –
DC only 1.5
Fatigue-LL, IM
and CE only – 0.75 – – – – – – – – – – –
Load Factor
*DD was reduced to 1.00 to reflect current WSDOT and national practice.
9.9.4 LRFD Load Combinations, Basic Equation, and Characteristic Soil/Rock Properties
The controlling load combinations for WSDOT projects for Super and Substructure Design are as follows:
Strength I Relating to the normal vehicular use
Strength III Relating to the bridge exposed to wind
Strength IV Relating to temperature fluctuations, creep, and shrinkage
Strength V Relating to the normal vehicular use and wind
Extreme-Event I Relating to earthquake
Service I Relating to normal operational use and wind
In general, for Extreme Event I, set γEQ, the earthquake load factor, equal to 0 (note that γEQ up to 0.5
should be considered on a project specific basis to account for potential partial live loads during a seismic
event). For eccentrically loaded footings and abutment wall footings, use γEQ = 0.0 or 1.0, depending on
the maximum resultant force eccentricity allowed (see “Overturning Stability for Footings — Strength
and Extreme Event Limit States”).
A. LRFD Basic Equation
The basic equation for load and resistance factor design (LRFD) states that the loads multiplied by
factors to account for uncertainty, ductility, importance, and redundancy must be less than or equal
to the available resistance multiplied by factors to account for variability and uncertainty per the
AASHTO LRFD specifications. The basic equation, therefore, is as follows:
Σηiγi Qi ≤ φRn
ηi = Factor for ductility, redundancy, and importance of structure
γi = Load factor
Qi = Load (i.e., dead load, live load, seismic load, etc.)
φ = Resistance factor
Rn = Nominal or ultimate resistance
For typical WSDOT practice, ηi should be set equal to 1.0 for use of both minimum and maximum
load factors.
B. Characteristic Soil/Rock Properties and Their Use in LRFD
Load and resistance factors are based on a combination of the following:
• design model uncertainty,
• soil/rock property uncertainty,
• unknown uncertainty inherited from allowable stress and load factor design practices included
in previous AASHTO design specifications.
Therefore, uncertainty in the soil parameters only amounts for a part of each of the load and
resistance factors.
Assume that the characteristic soil/rock properties used in conjunction with the load and resistance
factors provided herein are average values obtained from laboratory test results or from correlated
field in-situ test results. Note that use of lower bound soil/rock properties could result in overly
conservative foundation designs. No specific guidance is available regarding the extent of subsurface
characterization and the number of soil/rock property tests required to justify use of the load and
resistance factors provided herein. Geotechnical engineering judgment is required.
No adequate documentation exists regarding the derivation of load factors for soil loads to have any
basis for adjusting the load factors for site specific considerations, or for regional practice. However,
there is some documentation available regarding the derivation of resistance factors for foundations.
This makes it possible to adjust the resistance factors for site specific considerations and regional
practices. See the Federal Highway Administration manual FHWA HI-98-032 “Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures,” 1998, for the necessary statistical infor-
mation and procedures for making such an adjustment. Appendix A of this section has an example
of resistance factor adjustment as applied to a pile foundation design. Adjustments to soil resistance
factors, where warranted, will be made by the Geotechnical Branch if adequate data is available to
do so.
▼
and bearing material pressure loads for abutments
▼ ▼
1(GT). Determine depth of 3(ST). Design the footing
▼
footing for scour, if present (with at the service limit state
help of Hydraulic Engineer)
▼
▼ 4(ST). Check the bearing pressure of
3(GT). Determine soil properties the footing at the strength limit state
for foundation design, and resistance
factors in consideration of the
soil property uncertainty and the ▼
method selected for calculating 5(ST). Check the eccentricity of the
nominal resistance footing at the strength limit state
▼ ▼
4(GT). Determine active, passive,
6(ST). Check the sliding resistance of
and seismic earth pressure parameters
the footing at the strength limit state
as needed for abutments
▼
▼
7(ST). Check the bearing pressure of
5(GT). Determine nominal footing
the footing at the extreme limit state
▼
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Cantilever (or Overhanging) Abutments
Figure 9.9.5-2
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for L-abutments and Interior Footings
Figure 9.9.5-3
The variables shown above in Figures 9.9.4-1 and 9.9.4-2 are defined as follows:
DLv, LLv, EQv = vertical structural loads applied to footing/wall (dead load, transient load, EQ load,
respectively)
τp or τt = structural static shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (parallel to
abutment wall or transverse to bridge, respectively)
τn or τl = structural static shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (normal to
abutment wall or longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
τEQp or τEQt = structural seismic shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (parallel to
abutment wall or transverse to bridge, respectively)
τEQn or τEQl = structural seismic shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (normal to
abutment wall or longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
Ws = weight of soil above abutment wall heel
Wtoe = weight of soil above footing toe
WC = weight of footing and column/wall
Ft = soil active force behind abutment wall (use at rest earth pressure if have an
integral abutment)
Fq = traffic surcharge force behind abutment wall
PAE = dynamic horizontal thrust due to seismic loading
PIR = soil and wall mass inertial force due to seismic loading
QEP = ultimate soil passive resistance (note: height of pressure distribution triangle is
determined by the geotechnical engineer and is project specific)
Qτ = soil shear resistance along footing base at soil-concrete interface
sv = resultant vertical bearing stress at base of footing
R = resultant force at base of footing
eC = eccentricity calculated about point C (center of footing), to be used for bearing
stress calculations
eO = eccentricity calculated about point O (toe of footing), to be used for overturning
calculations
B = footing width
L = footing length
q = traffic live load surcharge pressure
Load Factor
Load Sliding Overturning, eo Bearing Stress (ec, sv)
DLv DCmin, DWmin DCmin, DWmin DCmax, DWmax
LLv Use transient load Use transient load Use transient load
factor (e.g., LL) factor (e.g., LL) factor (e.g., LL)
τp , τt, τn τ1 Use DCmax, DWmax Use DCmax, DWmax Use DCmax, DWmax
for causing forces, for causing forces, for causing forces,
DCmin, DWmin for DCmin, DWmin for DCmin, DWmin for
resisting forces resisting forces resisting forces
Ws, Wtoe EVmin EVmin EVmax
Wc DCmin DCmin DCmax
Ft EHmax EHmax EHmax
Fq LS LS LS
q Set = 0 Set = 0 Use transient load
factor (e.g., LL)
Note that the dead load, DLv, as used herein typically includes the load due to structural components
and non-structural attachments (i.e., DC), and the dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (i.e., DW).
The live load, LLv, as used herein for foundation design can include any of the transient loads identified
previously except vehicular dynamic load allowance, IM, and loads due to earthquake, EQ.
B. Footing Bearing Stress and Capacity — Strength and Extreme Event Limit States
For geotechnical and structural design of eccentrically loaded footings on soil, calculate the
bearing stress based on a uniform bearing pressure distribution using the Meyerhof approach.
For geotechnical and structural design of eccentrically loaded spread footings on rock, calculate
the bearing stress based on a triangular or trapezoidal bearing pressure distribution.
The Meyerhof method is summarized as follows:
Step 1: Calculate eccentricity, ec, about Point C in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3, with the applied
loads already factored.
ec = (summation of factored moments acting on footing and wall)/(summation of factored
vertical forces acting on footing and wall)
Step 2: Calculate the factored vertical stress based on a uniform pressure distribution acting on the
base of footing, σv as illustrated in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3. Note that this calculation method
applies in both directions for biaxially loaded footings (see Article 10.6.3.1.5 in the AASHTO LRFD
specifications for guidance on biaxial loading).
σv = (summation of factored vertical forces acting on footing and wall per unit footing
length)/(B-2ec)
Use the appropriate maximum or minimum load factors as shown in Table 9.9.5-2 when calculating
sv. Note that B - 2ec is considered to be the effective footing width B′.
If a triangular distribution is used for the footing contact pressure (applies to footings on rock only):
σvmax = V/B ( 1+ 6 ec / B )
“V” is the sum of the factored vertical forces on the footing.
Step 3: Compare σv, or σvmax, which already has the load factors included, to the factored bearing
capacity of the soil (i.e., the ultimate bearing capacity for the soil/rock multiplied by an appropriate
resistance factor). The factored bearing capacity (resistance) should be greater than or equal to the
factored bearing stress. That is:
σv < φbcqult
where, qult is the unfactored ultimate bearing capacity for the appropriate limit state and φbc is the
resistance factor. Note that qult will be the same for the strength and extreme event limit states. In
general, a resistance factor of 1.0 should be used for bearing capacity at the extreme event limit state.
See Table 9.9.5-2 for resistance factors for the strength limit state.
Bearing capacity for the strength and extreme event limit states should be calculated considering the
effects of soil frictional and cohesive resistance, footing dimensions and shape, footing embedment,
and slope of the ground in front of the footing. The Geotechnical Branch will calculate the footing
bearing capacity using either the AASHTO LRFD specifications, Article 10.6.3.1, or other widely
accepted methods provided in the literature. Load inclination factors will not, in general, be consid-
ered in the determination of bearing capacity. The Geotechnical Branch may limit the ultimate
bearing capacity based on the geotechnical engineering experience available for the given
geological formation.
C. Sliding Stability for Footings — Strength and Extreme Event Limit States
The factored sliding resistance is comprised of a frictional component (φτ Qτ) and a passive earth
pressure component (φep Qep). The frictional component acts along the base of the footing, and the
passive component acts on the vertical face of the buried footing element.
Factored Sliding Resistance, QR = φτ Qτ + φep Qep
The Strength Limit State, φτ and φep are determined from Table 9.9.5-2. For the Extreme Event
Limit State, φτ = 1.0 and φep = 1.0. If passive resistance in front of footing is not dependable due to
potential for erosion, scour, or future excavation in front of footing, use φep = 0.0 for the strength and
extreme event limit states, and for temperature/shrinkage loads. The Geotechnical Branch should
be contacted for assistance to determine if passive resistance should be considered for analysis of
sliding stability.
Qτ = (V)tan δ
δ = friction angle between the footing base and the soil
δ = tan φ for cast-in-place concrete against soil
δ = (0.8)tan φ for precast concrete
V = total vertical force on footing
φ = angle of internal friction for soil
The factored sliding resistance should be greater than or equal to the factored horizontal
applied loads.
D. Overturning Stability for Footings — Strength and Extreme Event Limit States
Calculate the eccentricity about Point O in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3 to locate the resultant
force, R. Forces and moments resisting overturning are to be considered negative, and minimum
load factors should be used (see Table 9.9.5-1). Forces and moments causing overturning are to be
considered positive, and maximum load factors should be used for those forces (see Table 9.9.5-1).
For strength limit state, keep the resultant force at the base of the footing within the middle 1/2 of the
footing dimensions for soil and the middle 3/4 of the footing dimensions for rock. For extreme event
limit state and with γEQ = 0, keep the resultant force at the base of footing within the middle 2/3 of the
footing dimensions for soil and rock. If γEQ = 1.0, keep the resultant force at the base of the footing
within the middle 3/4 of the footing dimensions for soil and rock. Note that for footings subjected to
biaxial loading, these eccentricity requirements apply in both directions.
E. Overall Stability for Footings — Service and Extreme Event Limit States
The Geotechnical branch will evaluate overall stability using modified Bishop, Janbu, Spencer,
or other widely accepted slope stability analysis methods. Article 10.5.2 recommends that overall
stability be evaluated at the Service I limit state (i.e., a load factor of 1.0) and a resistance factor,
φos of 0.65 for slopes which support a structural element.
Available slope stability programs produce a single factor of safety, FS. The Geotechnical Branch
will continue its past practice of checking overall slope stability to insure that footings designed for
a maximum bearing stress equal to the specified service limit state bearing capacity will not cause the
slope stability factor of safety to fall below 1.5 (1.1 for extreme event limit state, with service loads
and a horizontal acceleration kh equal to 0.5 A). This practice will essentially produce the same result
as specified in Article 10.5.2 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications.
The footing loads should be as specified for the Service I limit state for this analysis. If the footing
is located on the slope such that the footing load increases slope stability, the Geotechnical Branch
will not establish a maximum footing load which is acceptable for insuring overall slope stability
(see Figure 9.9.4-3 for example), but will instead ignore the presence of the footing to evaluate
overall stability.
A resistance factor of 0.9, which is equivalent to a factor of safety of 1.1 in current WSDOT practice,
should in general be used for overall stability for the extreme event limit state.
F. Resistance Factors for Footing Design — Strength Limit State
Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Shallow Foundations
(adapted from Table 10.5.5-1 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications)
Table 9.9.5-2
Type of Resistance
Resistance Method/Soil/Condition Factor
Example Presentation of Soil Design Parameters for Sliding and Eccentricity Calculations
Table 9.9.5-3
Resistance Factor, φ
Strength X X X
Service X
Extreme Event X X X
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Integral Shaft Column or Pile Bent
Figure 9.9.6-1
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Pile or Shaft Supported Footing
Figure 9.9.6-2
where,
qp = ultimate end bearing resistance at base of shaft or pile (unit resistance)
qs = ultimate side resistance on shaft or pile (unit resistance)
qDD = ultimate down drag load on shaft or pile (unit load)
QDD = ultimate down drag load on shaft or pile (total load)
Wnet = unit weight of concrete in shaft minus unit weight of soil times the shaft volume below the
groundline (may include part of the column if the top of the shaft is deep due to scour or for
other reasons
Mp or Mt = structural static moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (parallel or
transverse to pier orientation, respectively)
Mn or Ml = structural static moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (normal or
longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
MEQp or MEQt = structural seismic moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (parallel or
transverse to pier orientation, respectively)
MEQn or MEQl = structural seismic moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (normal or
longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
All other forces are as defined for Figures 9.9.5-2 and 9.9.5-4 for footings.
Load Factor
Load Bearing Stress (ec, sv) Uplift *Lateral Loading
DLv DCmax, DWmax DCmin, DWmin DCmax, DWmax
LLv Use transient load Use transient load Use transient load
factor (e.g., LL) factor (e.g., LL) factor (e.g., LL)
tp, tt, tn t1 Use DCmax, DWmax for Use DCmax, DWmax for DCmax, DWmax
causing forces, DCmin, causing forces
DWmin for resisting forces
Mp, Mt, Mn, M1 Use DCmax, DWmax for Use DCmax, DWmax for Use DCmax, DWmax for
causing moments, causing moments causing moments
DCmin, DWmin for
resisting moments
Ws, Wtoe EVmax EVmin EVmax
Wnet DCmax DCmin N/A
QDD DDmax Treat as resistance, N/A
and use appropriate
resistance factor
Ft EHmax Use EHmax if causes uplift EHmax
Fq LS Use LS if Fq causes uplift LS
q Use transient load Set = 0 Use transient load
factor (e.g., LL) factor (e.g., LL)
Use unfactored loads to get force distribution in structure, then factor the resulting forces for final structural
design. All forces and load factors are as defined previously.
▼ ▼
scour, if present (with help
▼
the shaft/shaft
of Hydraulic Engineer) pressure loads for abutments, through group for nominal
structural analysis and modeling as resistance at the
well as shaft lateral load analysis strength and
▼
extreme limit states,
2(GT). Determine soil properties
▼ and settlement/
for foundation design, liquefaction
3(ST). Determine depth, diameter, resistance at the
potential, and resistance factors in
and nominal shaft resistance needed service limit state
consideration of the soil property
uncertainty and the method selected to support the unfactored applied
for calculating nominal resistance loads at the strength limit state ▼
10(GT). Verify
▼ ▼ estimated tip
3(ST). Determine depth, diameter, elevation and shaft
3(GT). Determine active, passive,
and nominal shaft resistance needed nominal resistance
and seismic earth pressure parameters
to support the unfactored applied from Step 6(ST),
as needed for abutments
loads at the strength limit state as well as the
specified tip
▼ elevation from the
▼
greatest depth
4(GT). Determine nominal single 5(ST). Reevaluate foundation
required to meet
shaft resistance at the strength and stiffnesses, and rerun structural
uplift, lateral load,
extreme limit states as function of modeling to get new load distribution
and serviceability
depth, for likely shaft diameters for foundations. Reiterate if loads
requirements;
needed, considering shaft from lateral shaft analysis do not
if significantly
▼
▼
▼ 9(ST). Develop contract
8(GT). Determine P-Y curve specifications
parameters for shaft
lateral load analysis
Transient loads should not be considered when downdrag forces are included in the factored load
applied to the shaft. Shaft skin friction in the downdrag zone should not be included in the shaft
capacity. If downdrag forces are induced by settlement due to liquefaction, downdrag forces shall be
considered in the extreme event limit state design of the shaft. Note that the downdrag force during
liquefaction may be different than the downdrag force which is applicable during the strength and
serviceability limit states, as liquefaction can cause the strength of the soil to change. The downdrag
forces calculated for static conditions should not be combined with the downdrag forces resulting
from liquefaction when evaluating the extreme event limit state.
B. Uplift for Drilled Shafts
Factored uplift capacity, Quf = φup qup As = φup Qup
where, qup = ultimate unit uplift resistance, φup is as determined from Table 9.9.7-1 for strength limit
state conditions, and Qup is the unfactored ultimate uplift capacity.
The unit uplift resistance, qup is usually set equal to the unit side friction resistance, qs, for LRFD
foundation design, as the resistance factors for uplift in Table 9.9.7-1 already account for the poten-
tial for side resistance in uplift being less than the side resistance in compression. If downdrag is
likely to occur, either due to long-term settlement or due to liquefaction, the skin friction causing
downdrag is considered to be fully available to resist uplift forces. However, the downdrag force is
not subtracted from the uplift force.
C. Lateral Load Analysis for Drilled Shafts
In general, P-Y curves are used for lateral load analysis in the bridge design model to iteratively
match deflections and load distributions between the various bridge components, considering the
soil response, to insure stability of the bridge. The maximum lateral deflection which is considered
acceptable may vary from structure to structure. Even though deflections are calculated, service limit
state load groups are usually not used for this analysis.
In general, only the extreme event load groups are used for lateral load analysis, and a φlat of 1.0 is
used. However, strength limit state load groups are sometimes used for this analysis. For the strength
limit state, a resistance factor of 1.0 is recommended at this time. Note that in some cases the depth
required for shaft fixity based on lateral load analysis may control the shaft depth required rather than
bearing capacity or uplift; for example where soft or liquefiable soils are present.
Normally, both static and dynamic P-Y curve parameters are provided in the Geotechnical Report.
The static parameters represent the soil behavior for short-term transient loads such as wind, ice,
temperature, and vessel impact. For earthquake loads, the dynamic and static P-Y curve parameters
will be the same if the soils present have a stiffness which does not degrade with time during shaking,
such as would occur during liquefaction.
If liquefaction can occur, two P-Y analyses for the extreme event limit state should be conducted,
one analysis using the static P-Y parameters and the other analysis using the dynamic P-Y param-
eters. The intent here is to bracket the structure response. Often, the highest acceleration the bridge
sees is in the first cycles of the earthquake, and liquefaction tends to occur toward the middle or
end of the earthquake. Therefore, early in the earthquake, loads are high, soil-structure stiffness is
high, and deflections are low. Later in the earthquake, the soil-structure stiffness is lower and
deflections higher.
D. Group Effects for Bearing Capacity
AASHTO Article 10.8.3.9 applies.
Type of Resistance
Resistance Method/Soil/Condition Factor
Bearing Capacity φqp Base Resistance in Clay:
of Single Drilled - Total stress (Reese and O’Niel, 1988) 0.55
Shafts
Base Resistance in Sand:
- SPT method (Reese and O’Niel, 1988) *0.50
Base Resistance in Rock:
- Canadian Geotechnical Society (1985) 0.50
φqs Side Resistance in Clay:
- α-method (Reese and O’Niel, 1988) 0.65
Side Resistance in Sand:
- β-method (Reese and O’Niel, 1988) *0.65
Side Resistance in Rock:
- Carter and Kulhawy (1988) 0.55
- Horvath and Kinney (1979) 0.65
Side and Base Resistance:
+
- Load test 0.70-0.80
Uplift Resistance φup Clay:
of Single Drilled - α-method (Reese and O’Niel, 1988) 0.55
Shafts - Belled shafts (Reese and O’Niel, 1988) 0.50
Sand:
- β-method (Reese and O’Niel, 1988) *0.55
Rock:
- Carter and Kulhawy (1988) 0.45
- Horvath and Kinney (1979) 0.55
+
Load Test: 0.70-0.80
Group Bearing φqgr Clay: 0.65
Capacity (block
failure)
Group Uplift φupgr Clay: 0.55
Resistance Sand: 0.55
Lateral Resistance φlat Clay, sand, and rock: *1.0
of Shafts and
Shaft Groups
*The AASHTO specifications currently do not provide bearing capacity resistance factors in sand and factors for lateral loading. For φlat,
the value used will depend on the confidence in the soil parameters. These resistance factors should be considered to be tentative until
additional research and comparative designs are accomplished.
+
For shaft load tests, the number of load tests required will depend on the uniformity of the soil/rock conditions and whether or not a well
defined bearing stratum is present. Assuming that an appropriate number of load tests are conducted, use the largest resistance factor in the
specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor
in the range for nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum.
Group Efficiency Reduction Factors for Foundation Element Groups Subjected to Lateral Load
Table 9.9.7-2
8b 1.0 1.0
6b 0.9 1.0
5b 0.8 1.0
4b 0.65 0.9
3b 0.5 0.8
2b 0.4 0.6
The soil strength parameters are also reduced to account for group effects. For cohesive soils,
multiply the soil cohesion, C, directly by the appropriate group reduction factor from Table 9.9.7-2 or
as specified in the Geotechnical Report. For granular soils (sands, gravels), multiply the normalized
resistance identified in Figure 9.9.7-3 by the appropriate group reduction factor to determine the
reduced friction angle. Use the following steps to accomplish this:
1. Determine the normalized resistance for each soil layer at the friction angle for that soil layer
provided in the Geotechnical Report (e.g., for φ = 36o, normalized resistance = 61).
2. Multiply the normalized resistance determined in Step 1 by the group efficiency reduction factor
based on the foundation element spacing (e.g., if the spacing is 3b, the reduction factor is 0.5 and
the normalized resistance accounting for group effects is 32).
3. Based on the reduced normalized resistance, determine the soil friction angle accounting for
group effects (e.g., at a normalized resistance of 32, the soil friction angle is 31o).
4. Use this reduced φ, in combination with the reduced modulus of subgrade reaction, k, to deter-
mine the P-Y curve accounting for group effects.
Normalized Resistance as a Function of Soil Friction Angle for Lateral Capacity Determination
Figure 9.9.7-3
where,
Normalized Resistance = Ps/bγX = Ka(tan8B - 1) + Ko(tan4B)(tanφ)
φ = Soil friction angle
Ps = Soil resistance on section of foundation element
b = Foundation element diameter
γ = Soil unit weight
X = Depth to section of foundation element
B = 45o + φ/2
Ka = tan2 (45o-φ/2)
Ko = 1 - sin φ
In most cases, Qult and Qup for the strength, extreme event II and extreme event I limit states will be
the same, as loss of skin friction due to liquefaction downdrag will be taken into account separately.
However, if soils are present which weaken but do not liquefy during an earthquake, a separate curve
for the extreme event I limit state may be needed.
Note that the side friction bearing capacities provided in these figures will be a total nominal
resistance, in that the net weight of the shaft below the final groundline will not already be subtracted
out of the side friction capacity. Resistance factors for bearing capacity for all limit states will also be
provided, as illustrated in Table 9.9.7-3.
If downdrag is an issue, the ultimate downdrag load, QDD, as a function of shaft diameter will be
provided, as well as the depth zone of the shaft which is affected by downdrag, the downdrag load
factor, and the cause of the downdrag (settlement due to vertical stress increase, liquefaction, etc.).
If liquefaction occurs, the reduction in side friction resistance, Qs, to be subtracted off of the ultimate
side friction capacity plots will be provided. See example tables below.
Resistance Factor
Strength X X X
Service X X
Extreme Event X X X
If lateral loads imposed by special soil loading conditions such as landslide forces are present, the
ultimate lateral soil force or stress distribution, and the load factors to be applied to that force or
stress, will be provided.
The Geotechnical Branch will also provide group reduction factors for bearing capacity and uplift if
necessary, as well as the associated resistance factors.
The Geotechnical Branch will continue to provide P-Y curve data as a function of depth as has been
done in the past. Resistance factors for lateral load analysis will not be provided, as the lateral load
resistance factors will typically be 1.0.
Pier No. Shaft Dia = __ Shaft Dia = __ Shaft Dia = __ Shaft Dia = __
X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
Pier No. Shaft Dia = __ Shaft Dia = __ Shaft Dia = __ Shaft Dia = __
X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
Strength and
Extreme
Limit States Strength and
Extreme
(a separate curve
Limit States
may be needed for
Elevation or Depth
Elevation or Depth
the extreme event I
limit state in some
cases)
Service Limit
Service Limit
Service Limit
Service Limit State at ___ (in.)
State at
State at ___
___(in.) State at ___
of Settlement
of
of Settlement of
Figure 9.9.8-1 provides a flowchart which illustrates the design process and the interaction between the
structural and geotechnical engineers needed for pile foundation design.
1(ST). Determine bridge geometry,
pier locations, and foundation top
▼ ▼
scour, if present (with help
▼
the pile group for
of Hydraulic Engineer) pressure loads for abutments, through nominal resistance
structural analysis and modeling as at the strength and
well as pile lateral load analysis extreme limit states,
▼
and settlement/
2(GT). Determine soil properties
▼ resistance at the
for foundation design, liquefaction
3(ST). Determine the number of piles service limit state
potential, and resistance factors in
consideration of the soil property required to support the unfactored
uncertainty and the method selected applied loads at the strength limit ▼
for calculating nominal resistance state, and their estimated depth
10(GT). Verify
estimated tip
▼ ▼ elevation and pile
3(ST). Determine the number of piles nominal resistance
3(GT). Determine active, passive,
required to support the unfactored from Step 6(ST),
and seismic earth pressure parameters
applied loads at the extreme event as well as minimum
as needed for abutments
limit state, and their estimated depth tip elevation from
the greatest depth
▼ required to meet
▼
uplift, lateral load,
4(GT). Select best pile types, and 5(ST). Reevaluate foundation
and serviceability
determine nominal single pile stiffnesses, and rerun structural
requirements
resistance at the strength and extreme modeling to get new load distribution
limit states as function of depth, for foundations. Reiterate if loads
estimating pile sizes likely needed, from lateral pile analysis do not ▼
▼
and establishing maximum match foundation top loads from 11(GT). Based on
acceptable pile nominal resistance structural modeling within 5% minimum tip
elevation and pile
▼ diameter needed,
▼
6(ST). Factor the loads, and adjust determine need for
5(GT). Estimate downdrag overdriving and
size of pile group or the pile capacities
loads, if present driveability of
and estimated depths as needed to
resist applied factored loads pile as designed;
▼ if not driveable,
reevaluate pile
6(ST). Provide estimate of settlement ▼ foundation design
for pile/pile group, or foundation 7(ST). Check the minimum pile and structural
depth required to preclude depth required to resist factored model
unacceptable settlement uplift loads and to resist lateral loads
within acceptable deformations
▼
7(GT). Determine nominal ▼
8(ST). Design the foundation
▼
▼
▼ 9(ST). Develop contract specifications,
8(GT). Determine P-Y curve obtaining pile quantities from estimated
parameters for pile pile depths, minimum pile capacity
lateral load analysis required, minimum tip elevations, and
overdriving required from design
A. Pile Type, Pile Size, Bearing Capacity, and Estimated Tip Elevation — Strength and Extreme
Event Limit States
First, determine the feasible ultimate pile capacity, Qult, for the soil at the site, and determine
the desired pile type and diameter. This ultimate capacity should be unfactored and based on
static capacity calculations or experience with a given soil deposit. See the Federal Highway
Administration manual FHWA-HI-97-013 “Design and Construction of Driven pile Foundations,”
1997, for examples of static analysis methods for piles.
The feasible ultimate pile capacity may also be controlled by the structural capacity of the pile,
especially if the pile will be driven to a very hard bearing stratum (e.g., driven to refusal). Determine
the structural capacity of the pile per Article 10.7.4 in the AASHTO specifications. In lieu of more
detailed structural analysis, the general guidance on pile types, sizes, and ultimate capacities provided
in Table 9.9.8-1 can be used to select pile sizes and types for analysis. The Geotechnical Branch may
also limit the ultimate pile capacity for a given pile size and type driven to a given soil/rock bearing
unit based on experience with the given soil/rock unit. The maximum capacity allowed in that given
soil/rock unit may be increased by the Geotechnical Branch per mutual agreement with the Bridge
and Structures Office if a pile load test is performed.
Typical Pile Types and Sizes for Various Ultimate Pile Capacities
Table 9.9.8-1
*Precast, prestressed concrete piles are generally not used for highway bridges, but are more commonly used for
marine work.
Select the construction quality control method to be used (e.g., driving formula, wave equation,
Pile Driving Analyzer, etc.), and the resistance factors associated with the selected method, φdyn.
Determine the total factored load to be applied to the pier in question (strength and extreme event
limit states). Note that the actual distribution of that load to the piles will depend on the number of
piles in the group as well as where they are located within the group geometry.
The factored load per pile, Loadp, is determined as follows:
ΣγiQi (ΣγiMi)c
Loadp = n + I
where,
Mi = the moment at the base of the column resulting from the forces applied to the column
(i.e., dead load, live load, seismic load, etc.)
C = the distance between the centroid of the pile group and the center of the pile under
consideration
I = moment of inertia of the pile group
N = number of piles in the pile group
Other variables are as defined previously.
Determine the number of piles required in the pile group such that the factored load in any pile in
the group is not greater than the factored resistance. Use the resistance factor for the construction
quality control method selected previously, that is, QR = φdyn x Qult. Qult is the feasible ultimate
pile capacity.
Do not use the above method if the pile is being driven to a specified tip elevation and the pile
capacity is not being determined in the field using a driving criteria which is based on a pile penetra-
tion resistance (i.e., any dynamic method). In this case use the resistance factor for the static analysis
method used to determine the pile capacity. In this case, QR = φqp Qp + φqs Qs (strength and extreme
event limit states). Check all limit states, and determine the pile group size using the limit state which
requires the most piles for the specified ultimate capacity. Note that φdyn, φqp, and φqs are all equal
to 0.9 to 1.0 for the extreme event limit state, depending on the confidence in the soil parameters
(AASHTO specifications recommend that 1.0 be used). The pile weight will be neglected in most
cases, but if it is to be considered, it is to be treated as a load as is done for safts (see Section 9.9.7A).
Qp and Qs are the same for both the strength and extreme event limit states.
If downdrag exists, the downdrag force QDD (qDD As) shall be considered as a load rather than a
negative resistance for pile capacity calculations. The downdrag force QDD will be determined by
the Geotechnical Branch using an appropriate static pile skin friction analysis method (see FHWA
manual on the design of driven pile foundations mentioned previously).
Per Table 9.9.3-2, use a load factor applied to the downdrag force of 1.0. This factored downdrag
force, in combination with the other factored applied loads, should be less than or equal to the
factored strength and service limit state resistances. Transient loads should not be considered
when downdrag forces are included in the factored load applied to the pile for service and strength
limit state calculations. Pile skin friction in the downdrag zone should not be included in the pile
ultimate capacity.
If downdrag forces are induced by settlement due to liquefaction, downdrag forces shall be consid-
ered in the extreme event limit state design of the pile. Note that the downdrag force during lique-
faction may be different than the downdrag force which is applicable during the strength and
serviceability limit states, as liquefaction can cause the strength of the soil to change. The downdrag
forces calculated for static conditions should not be combined with the downdrag forces resulting
from liquefaction when evaluating the extreme event limit state. Figure 9.9.8-2 illustrates how
downdrag loads and loss of resistance is to be handled. When downdrag occurs (see Figure 9.9.7-1),
the ultimate pile capacity needed is determined as follows: Qult = Loadp/φdyn + QDD + Qsdd
For the strength and extreme event limit states, if the soil is characterized as cohesive, the pile
group capacity should also be checked for the potential for a “block” failure. Article 10.7.3.10 in the
AASHTO specifications applies. See Table 9.9.8-2 to determine the appropriate resistance factor for
the strength limit state. Use a resistance factor of 0.9 to 1.0 for the extreme event limit state. Compare
the factored loads for each limit state to the factored block resistance. If a block failure appears likely,
increase the group size so that a block failure is prevented.
For estimating pile quantities, develop unfactored, ultimate pile capacity versus estimated depth
curves using a static analysis method (see Figure 9.9.8-2 for example). The Geotechnical Branch
may adjust the estimated depth for a given pile capacity based on experience with the soil/rock
deposit in question and professional judgment. Determine the estimated pile length, Dest., for the
desired ultimate capacity, Qult, from this pile capacity versus depth curve for the purpose of
estimating pile quantities. Make sure that Qult is greater than or equal to the factored load per pile
divided by the appropriate resistance factor, that is: Qult ≥ Loadp/φdyn + QDD + Qsdd
For the construction specifications, use the estimated pile length determined as illustrated in Figure
9.9.7-1 for the contract pile quantity, and use Qult (unfactored) for the pile capacity which is inserted
into the driving formula, wave equation, etc., to determine the penetration resistance required to
accept the pile.
Note: The estimated pile length will be reasonably accurate if the bias, λR, for the static analysis
method used to estimate pile lengths and the feasible ultimate pile capacity is approximately the
same as the bias, λR, for the dynamic analysis method used to determine the factored pile capacity.
If the biases for the two methods are not the same, the estimated pile length could be in error for a
given level of risk. If the coefficients of variation for the two methods are also significantly different
for the two methods, this could accentuate the possible error for a given level of risk.
For example, if the dynamic formula tends to predict an average capacity which is approximately
the same as the capacity measured from a pile load test, but the static analysis method tends to
under-predict the pile capacity measured from a pile load test, the pile depth predicted using the
static analysis method illustrated in Figure 9.9.8-2 is likely to be too deep. Note that this is not likely
to be an issue when driving the pile to a well defined very dense stratum such as glacially loaded till
or bedrock. This pile length prediction accuracy is mainly a concern for friction piles. Therefore,
some engineering judgment based on experience may be needed to estimate pile quantities with
reasonable accuracy.
Loadp
φdyn
Loadp
φdyn
Example Ultimate Pile Capacity Versus Depth Curve for Estimating Pile Lengths
Figure 9.9.8-2
QSdd = skin friction which must be overcome during driving through downdrag/liquefaction/scour zone
Loadp
+ QDD = ultimate pile capacity needed to resist all applied axial loads per pile, including downdrag
φdyn
Loadp = factored load per pile, not including downdrag
QDD = downdrag load per pile
n = number of piles in pile group for pier
Dest. = estimated pile length needed to obtain desired ultimate capacity
*For the load test resistance factor, the values shown are more conservative than as provided in the AASHTO specifications. They have been adjusted based on
calibration to current WSDOT practice (FS = 2 if load test is conducted). Note that the number of load tests required will depend on the uniformity of the soil/rock
conditions and whether or not a well defined bearing stratum is present. Assuming that an appropriate number of load tests are conducted, use the largest resistance factor
in the specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor in the range for
nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum.
‡For the wave equation and PDA resistance factors, the values shown are more conservative than as provided in the AASHTO specifications. They have been adjusted
based on calibration to current WSDOT practice (FS = 2.25 if wave equation and PDA are conducted, and FS = 2.75 if wave equation without PDA is used). For PDA
with CAPWAP, calibration of CAPWAP results to pile load test results indicate that a resistance factor as high as 0.75 to 0.8 could be used. However, that calibration
assumes that a CAPWAP is performed on every pile, or the soil/rock conditions are perfectly uniform, which in actual applications is never the case. Assuming that the
number of piles as specified in the table are tested using a PDA/CAPWAP, use the largest resistance factor in the specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well
defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor in the range for nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum. These
resistance factors for pile capacity should be considered to be tentative until additional research and comparative designs are accomplished
+
The approach defined above for the use of load test data or PDA/wave equation was also used to determine resistance factors for the Nordlund and Thurman pile capacity
methods (current WSDOT practice is to use FS = 2.5 with these methods). Furthermore, statistical analysis provided by the FHWA course manual “Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures,” 1998, for the Nordlund method confirms that resistance factors for this method should be on the order of 0.55
to 0.6.
#
For φlat, the value used will depend on the confidence in the soil parameters.
If lateral loads imposed by special soil loading conditions such as landslide forces are present, the
ultimate lateral soil force or stress distribution, and the load factors to be applied to that force or
stress, will be provided.
The Geotechnical Branch will also provide group reduction factors for bearing capacity and uplift if
necessary, as well as the associated resistance factors, but these will be rarely needed.
The Geotechnical Branch will continue to provide P-Y curve data as a function of depth as has been
done in the past. Two separate tables will typically be provided, one for static properties and one for
dynamic properties (see Section 9.9.6C for an explanation on how they are to be used.) Resistance
factors for lateral load analysis will not be provided, as the lateral load resistance factors will
typically be 1.0.
Minimum tip elevations for the pile foundations will be provided as appropriate. Minimum tip
elevations will be based on pile foundation settlement, and, if uplift loads are available, the depth
required to provide adequate uplift capacity. Minimum pile tip elevations provided in the
Geotechnical Report may need to be adjusted depending on the results of the lateral load and uplift
load evaluation performed by the Bridge and Structures Office. If adjustment in the minimum tip
elevations is necessary, or if the pile diameter needed is different than what was assumed by the
Geotechnical Branch for pile capacity design, the Geotechnical Branch should be informed so that
pile driveability, as discussed below, can be re-evaluated.
Pile driveability will be evaluated at least conceptually for each project, and if appropriate, a wave
equation analysis will be performed and the results of the analysis provided in terms of special
requirements for hammer size and pile wall thickness, etc. The maximum driving resistance required
to reach the minimum tip elevation will also be provided. Note that it will not be possible to obtain
the maximum driving resistance from the pile bearing capacity plots mentioned previously if the pile
bearing capacities provided in the plots have been reduced to account for scour and/or liquefaction.
A separate determination is required to estimate the maximum driving resistance if the pile capacity
versus depth plots include the effects of scour or liquefaction. Once the pile analysis and design are
completed in the Bridge and Structures Office, the Geotechnical Branch is to be contacted for
final reivew ad comment.
Resistance Factor
Strength X X
Service X —
Extreme Event X X
Pier No. Pile Dia = __ Pile Dia = __ Pile Dia = __ Pile Dia = __
X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
Pier No. Pile Dia = __ Pile Dia = __ Pile Dia = __ Pile Dia = __
X X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X
Elevation or Depth
▲
ExtremeEvent
Extreme event
I limit Extreme
ExtremeEvent I limit
event
(assumes
Dia. = ___ for this example Dia. = ___
(assumes for this example
that liquefaction that liquefaction
Dia. = _____ Dia. = _____
P65:DP/BDM9
9.99 Bibliography
1. W. T. Moody, “Moments and Reactions for Rectangular Plates,” U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation, 1970.
2. Richard Bares, “Tables for the Analysis of Plates, Slabs, and Diaphragms Based on the Elastic
Theory,” Wiesbaden, 1971.
3. Peck, Hansen, Thornburn, “Foundation Engineering,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967.
4. Ultimate Strength Design Handbook, Volume 1, ACI Special Publication No. 17, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1967.
5. S. Timoshenko, “Theory of Elastic Stability,” McGraw Hill.
6. G. A. Leonards, Ed. “Foundation Engineering,” McGraw Hill, 1962. 624.15 L553f
7. W. C. Huntington, “Earth Pressures and Retaining Walls,” Wiley, 1957.
8. Wayne C. Teng, “Foundation Design,” Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
9. C. W. Dunham, “The Theory and Practice of Reinforced Concrete,” McGraw Hill, 1953.
10. Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors, Inc., 6060 N. Central Expressway, Dallas, TX 75206,
“Standards and Specifications for the Drilled Shaft Industry,” Revised July 15, 1979.
11. L. C. Reese and S. J. Wright, “Drilled Shaft Manual, Volume I, Construction Procedures and Design for
Axial Loading,” U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Research and Development,
Implementation Division, HDV-22, Washington, DC 20590, July 1977.
12. L. C. Reese and J. D. Allen, “Drilled Shaft Manual, Volume II, Structural Analysis and Design for
Lateral Loading,” U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Research and Development,
Implementation Division, HDV-22, Washington, DC 20590, July 1977.
13. L. C. Reese, “Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles, Software Documentation,” Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, July 1997.
14. Washington State DOT, Olympia, Washington, “Instructions to Engineers Structural Applications
Computer Manual.”
15. McDonnell Douglas Automation Company, Box 516, St. Louis, MO 63166, “ICES STRUDL User
Manual,” April 19890.
16. Noel J. Everard and Edward Cohen, “Ultimate Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns,”
ACI Publication SP-7.
17. R. J. Woodward, W. S. Gardner and D. M. Greer, “Drilled Pier Foundation.”
18. Karl Terzaghi, “Evaluation of Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction,” Geothechnique, Volume V, 1955.
19. Prakash S., “Behavior of Pile Groups Subject to Lateral Loads,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois,
1962.
9-99:WORK:BDM3
Factor Charts
Loose SAND
30 ft
Dense SAND
A pipe pile, closed end, will be used for this example. Assume that the pile supported footing has no bending
moments applied to it to keep the example simple. Structural analysis of potential pile options (see AASHTO
code for maximum loading allowed for pile stresses and to prevent buckling or crushing) and WSDOT policy
indicates that a minimum 18 inch diameter is required for a 300 ton pile and 24 inch diameter is required for
a 450 ton pile. Static analysis and previous experience with this bearing stratum indicates that the feasible
ultimate pile capacity for the bearing stratum is 300 tons for an 18 inch diameter pipe pile (this is Qult,
unfactored).
2. Using a static analysis method (assume SPT method is used), the unfactored ultimate pile capacity versus
depth curve is as follows:
Ultimate Pile Capacity (tons)
100 200 300
10
20
Depth (ft)
30
40
50
3. The WSDOT driving formula will be used as the quality control method for pile capacity in the field. For
this method, φdyn = 0.5 for Strength I (see calibration in Steps 3.a to 3.d below), and φdyn = 1.0 for Extreme I.
a. Pile capacity data which illustrates accuracy of WSDOT formula:
Predicted Ult. Capacity, 2000 Standard Spec. Equ. (kips)
500
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Load Test Rult - Davisson's Criteria (kips)
λ FS QD + 1
R QL 1 + COVQD + COVQL
2 2
ln
QD 1 + COVR2
λQD DL + λ
QL
β=
[ (
ln (1 + COVR2 ) 1 + COVQD
2
+ COVQL
2
)]
0.97(2.5)(3.0 + 1) 1 + 0.12 + 0.182
ln
1.05(3.0) + 1.15 1 + 0.356 2
β= = 1.93
[
ln (1 + 0.356 2 )(1 + 0.12 + 0.182 ) ]
For FS = 3.0, β = 2.39
(Note: The FS of 3.0 was used when our standard specifications specified the use of the ENR equation,
which has a much higher coefficient of variation and tended to over-predict capacity (bias of 0.8, COVR
of 0.61, implying a β = 1.11 for FS = 3.0) than our current driving formula. We now use FS = 2.5 with our
current driving formula.)
In conclusion, a β = 2.0 appears adequate for this analysis considering previous practice.
d. Check φR implied by current ASD safety factor:
QD 1 + COVQD2
+ COVQL
2
λR γ D Q + γ L
L 1 + COVR2
φ dyn =
QD QL QL
T
( R) [
λ QD + λ exp β ln 1 + COV 2 1 + COV 2 + COV 2
QD QL (
)]
γD = LRFD specified load factor for dead load = 1.25
γL = LRFD specified load factor for live load = 1.75
1 + 0.12 + 0.182
0.97(1.25(3.0) + 1.75)
φ dyn = 1 + 0.356 2 = 0.535
[
(1.05(3.0) + 1.15) exp 2.0 ln (1 + 0.3562 )(1 + 0.12 + 0.182 ) ]
20
Depth (ft) 1.0Qult for extreme event
30 limit state
40
50
From this figure, the minimum depth required is 31 ft for the strength limit state and 35 ft for the extreme
event limit state.
11. Lateral load analysis for deflection and fixity indicates that the pile tips must be at least 27 ft deep. Uplift
requirements for the extreme event limit state appears to control the minimum depth required, considering
settlement, uplift, and lateral load requirements. Therefore, select a minimum tip elevation based on a
minimum pile depth of 35 ft.
12. Based on the pile capacity vs. depth plot and a required minimum penetration of 35 ft, which is less than
the estimated tip elevation, overdriving will not be required. Therefore, use a pile capacity of 300 tons
ultimate for sizing the pile hammer and pile wall thickness required for constructability.
Page
10 Detailing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1-1
10.1 Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
10.1.1 Standard Office Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Drawing Orientation and Layout Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. Line Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
F. Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
G. Grpahic Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
H. Structural/Architectural Section, Views, and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
I. Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
J. Care of Original Manual Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10.1.2 Final Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
10.1.3 Bar Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
10.1.4 Bridge Standard Plans and Office Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
10.1.5 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Appendix B — Examples
10.1-B1 Footing Layout
10-CON:V:BDM10
PLAN
SECTIONS
&
DETAILS
ELEVATION
D. Lettering
1. General
a. Text # 4 Ames Lettering Guide Manual, CBR 35 CADD.
Titles #6 Ames Lettering Guide Manual, CBR 70 CADD.
Underline all titles with a single line having the same weight as the lettering used. Use "bas
TITLE".
b. Lettering shall be upper case only, slanted at approximately 68 degrees angle on the Ames
Lettering Guide and of uniform height.
c. Lettering shall be oriented so as to be read from the bottom right edge of the sheet.
2. Dimensioning
a. A dimension shall be shown once on a drawing, unless repeating it is necessary for clarity.
Duplication and unnecessary dimensions should be avoided. All dimension figures shall be
placed above the dimension line, and so that they may be read from the bottom of the right
edge of the sheet, as shown in the following detail:
b. Reinforcing bar clearances need not be specified on plans unless different from the “general
Notes.”
c. When details or structural elements are complex, utilize two drawings. One for dimensions
and the other for reinforcing bar details.
d. Dimensions 12 inches or more shall be given in feet and inches unless the item dimensioned
is conventionally designated in inches (for example, 16′ pipe).
e. In dimensions more than 1 foot, fractions less than 1 inch shall be proceeded by 0 (for
example, 3′-03/4″.
f. Placement of dimensions outside the view, preferably to the right or below, is desirable.
However, in the interest of clarity and simplicity it may be necessary to place them
otherwise. Examples of dimensioning placement are shown on Figure 10.1.1-1.
Figure 10.1.1-1
E. Line Work
1. All line work must be of sufficient size, weight, and clarity so that it can be easily read from a
print that has been reduced to one-half the size of the original drawing. The line style used for a
particular structural outline, centerline, etc., shall be kept consistent wherever that line is shown
within a set of bridge plans.
2. Linework shall have appropriate gradations of width to give line contrast as shown below. Care
shall be taken that the thin lines are dense enough to show clearly when reproduced.
3. When drawing structural sections showing reinforcing steel, the outline of the section shall be a
heavier line weight than the rebar.
The Mark No. “bubble” for reinforcing steel shall be a rectangle. use “[” “]” to create text
rectangles.
Epoxy coated reinforcement shall be denoted by a triangle in the following manner.
42 E #6
F. Scale
When selecting a scale, it should be kept in mind that the drawing will be reduced. Generally, the
minimum scale for a section detail with rebars is 3/8 inch = 1 foot. The scale used on steel bridge
plans will be 3/4 inch = 1 foot minimum.
Sections and views may be enlarged to show more detail, but the number of different scales used
should be kept to a minimum.
G. Graphic Symbols
1. Graphic symbols shall be in accordance with the following:
a. Structural Steel Detailing: AISC Steel Construction Manual see structural steel chart.
b. Welding symbols: See Lincoln Welding Chart.
2. Symbols for hatching different material is shown on Figure 10.1.1-2.
H. Structural/Architectural Sections, Views, and Details
1. A section cuts through the structure; a view is from outside the structure; a detail shows a
structural element in more detail — usually a larger scale.
2. Whenever possible, sections and views shall be taken looking to the right ahead on station or
down. Care shall be taken to ensure that the orientation of a detail drawing is identical to that of
the plan, elevation, etc., from which it is taken.
3. On plan and elevation drawings where it is impossible to show cut sections and details, the
section and detail drawing should immediately follow the plan and elevation drawing unless there
are a series of related plans. If it is impractical to show details on a section drawing, a detail
sheet should immediately follow the section drawing. In other words, the order should be from
general plan to more minute detail.
4. Structural and architectural sections, views, and details shall be identified by a circle divided into
upper and lower halves.
Examples are shown in Figure 10.1.1-3.
5. Breaks are allowable in lines provided that their intent is clear.
6. Each pier shall be detailed separately as a general rule. If the intermediate piers are identical
except for height, then they can be shown together.
I. Revisions
1. Manual Techniques
a. Pencil on paper can simply be erased and done over.
b. Ink on film can be washed off with plain water. Older drawings may need to soak awhile or
use rubbing alcohol, but this is preferable to erasing, which will remove the matte finish and
make the area difficult to draw on.
c. Photo lines can usually be eradicated using chemical eradicators (Solutions A and B)
available from the vault. This preserves the surface finish. If the chemical is ineffective,
check to see if the print is reverse reading in which case the eradicator must be applied to
the back. (Reverse reading film positives are actually preferable so that changes are not
made on the same surface from which the lines are removed.) Erasing on the front of a
mylar sheet should be a last resort as it removes the surface finish.
Figure 10.1.1-2
Figure 10.1.1-3
d. Plastic lead on film must be erased with a soft eraser, taking care to avoid removing the
surface finish.
e. Film surface damaged by erasing may be restored by careful roughening with a hand eraser.
f. A chemical solution called sepia eradicator can be used to eradicate lines on sepias. The
Bridge Branch seldom uses sepias, but if needed, this solution may be obtained from the
stockroom if no one in Bridge has a bottle.
2. Cadd sheets shall be changed on the cadd film and replotted.
3. Plan Revisions Versus Addendums
a. All changes to plans require initials of the Bridge Engineer or the Unit Design Supervising
Engineer. The locations of all changes (except deletions) shall be shaded so they can be
easily found. Shading on preliminary plans is removed before printing the ad copies. The old
method of using a number enclosed in a circle enclosed in a triangle is no longer acceptable.
b. Use the revision block in the left margin to record changes, including the due date and
description of each change, made after the preliminary plan is signed by the Bridge Engi-
neer, but before the ad copy. This left margin block is also removed before printing the ad
copies.
c. The Olympia Service Center Plans Branch places a border along the bottom of the plan
sheets. This border contains blocks where the Plans Branch assigns sheet numbers, a contract
number, a title, and a revision block for the contract plans. For changes made after the ad
copy is mailed out (addendum) fill in the revision block, including the due date and descrip-
tion of each addendum. Also, include the contract title, contract number, and sheet number
assigned by the Plans Branch (e.g., if bridge sheet number 4 of 7 was assigned plan sheet
number 18 or 30 by the Plans Branch, it must remain plan sheet 18 of 30 if revised).
J. Care of Original Manual Drawings
1. Original manual drawings should be handled with care to avoid damaging them in any way.
2. Original manual drawings should be stored flat, either in a designated file or in the drafter’s desk.
3. If it is necessary to leave an original manual drawing out overnight, it should be covered to
reduce exposure to mishap.
4. An original manual drawing shall not be used for review or checking. All review or checking
shall be done from prints.
Interactive Plotting
There are two interactive ways to plot in GDS. The user can make menu selections, or can use function
keys.
PLOT NOW is a menu pick that will plot what is on the screen. Depending on your selection, you can get
full size, half size or laser printer plots on the screen.
Functions Keys are a short cut method to menu selections. Function key F9 plots a full size sheet and F10
plots halfsize.
Batch Plotting
Using SPLOT (to Plot a Single Sheet)
A drawing may be requested at any terminal by the commands given in the example below. You will
need to know the filename, which is shown above the WSDOT logo on every sheet.
The procedures would be as shown below for file, NRUP116ROOT:[FGB]LAYOUT.FGB. (begin-
ning at the VMS prompt):
VS15A>SPLOT
(EXIT or Ctrl/Z to quit)
FILENAME: LAYOUT
PLOT SIZE: Large OR [Small], or 3 for Laser print:
Hit the Return key for the default smal or enter ‘L’ for large.
NUMBER OF COPIES [1]:
Hit the Return key for the default 1 or enter the number of copies you want.
Using MPLOT (to Plot Multiple Sheets)
Please note that this routine can tie up a plotter for hours.
First, create a data file that includes all the filenames for the sheets you want to plot. In the
following example the data file PLOTLIST is set up to plot: NEBAR, JUNKTST, and
LAYOUT. The routine begins at the VMS prompt (this is not in the menus).
VS15A>MPLOT
PLOT LIST INPUT FILE: PLOTLIST
DIRECTORY NAME (NO FGB):NRUP116
PLOT SIZE: Large OR [Small]:
Hit the Return key for the default small or enter large
NOW SUBMITTING PLOT OF NRUP116FGB:NEBAR, TO BATCH
Job SINGLE_BATCH_PLOT (queue VS15A_BATCH, entry 20) started on
VS15A_BATCH
10-1:V:BDM10
Abbreviations
A. General
1. Because different words sometimes have identical abbreviations, the word should be spelled out where the
meaning may be in doubt.
2. A few standard signs are in common use in the office of Bridge and Structures. These are listed with the
abbreviations.
3. A period should be placed after all abbreviations, except as listed below.
4. Apostrophes are usually not used. Exceptions: pav’t., req’d., r’dway.
5. Abbreviations for plurals are usually the same as the singular. Exceptions: figs., no., ctrs., pp.
6. Abbreviations in titles should be avoided if possible.
B. List of abbreviations commonly used on bridge plan sheets:
A
about abt.
abutment abut.
adjust, adjacent adj.
aggregate agg.
alternate alt.
ahead ahd.
aluminum al.
Americal Society for Testing and Materials ASTM
American Association of State Highway and AASHTO
Transportation Officials
and &
angle point A.P.
approved apprd.
approximate approx.
area A
asbestos cement pipe Asb. Cp
asphalt concrete AC
Asphalt concrete pavement ACP
asphalt treated base ATB
at @ (used only to indicate spacing
or pricing, otherwise spell out).
avenue Ave.
average avg.
B
back bk.
back of pavement seat B.P.S.
bearing Brg.
begin horizontal curve (Point of Curvature) P.C.
begin vertical curve BVC
bench mark BM
between betw. or btwn.
bituminous surface treatment BST
bottom bot.
boulevard Blvd.
bridge Br.
bridge drain Br. Dr.
building bldg.
buried cable BC
C
cast-in-place CIP
cast iron pipe (C.I.P.)
center, centers ctr., ctrs.
centerline
center of gravity CG
center to center ctr. to ctr., c/c
Celsius (formerly Centrigrade) C
cement treated base CTB
centimeters cm.
class Cl.
clearance, clear clr.
compression, compressive comp.
column col.
concrete conc.
conduit cond.
concrete pavement (Portland Cement Concrete Pavement) PCCP
construction const. or constr.
continuous cont. or contin.
corrugated corr.
corrugated metal CM
corrugated steel pipe CSP
countersink csk.
county Co.
creek Cr.
cross beam X-Bm.
crossing Xing
cross section X-Sect.
cubic feet CF or cu. ft. or ft.3
cubic inch cu. in. or in.3
cubic yard CY or cu. yd. or yd.3
culvert culv.
D
degrees, angular ° or deg.
degrees, thermal C or F
diagonal(s) diag.
diameter diam. or
diaphragm diaph.
dimension dim.
district Dist.
double dbl.
drive Dr.
E
each ea.
each face E.F.
easement ease., esmt.
East E.
edge of pavement EP
edge of shoulder ES
endwall EW
electric elect.
elevation el. or elev.
embankment emb.
end horizontal curve (Point of Tangency) P.T.
end vertical curve EVC
Engineer Engr.
equal(s) eq. (as in eq. spaces) or =
(mathematical result)
estimate(d) est.
excavation exc.
excluding excl.
expansion exp., expan.
existing exist.
exterior ext.
F
Fahrenheit F
far face FF
far side FS
feet (foot) ft. or ’
feet per foot ft./ft or ’/’ or ’/ft.
field splice F.S.
figure, figures fig., figs.
flat head F.H.
foot kips ft-kips
foot pounds ft-lb
footing Ftg.
forward fwd.
freeway Fwy.
G
gallon(s) gal.
galvanized galv.
galvanized steel pipe GSP
gauge ga.
General Special Provisions GSP
girder gir.
ground gr.
guard railing GR
H
hanger hgr.
height ht.
height (retaining wall) H
hexagonal hex.
high strength H.S.
high water H.W.
high water mark H.W.M.
highway Hwy.
horizontal horiz.
hour(s) hr.
hundred(s) hund.
I
included. including incl.
inch(es) in. or ”
inside diameter I.D.
inside face I.F.
interior int.
intermediate interm.
invert inv.
J
joint jt.
junction jct.
K
kilometer(s) km.
kilopounds kips, K.
L
layout LO
left lt.
length of curve L.C.
linear feet L.F.
longitudinal longit.
lump sum L.S.
M
maintenance maint.
malleable mall.
manhole MH
manufacturer mfr.
maximum max.
mean high water MHW
mean higher high water MHHW
mean low water MLW
mean lower low water MLLW
meters m.
mile(s) mi.
miles per hour mph
millimeters mm.
minimum min.
minute(s) min. or ’
miscellaneous misc.
modified mod.
monument Mon.
N
National Geodetic Vertical Datum N.G.V.D.
near face NF
near side NS
North N.
Northbound NB
not to scale NTS
number; numbers #, No.; Nos.
O
original ground O.G.
ounce(s) oz.
outside diameter O.D.
outside face O.F.
out to out O to O
overcrossing O-Xing
overhead OH
P
page; pages p.; pp.
pavement pav’t.
pedestrian Ped.
per cent %
pivot point PP
Plans, Specifications and Estimates PS&E
plate or PL
point pt.
point of compound curve PCC
point of curvature P.C.
point of intersection P.I.
point of reverse curve PRC
point of tangency P.T.
point of vertical curve PVC
point of horizontal curve POC
point of tangent POT
polyvinyl chloride PVC
portland cement concrete PCC
pound, pounds lb., lbs., #
pounds per square foot psf, lbs./ft.2,lbs./ ’,#/ ’
pounds per square inch psi, lbs./in.2, lbs./ ”,#/ ”
power pole PP
precast P.C.
pressure pres.
prestressed P.S.
prestressed concrete pipe P.C.P.
Puget Sound Power and Light P.S.P.&L.
Q
quantity quant.
quart qt.
R
radius R.
railroad RR
railway Rwy.
Range R.
regulator reg.
reinforced, reinforcing reinf.
reinforced concrete RC
reinforced concrete box RCB
reinforced concrete pipe RCP
required req’d.
retaining wall Ret. Wall
V
variable, varies var.
vertical vert.
vertical curve BV
vitrified clay pipe VCP
volume vol. or V
W
water surface W.S.
weight(s) wt.
welded steel pipe WSP
swelded wire fabric W.W.F.
West W.
Willamette Meridian W.M.
wing wall W.W.
with w/
without w/o
Y
yard, yards yd., yds.
year(s) yr.
10-1-A1:V:BDM10
Structural Steel
Flat pieces of steel are termed plates, bars, sheets, or strips, depending on their dimensions. Bars
and plates aregenerally classified as follows:
Bars: up to 6 inches wide, .203 in. (3/16 inch) and over in thickness
6 inches to 8 inches wide, .230 in. (7/32 inch) and over in thickness
Plates: over 8 inches wide, .230 in. (7/32 inch) and over in thickness
over 48 inches wide, .180 in. (11/64 inch) and over in thickness
Thinner pieces up to 12 inches wide are strips and over 12 inches are sheets. A complete table of clasification
may be found in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Ed. page 6-3.
The following table shows the usual method of labeling some of the most frequently used structural steel shapes.
Note that the inches symbol (″) is omitted, but the foot symbol (′) is used.
Footing Layout
The Footing Layout is a plan of the bridge limiting the details shown to those needed to locate the footings. The
intent of the footing layout is to minimize the possibility of error at this initial stage of construction. Other related
information and/or details such as pile locations, pedestal sizes, and column sizes are considered part of the pier
drawing and should not be included in the footing layout.
The Footing Layout should be shown on the layout sheet if room allows. It need not be in the same scale. When
the general notes and footing layout cannot be included on the first (layout) sheet, the footing layout should then
be included on the second sheet.
Longitudinally, footings should be located using the survey line to reference such items as the footing, centerline
pier, centerline column, or centerline bearing, etc., as shown on the pier details sheet.
Appendix 10.5-B1-1 is an example of a footing layout showing:
The basic information needed.
The method of detailing from the survey line.
Notes:
1. When seals are required, their locations and sizes should be clearly indicated on the footing layout.
2. This example shows a complicated geometry as the result of the combined efforts of a horizontal curve and
the presence of the sharp skew. This is the reason for the odd dimensions shown in factuions of an inch. In
most designs the footing layout would be much simpler.
10-1-A3:V:BDM10
Quantities Contents
Page
11.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1-1
11.1.1 Cost Estimating Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Conceptual Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Preliminary Plan Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Design Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Final Contract Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
11.1.2 Not Included in Bridge Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
11.2 Computation of Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2-1
11.2.1 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Design Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Bridge Projects Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
11.2.2 Procedure for Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
11.2.3 Data Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
11.2.4 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Preliminary Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Final Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
11.2.5 Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. Structure Excavation, Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Special Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
C. Shaft Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
11.2.6 Shoring or Extra Excavation, Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
11.2.7 Piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Appendix A
11.2-A1 Not Included in Bridge Quantities List
11.2-A2 Bridge Quantities Form
P:DP/BDM11
11-1:P:BDM11
B. Final Quantities
Final quantities to be listed in the Special Provisions and Bid Proposal sheet are to be calculated to
have an accuracy of ±1 percent, including bar list.
11.2.5 Excavation
A. Structure Excavation, Class A
Excavation necessary for the construction of bridge piers and reinforced concrete retaining walls is
classified as Structure Excavation, Class A. Payment for such excavation is generally at the unit
contract price per cubic yard. The quantity of excavation to be paid for is measured as outlined in
Section 209.4 of the Standard Specifications. Computation of the quantity shall follow the same
provisions. Designers shall familiarize themselves with this section of the Standard Specifications.
Any limits for structure excavation not conforming to the limits specified in the Standard
Specifications shall be shown in the Plans.
Structure excavation for footings and seals shall be computed using a horizontal limit of 1 foot
0 inches outside and parallel to the neat lines of the footing or seal or as shown in the Plans. The
upper limit shall be the ground surface or stream bed as it exists at the time the excavation is started.
See Figure 11.2.6-1(A), (B), and (C).
Figure 11.2.6-1
Structure excavation for the construction of wing walls shall be computed using limits shown in
Figure 11.2.6-2.
Figure 11.2.6-2
Figure 11.2.6-3
When bridge approach fills are to be constructed in the same contract as the bridge and the foundation
conditions do not require full height fills to be placed prior to the construction of the pier, the approach fill
is constructed in two stages, i.e., constructed up to the bottom of footing or 1 foot above the bottom of
footing and then completed after the bridge construction. (The Materials Laboratory shall be consulted on
the staging method.) The structure excavation shall be computed from the top of the first stage fill.
The bottom of a spread footing will be placed 1 foot 0 inches below the top of the first stage fill. See
Figure 11.2.6-4(A). The bottom of footings supported on piling will be placed at the top of the first stage
fill; therefore, no structure excavation is required (see Figure 11.2.6-4(B)).
The limits for stage fills shall be shown in the Plans with the structure excavation, if any.
Figure 11.2.6-4
Prior to pier construction, when (1) a full height fill with or without surcharge is required for settlement,
or (2) the original ground line is above the finish grade line, structure excavation shall be computed to
1 foot 0 inches below the finish grade (pavement) line (see Figure 11.2.6-5).
Figure 11.2.6-5
B. Special Excavation
The excavation necessary for placement of riprap around bridge piers is called Special Excavation
(see Figure 11.2.6-6).
Special excavation shall be computed from the top of the seal to the existing stream bed or ground
line along the slopes indicated in the Plans. Special excavation will only include excavation outside
the limits of structure excavation.
The limits for special excavation shall be shown in the Plans.
Figure 11.2.6-6
C. Shaft Excavation
Excavation necessary for the construction of shaft foundations is generally measured by the cubic
yard and paid for at the unit contract price per cubic yard for “Soil Excavation for Shaft Including
Haul.”
The usual limits for computing shaft excavation shall be the neat lines of the shaft diameter and from
the bottom elevation of the shaft as shown in the Plans to the ground surface as it exists at the time of
shaft excavation.
The methods of measurement and payment and the limits for shaft excavation shall be specified in the
Special Provisions.
11.2.6 Shoring or Extra Excavation, Class A
All excavation in the dry which requires workmen to enter the excavated area and which has a depth of
4 feet or more is required to be shored, unless the earth face is excavated at its angle of repose (Extra
Excavation).
All excavation which is 15 feet or less from the edge of a traveled pavement is also required to be shored.
All excavation adjacent to railroad tracks shall also be shored.
Cofferdams are required for all underwater excavation or excavation affected by ground water.
Shoring, cofferdams, or caissons or extra excavation required for the construction of bridge footings and
reinforced concrete retaining walls constructed in the wet or dry is classified as Shoring or Extra
Excavation, Class A.
For the purpose of estimating the cost for cofferdams or for shoring or extra excavation, Class A, it is
necessary to compute the peripheral area of an assumed sheet pile enclosure of the excavated area.
While payment for Shoring or Extra Excavation, Class A, is made at a lump sum contract price, the costs
are a function of overall height of excavation. In general, each side of the excavation for each pier shall be
categorized into an average overall height range as shown on Form 230-031 (i.e., less than 6 feet, 6 to 10
feet, 10 to 20 feet, or greater than 20 feet), the area for the side computed using the appropriate width
times the average overall height, the overall area for the side shall be entered in the category that matches
the side’s average overall height. These calculations are required for each pier of the bridge as applicable.
See accompanying Figure 11.2.6-7 and sample calculation.
For excavation in the dry, the peripheral area shall be the perimeter of the horizontal limits of structure
excavation times the height from the bottom of the footing to the ground surface at the time of excavation.
For excavation in water, the peripheral area shall be the perimeter of the horizontal limits of structure
excavation times the height from the bottom of the seal to 2 feet above the seal vent elevation.
For shaft-type foundations, it is not necessary to compute the area for shoring because the cost for shoring
is normally included in the contract price for shaft excavation.
Figure 11.2.6-7
Sample Calculation:
For this pier (Figure 11.2.6-7):
Side A: average height = (4 + 6)/2 = 5 feet
width = 15 feet
area = 5 × 15 = 75 square feet
Side B: average height = (6 + 15)/2 = 10.5 feet
width = 20 feet
area = 10.5 × 20 = 210 square feet
Side C: average height = (10 + 15)/2 = 12.5 feet
width = 15 feet
area = 12.5 × 15 = 187.5 square feet
Side D: average height = (4 + 10)/2 = 7 feet
width = 20 feet
area = 7 × 20 = 140 square feet
For this example
height category area
less than 6 feet 75 square feet
6 feet to 10 feet 140 square feet
10 feet to 20 feet 210 + 188 = 398 square feet
greater than 20 feet N.A.
These numbers would be entered on Form 230-031 as follows:
Std. Unit
Item Item Item of
No. Use Description Quant. Meas.
4012 Std. Item Shoring or (Enter Total L.S.
Extra Excavation, for Bridge Here)
Class A
Dry:
Average Overall Height
6 ft. 10 ft.*
Pier 6 ft. to 10 ft. to 20 ft. 20 ft.*
__Example_ _ 75 _ S.F. _ 140 _ S.F. _398(11.5*) S.F. __ — _ S.F.
__________ __________ S.F. __________ S.F. __________ S.F. __________ S.F.
__________ __________ S.F. __________ S.F. __________ S.F. __________ S.F.
__________ __________ S.F. __________ S.F. __________ S.F. __________ S.F.
*Indicate Average Height
11.2.7 Piling
The piling quantities are to be measured and paid for as outlined in Section 6-05.3(1)D Test Piles, and
measurement and payment Sections 605.4 and 6-05.5 of the Standard Specifications. Computation of
piling quantities shall follow the same provisions. Designers shall familiarize themselves with these
sections of the Standard Specifications.
Timber test piles are driven outside the structure limits and are extra or additional piling beyond the
required number of production piling.
Concrete or steel test piles are driven within the structure limits and take the place of production piling.
In this case, the number of production piling is reduced by the number of test piling.
The quantity for “Furnishing _____ Piling _____” is the linear feet of production piling below cut-off to
the “estimated” pile tip (not “minimum” tip) shown in the soils report. (Does not include test piles.)
The quantity for “Driving _____ Piling _____” is the number of production piling driven. (Does not
include test piles.)
Pile tips are required if so stated in the soils report. The tips on the test piles are incidental to the test pile;
therefore, the number of pile tips reported on the Bridge Quantities Form 230-031 should not include the
number of pile tips required on the test piles.
DP:BDM11
Not Included In
Bridge Quantities List
Environmental And Engineering Service Center
Bridge and Structures Office
Type of Structure
The following is a list of items for which the Bridge and Structures Office is relying on the Region to furnish
plans, specifications and estimates.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Bridge Quantities
Bridge and Structures Indicate Unit of Measure:
English Metric
St. Item No. Item Use Item Description Quantity Unit of
Measure
0001(E) Std. Item Mobilization L.S.
0001(M)
Drilled Holes: Less than 12”/305 mm long: Greater than 12”/305 mm long:
Number Diameter Number Diameter Length
Inch/mm Inch/mm LF/M
Inch/mm Inch/mm LF/M
Inch/mm Inch/mm LF/M
Core Drilled Holes: Less than 12”/305 mm long: Greater than 12”/305 mm long:
Number Diameter Number Diameter Length
Inch/mm Inch/mm LF/M
Inch/mm Inch/mm LF/M
Inch/mm Inch/mm LF/M
0071
GSP Item Removing Existing Bridge L.S.
0071
Type Area SF/SM
Sp. Prov. Removing Temporary Structure L.S.
Type Area SF/SM
Cofferdam:
AVERAGE O VERALL HEIGHT
6 ft./2 m to 10 ft./3 m to *
Pier <6 ft./2 m 10 ft./3 m 20 ft./6 m >20 ft./6 m *
SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM
SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM
SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM
SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM SF/SM
4147/8410 Std. Item Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For Traffic Barrier LB/KG
4148/8412 Std. Item Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For Bridge LB/KG
4149/8420 Std. Item St. Reinf. Bar For Bridge LB/KG
4151/8426 Std. Item St. Reinf. Bar For Traffic Barrier LB/KG
4151/8426 Std. Item St. Reinf. Bar For LB/KG
4165/8428 Std. Item Wire Mesh SY/SM
4166/8430 Std. Item Lean Concrete CY/CM
-- GSP Item Conc. Class CY/CM
4322/8452 Std. Item Conc. Class 4000/28 for Bridge CY/CM
4202/8442 Std. Item Conc. Class 4000/28 for Traffic Barrier CY/CM
4202/8442 Std. Item Conc. Class 4000/28 for CY/CM
4320/8441 Std. Item Conc. Class 3000/20 for Bridge CY/CM
4200/8440 Std. Item Conc. Class 3000/20 for CY/CM
4325/8477 Std. Item Conc. Class 5000/35 for Bridge CY/CM
4205/8475 Std. Item Conc. Class 5000/35 for CY/CM
-- Sp. Prov.
-- Sp. Prov.
-- Sp. Prov.
Page
12.0 Construction Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1-1
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.2 Factors Affecting Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2-1
12.2.1 Type of Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.2.2 Location of Project Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.2.3 Size of Project Contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.2.4 Foundation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.2.5 Sequencing of Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.3 Development of Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3-1
12.3.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Prospectus and Design Report Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Preliminary Design Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Estimate Updates During Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Contract Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.3.2 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Bridge Projects Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12.3.3 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
12.3.4 Cost Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Square Foot Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Appendix A
12.3-A1 Bridge and Structures Estimating Aids
12.3-A2 Substructure Estimating Aids
12.3-A3 Superstructure Estimating Aids
12.3-A4 Miscellaneous Estimating Aids
P:DP/BDM12
12-1:P:BDM12
12-2:P:BDM12
B. Designer
The designer is responsible for providing preliminary quantities and final quantities to the Bridge
Projects Unit to aid in the updating of preliminary estimates and the preparation of contract estimates.
12.3.3 Documentation
Whenever a cost estimate is prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office for an outside office, a Cost
Estimate Summary sheet (Form 230-040) shall be filled out by the engineer preparing the estimate. The
Cost Estimate Summary shall be maintained in the Job File. During the design stage, the summary sheet
shall be maintained by the Structural Design Unit. It is the design unit supervisor’s responsibility to
ensure the summary sheet is up to date when the job file is submitted to the Bridge Projects Unit.
12.3.4 Cost Data
A. General
The bridge costs summarized in Appendix A represent common highway, railroad, and water
crossings. Consult the Bridge Projects Engineer for structures spanning across large rivers or canyons
and other structures requiring high clearances or special design and construction features.
The square foot costs are useful in the conceptual and preliminary design stages when details or
quantities are not available. The various factors affecting costs as outlined in Section 12.2 must be
considered in selecting the square foot cost for a particular project. As a general rule, projects
including none or few of the high-cost factors will be close to the mid-range of the cost figures.
Projects including many of the cost factors will be on the high side. The user must exercise good
judgment to determine reasonable costs. During the preliminary stage, it is better to be on the conser-
vative side for budgeting purposes.
B. Square Foot Area
Compute the square foot area to be used with the square foot cost shall be computed as follows:
Bridge Widenings and New Bridges
The area of bridges is based on the actual width of the new portion of the roadway slab constructed
(measured to the outside edge of the roadway slab) times the length, measured from end of wingwall
to end of wingwall, end of curtain wall to end of curtain wall, or back to back of pavement seat if
there are no wingwalls or curtain walls. Wingwalls are defined as walls without footings which are
cast monolithically with the bridge abutment wall and may extend past the abutment footing. Curtain
walls are defined as walls that are cast monolithically with the bridge abutment wall and footing and
only extend to the edge of footing.
Bridge Rail Replacement
The bridge rail and curb removal is based on the total length of the rail and curb removed.
Bridge Lengths With Unequal Wingwalls
If a bridge has wingwalls or curtain walls of unequal length on opposite sides at a bridge end or
wingwalls or curtain walls on one side of a pier only, the length used in computing the square foot
area is the average length of the walls. If the wingwalls are not parallel to the centerline of the bridge,
the measurement is taken from a projected line from the end of the wingwall normal to the centerline
of the roadway.
Retaining Walls
If retaining walls (walls that are not monolithic with the abutment) extend from the end of the bridge,
the cost of these walls is computed separately. The area of the wall is based on the height from the top
of footing to the top of the wall.
DP:BDM12
*Based on limited cost data. Check with the Bridge Support Engineer.
Bridge areas are computed as follows:
Typical Bridges: Width x Length
Width: Total width of deck, including portion under the barrier.
Length: Distance between back of pavement seats, or for a bridge having wingwalls, 3″-0″
behind the top of the embankment slope; typically end of wingwall to end of wingwall,
reference Standard Plans H9.
Special Cases:
Widenings — Actual area of new construction.
Tunnel — Outside dimension from top of footing to top of footing over the tunnel roof,
i.e., including walls and top width.
∆∆ For small jobs (less than $100,000), use the high end of the cost range as a starting point.
P65:DP/BDM12
SUBSTRUCTURE
P65:DP/BDM12
SUPERSTRUCTURE
BID ITEMS UNIT COST/UNIT ∆∆
SUPERSTRUCTURE
(Continued)
Concrete Class EA
(Exposed Aggregate) Cu. Yd. 350.00 — 500.00
Concrete Class 4000 LS
(Low Shrinkage) Cu. Yd. $300.00 — $400.00
Concrete Class 5000 LS Cu. Yd. 400.00 — 500.00
St. Reinf. Bar Lb. 0.40 — 0.55
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bar Lb. 0.50 — 0.75
Post-tensioning
Prestressing Steel (Includes Anchorages) Lbs. 1.50 — 2.50
Traffic Barrier Lin. Ft. 55.00 — 75.00
Metal Railing (Type BP & BP-B) Lin. Ft. 35.00 — 55.00
Metal Railing (Thrie Beam) Lin. Ft. 40.00 — 65.00
Modified Conc. Overlay C.F. 25.00 — 60.00
Furnishing and Curing Modified Conc. Overlay Sq. Yd. 40.00 — 70.00
Scarifying Conc. Overlay Sq. Yd. 8.00 — 12.00
Polymer Concrete Sq. Yd. 45.00 — 100.00
P65:DP/BDM12
Miscellaneous
P65:DP/BDM12
Page
13.0 Construction Specifications and Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
13.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Standard Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. Special Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
D. Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
E. AD Copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
13.3 Reviewing a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. Bridge Rating Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. PS&E Check List (Form 230-037) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. Summary of Quantities (Form 230-031) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
E. Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
F. Not Included in Bridge Quantities (Form 230-038) (see example 13.0 B-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
G. Foundation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
13.4 Preparing the Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
13.5 Preparing the Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
13.6 Preparing the Working Day Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
13.7 Reviewing Projects Prepared by Consultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
13.8 Submitting the PS&E Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
13.9 Office Copy Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
A. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Appendix A — Design Aids and Forms
13.6-A1 Construction Time Rates
Appendix B — Design Examples
13.0-B1 Construction Working Day Schedule
13.0-B2 Cost Estimate Summary
13.0-B3 Project Cost vs. Time Chart
P:DP/BDM13
Each standard item has a corresponding code number. Both the item and code number are stored on
the Excel worksheet. The nonstandard unit contract items do not have standard item numbers for
coding.
All estimates shall include mobilization, but do not include sales tax, engineering, or contingencies.
13.5 Preparing the Specifications
A. General
There are three types of specifications: (1) Standard Specifications and Amendments to the Standard
Specifications, (2) General Special Provisions (GSP), and (3) Bridge Special Provisions (BSP).
All of the Amendments, GSP’s, and BSP’s texts are stored in the computer system and can be
retrieved from the Plans Branch Text Processing. The texts are divided into topic documents.
Each document is named under a coded name list under the Amendments, GSP, or BSP indexes.
If any modifications are made to a GSP, then the date must be dropped and the document code must
be changed.
B. Procedure
In preparation of the bridge specifications, all of the applicable documents of the Amendments,
GSPs, and BSPs are each listed in numerical order, and required fill-ins are provided, then these are
submitted to text processing. The Plans Branch Text Processing will process the requested list using
standard Form 220-013A (Appendix 13.5-A1.)
For special provisions not covered by a GSP or BSP, appropriate documents must be written in
the standard format including description, materials, construction requirements, measurement, and
payment. These documents are coded and placed on the appropriate order of the listing and are sent
to the Plans Branch Text Processing for text processing.
The completed text of the bridge specifications shall be checked for typing errors, contents of the
texts, consistent terminology for materials called for in the plans, and pay items called for in the
estimates. They shall be revised and reviewed as necessary before the final office copy is printed for
the S&E package.
13.6 Preparing the Working Day Schedule
A. General
The Bridge Projects Unit calculates the number of the working days necessary to construct the
bridge portion of the contract, and enters the time in the special provision “Time for Completion.”
The working days are defined in the Section 1-08.5 of the Standard Specifications.
B. Procedure
The first task of estimating the number of working days is to list all the construction activities
involved in the project. These include all actual construction activities such as excavation, forming,
concrete placement, and curing; and the nonconstruction activities such as mobilization, material and
shop plan approval. Special conditions such as staging, limited access near wetlands, limited con-
struction windows for work in rivers and streams, limited working hours due to traffic and noise
restrictions, require additional time.
The second task is to assign the number of working days to each construction activity above (see
Appendix 13.6-A1). “Construction Time Rate” can be used as a guide to estimate construction time
required. This table shows the average rate of output for a single shift, work day only. Adjustment to
the rates of this table should be made based on the project size, type of work involved, location of the
project, etc. In general, larger project will have higher production rates than smaller projects, new
construction will have higher production rates than widening, and unstaged work will have higher
production rates than staged work.
The last step is to arrange construction activities, with corresponding working days, into a
construction schedule on a bar chart, either by hand on the Construction Working Day Schedule Form
230-041 (see Appendix 13.0 B7) or by computer on the Microsoft Project Program. List the activities
in a logical construction sequence, starting from the substructure to the superstructure. Items shall
overlap where practical and the critical path shall be identified.
13.7 Reviewing Projects Prepared by Consultants
A. General
Consultants are required to submit the 90 percent complete design package to the Bridge and
Structures Office for review and comment three weeks prior to submiting the 100 percent complete
design package.
The package shall be in the same format as those prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office.
B. Procedure
The Bridge Projects Unit reviews and comments on the 90 percent complete design package. After
the consultant makes corrections and resubmits the package as 100 percent complete, the Bridge
Projects Unit prepares and forwards the PS&E package to the Plans Branch.
13.8 Submitting the PS&E Package
A. General
The PS&E package includes:
1. Cover letter to the Bridge and Structures Engineer
2. Cover letter to the Region or Plans Branch.
For Region Ad and Award projects, the paragraph regarding “As Constructed Plans” and the
cc: to “Construction Support Unit Technician” are only used when work related to a bridge
is part of the project, not for retaining walls, signs, etc. away from a bridge.
3. Bridge Construction Cost Estimate
4. Not Included in Bridge Quantity List
5. Special Provisions
6. Log of Test Borings
7. One Reduced Xerox Set of Plans
8. Cost Estimate Summary (see Appendix 13.0-B2)
9. Construction Working Day Schedule
B. Procedure
Check with a resident specification and estimate engineer for the latest and most current acceptable
distribution list for the region in question.
13.9 Office Copy Review
A. Description
The Office Copy Review is a set of plans and special provisions to be reviewed before the AD Copy
is printed. Normally, the Office Copy is received for reviewing two weeks prior to the AD date.
B. Procedure
The review of the Office Copy is to make sure the Bridge PS&E and Log of Test Boring have been
properly incorporated before the printing of the AD Copy; and to check the coordination between the
region’s plans and Bridge Office’s plans.
Revisions, changes, additions, deletions shall be submitted to the regions or the Plans Branch by the
Specifications and Estimate Engineer.
P:DP/BDM13
13-6A:P:BDM13
P:DP/BDM13
P:DP/BDM13
Page
14.0 Bridge Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1-1
14.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
14.1.1 Rating Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
14.1.1.1 Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
14.1.1.2 Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.1.2 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.1.2.1 Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.1.2.2 Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR) for National Bridge Inventory (NBI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.1.3 Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
14.1.4 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
14.1.4.1 Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
14.1.4.2 Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
14.1.5 Load Capacity Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
14.1.6 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
14.1.6.1 Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
14.1.6.2 Load Factor Rating (LFDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
14.1.7 Reduction Factors (for both LRFR and LFDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
14.1.8 Ratings for Overloads (LRFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
14.2 Special Rating Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2-1
14.2.1 Prestressed Concrete Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
14.2.1.1 Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
14.2.1.2 Load Factor Design (LFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
14.2.2 Reinforced Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
14.2.2.1 Concrete Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
14.2.2.2 Concrete Crossbeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.2.2.3 In-Span Hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.2.3 Concrete Box Girder Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.2.4 Concrete T-Beam Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.2.5 Concrete Flat Slab Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.2.6 Steel Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
14.2.6.1 Steel Floor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
14.2.6.2 Steel Truss Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
14.2.7 Timber Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
14.2.8 Widened or Rehabilitated Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
14.2.9 Other Special Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
14.3 Load Rating Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3-1
14.4 Load Rating Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4-1
14.99 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
For Overload (OL)-1 and Overload-2 trucks, the basic rating equation shall be:
( )
φM CAP − γD M D ± γP M P − γL M ( L + I ) AASHTO - Truck
R.F. = (for flexure)
( γL M(L+I) ) OL - Truck
φV CAP − γDV D ± γPV P − ( γLV ( L + I ) ) AASHTO - Truck
R.F. = (for vertical shear)
( γLV(L+I) ) OL - Truck
Where:
R.F. = Rating Factor (Ratio of Capacity to Demand)
MCAP = Ultimate Bending Moment Capacity
* MDL = Calculated Dead Load Bending Moment
MP = Secondary Bending Moment Due to Prestressing
* M(L+I) = Calculated Live Load and Impact Bending Moment
f = Resistance Factor (Capacity Reduction Factor)
γD = Dead Load Factor
γL = Live Load Factor
γP = Prestress Factor
I = Impact
VCAP = Ultimate Shear Capacity
VDL = Calculated Dead Load Shear Force
VP = Calculated Prestressing Shear Force
V(L+I) = Calculated Live Load Plus Impact Shear Force
*For continuous structures, a one-half support width moment increase is to be used.
*Notes:
If unavailable from traffic data, ADTT may be estimated as 20 percent of ADT.
The listed factors are essentially the same as Table 2 of AASHTO Guide Specifications except that
Live Load Category 1 and 2 have been eliminated based on the assumption that Washington State does
not have fully effective enforcement or control of overloads.
Trucks for Rating (for LRFR)
Figure 14.1.2-1
Figure 14.1.2-2
Figure 14.1.2-3
Figure 14.1.2-4
γD
= 1.2
γL
= 1.3
γP
= 1.0
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
Inventory Rating
To establish the Inventory rating for Prestressed Concrete, use the lowest rating factor from the basic
rating equation, shown in Section 14.1.1.2, and the following equations:
6 (f ′ c )
12
− F d + F p ± Fs
R.F. = (Concrete Tension)
F1
0.6f ′ c − F d − F p ± F s
R.F. = (Concrete Compression) F1
4. When the original traffic barrier(s) or rail have been replaced by heavier barrier.
When rating of the slab is required, live load shall include all vehicular loads as specified in
Section 14.1.2 and load distribution shall be per current AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges.
14.2.2.2 Concrete Crossbeams
For concrete crossbeams integral with the superstructure (raised crossbeam) on new bridges, rating
will be for the number of designated lanes (see 14.1.2). For existing structures, ratings will be for
the number of striped lanes. Live loads conforming to these lane configurations can be applied to the
crossbeam as moving point loads at any location between curbs which produce the maximum effect.
When rating for shear in crossbeams, current AASHTO Design Specifications requires shear design to
be at the face of support if there is a concentrated load within a distance “d” from the face of support.
This requirement is new relative to earlier editions of AASHTO Design Specifications which allowed
shear reinforcement design to be at a distance “d” from the face of support. When rating existing
crossbeams which show no indication of distress on the latest inspection report, but have a rating
factor of less than one (1.0), a more detailed/accurate shear analysis should be performed. One accept-
able method is the “truss analogy” as published in Bibliography 14.99-1(1). For existing box girder
and integral T-beam crossbeams, in lieu of this detailed analysis, dead and live loads can be assumed
as uniformly distributed and the shear rating performed at a distance “d” from the face of support.
14.2.2.3 In-Span Hinges
For in-span hinges, rating for shear and bending moment should be performed based on the reduced
cross-sections at the hinge seat. Diagonal hairpin bars are part of this rating as they provide primary
reinforcement through the shear plane.
14.2.3 Concrete Box Girder Structures
Rating shall be on the per bridge basis for all applied loads. This is consistent with the current design
procedures regarding live load applications.
14.2.4 Concrete T-Beam Structures
Rate on a per member basis, except for precast girder units, which are to be rated per unit.
14.2.5 Concrete Flat Slab Structures
Rate cast-in-place solid slabs on a per foot of width basis. Rate precast panels on a per panel basis.
Rate cast-in-place voided slabs based on a width of slab equal to the predominant center-to-center
spacing of voids.
Load distribution shall be per current AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
When rating flat slabs on concrete piling, assume pin-supports at the slab/pile interface of interior piers
and the slab continuous over the supports. If ratings using this assumption are less than 1.0, the piles
should be modeled as columns with fixity assumed at 10 feet below the ground surface.
Pile caps are to be rated if deemed critical by the engineer.
14.2.6 Steel Structures
On existing bridges, checking of fatigue and servicability shall not be part of the rating evaluation.
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
No Complete
NBIS Rating
Inventory _________________ _________________ _____________________________
Operations _________________ _________________ _____________________________
Remarks: _____________________________________________________________________________________
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Hypersensitive LSSF > 1.0 Left Edge, Left Quarter Point, Center, Right Quarter
Point, Right Edge
This method of transverse placement will be used to determine the Inventory and Operating Ratings for reporting
to the National Bridge Inventory. This method will also be used to determine if the bridge needs further investiga-
tion by the WSDOT Bridge Preservation office. This investigation will determine the need for posting, restriction
to permit (a.k.a. overload) vehicles, and need for retrofit or rehabilitation.
P:DP/DM14
9807-0802